Prolog

The language of logic

History
Kowalski: late 60s Logician who showed logical proof can support computation. Colmerauer: early 70s Developed early version of Prolog for natural language processing, mainly multiple parses. Warren: mid 70s First version of Prolog that was efficient.

Characteristics
Prolog approximates first-order logic. Every program is a set of Horn clauses. Inference is by resolution. Search is by backtracking with unification. Basic data structure is term or tree. Variables are unknowns not locations. Prolog does not distinguish between inputs and outputs. It solves relations/predicates.

SWI-Prolog Notes
Free! Down Loadable To load a file:
consult( C:\\kibler\\prolog\\test).

For help:
help(predicate-name).

; will give you next solution. listing(member) will give definition.

Example
Facts: ()
likes(john,mary). likes(john,X). % Variables begin with capital

Queries
?- likes(X,Y). X=john, y=Mary. % hit ; for more ?- likes(X,X). X=john.

Example
Rules
likes(john,X) :- likes(X,wine). % :- = if likes(john,X):- female(X), likes(X,john).

Note: variables are dummy. Standarized apart Some Facts:

likes(bill,wine). female(mary). female(sue).

Query: ? - likes(john,Y).
Y = bill ; no.

Family
father(a,b). father(e,d). mother(c,b). mother(d,f). parent(X,Y) :- father(X,Y). parent(X,Y) :- mother(X,Y). grandfather(X,Y):- father(X,Z),parent(Z,Y). % Do your own for practice.

Informal Summary
Program is facts + rules. (horn clauses). Query = conjunct of predicates. First set of bindings for variables that solve query are reported. If none, then Prolog returns no. Use ; to get other solutions. Can be viewed as constraint satisfaction program.

MapColoring
color(r). color(g). color(b). colormap(C1,C2,C3):color(C1),color(C2),color(C3), C1\==C2, C1\==C3, C2\==C3. Query: colormap(X,Y,Z).
X = r, Y= g, Z=b.

Is that it. Yes! Turn on trace.

Unification: (matching) terms

Two terms UNIFY if there is a common substitution for all variables which makes them identical. f(g(X),Y) = f(Z,Z). % = cheap unification
X = _G225, Y=g(_G225).

Look at parse tree for each term.

variables match variable matches anything (set the binding) function symbols only match identical function symbols.

Satisfiability: uses unification

sat(true). % base case sat(not(false)). % base case sat(or(X,Y)):- sat(X). sat(or(X,Y)):-sat(Y). sat(and(X,Y)):-sat(X),sat(Y).

test1(X,Y):- sat(and(not(X),X)). test2(X,Y):- sat(and(X,not(Y))).

List Operator [H |T]

[a,b,c] is a list in Prolog. [H|T] = [a,b,c] results in
H = a i.e. the head of list T = [b,c] i.e. the tail of the list.

membership definition
member(H,[H|T]). % base case first. Why? member(H,[_|T]):- member(H,T). Use it.

Member Tests
?- member(3,X).
X = [3| _G109]. variable X= [_G11,3| _]. % _G.., system generated

% etc.

?- member(X,Y).
X = _G131, Y= [_G131|, _G321].

Permutation & Insert

insert(X,L, [X|L]). insert(X,[H|T],[H|T1]):- insert(X,T,T1).
perm([],[]). perm([H|T],P):-perm(T,T1),insert(H,T1,P).

DFS
% solve(goal, solution Path) % s(state, successor-state) dfs(N,[N]) :- goal(N). dfs(N,[N|Sol1]):- s(N,N1), dfs(N1,Sol1). s(a,b). s(a,c). s(b,d). s(b,e). s(c,f). s(c,g). s(d,h). s(e,i). s(e,j). s(f,k). goal(i). goal(f). ?- dfs(a,N). N = [a, b, e, i] ; N = [a, c, f] ;

Limitations
2nd order: Cant ask what is relationship between heart and lungs? Probabilities: What is likelihood of fire destroying Julian?