][

: 2

: : 2.1
2.1.1

2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4

: 2.2
2.2.1

2.2.2

2.2.3
2.2.3.1

Element of Symmetry 2.2.3.2

Rotation axis of symmetry 2.2.3.3

Symmetry formula 2.2.3.4
2.2.4

Crystallographic systems 2.2.4.1

Crystallographic axes 2.2.4.2
2.3
Crystal form 2.3.1

Cubic or Isometric System 2.3.2

2.3.2.1

Norma of Hexoctabedral 2.3.2.2

Combinations of forms = 2.3.3
Hexagonal System 2.3.4

Dihexagonal Bipyramidal Class 2.3.4.1

Tetragonal System 2.3.5
Trigonal System 2.3.6

Ditrigonal Scalenobedral Class 2.3.6.1

 2.3.7

Orthohombic System 2.3.8

2.3.8.1

Orthorhombic Bipyramidal system 2.3.8.2

Monoclinic System 2.3.9

Monocline Prismatic Class 2.3.10

Triclinic System 2.4

= Chemical prosperities of Materials : 3

3.1

Physical Prosperities of Minerals : 3.2

Luster 3.2.1
Color 3.2.2

Play of colors 3.2.3

Luminescence 3.2.4
Transparency 3.2.5
Streak 3.2.6

Hardness: 3.2.7

Cleavage 3.2.8

Parting 3.2.9

Fracture 3.2.10

) Tancity ( 3.2.11

Electrical and Magnetic properties 3.3

Pyroelectiricity = 3.3.1

Piezoelectricity 3.3.2

Magnetism 3.3.3

Thermal properties 3.4 5-

Fusibility 3.4.1
3.5 6-

3.6
: 3.7
3.7.1

o
o

Coordination number 3.7.2

Isomorphism 3.7.3

 Psedomorphisim 3.7.4

Noncrystaline Minerals 3.7.5

3.7.6

Origin of Minerals : 3.8

3.8.1

Occurrence of Minerals : 3.9

Rocks 3.9.1

3.9.1.1

3.9.1.2

Volcanic rocks 3.9.1.2.1

3.9.1.2.2
3.9.2

3.9.2.1
3.9.2.2

3.9.2.3
3.9.2.4
3.9.3

3.9.3.1
3.9.3.2

Meteors and meteorites 3.9.3.3

Minerals and tocks of the moon 3.9.3.4

: 4

: 4.1
4.1.1

Native Elements 4.1.2

4.1.2.1
4.1.2.2
4.1.3

Silicates 4.1.4
: 5

.
:

.
:

.
:

.
:

(
).
:

.
:

( :)1

. ( :)2

( :)2

:
: :

Mineralogy
.
. ( 5000 )
. 40
. ( )
(
) .
( )

.
.

.
.

.

( 428 1049)
() : (

) ( ) . (
440 1061) "

. (
651 1271) "
"
. ( 7469
1369/) " "
.
.
( ) ( )
.

. .
.
( ) ( )
.
( ) .
.
.

.
.
.

.

) (1

AL2O3 15.21 AL 8.07 SIO2 59.58 SI 27.69 O 46.71 -- -- --
NA 2.75 CA 3.65 FEO.FE2O2 CAO 6.81 5.10 FE 5.05

98.58 MGO 3.45 MG 2.08 K2O 3.11 K 2.58 NA2O 3.71

96.47

( :)1
: :
99
.
:
{

.

.
. .
( .)1
.
() .
.
M2O + MIO2 = MGSIO2
.

.
K2O + AL2O2 + 6 S IO2 = 2 KALSI2O2
.
( )
Orthoclase. Entatitine
.
Native Minirale
.
.

.

. .



.
.
( )
.
.

. Ores

"" .

.

.
. . Calcite Aragonite
.

.
() .

.
.
( )
=
.
Emery

Magnetite Corundum Al2O3
Fe3O4.
.
1 2 Quartz
Fe2O3 Hematite SiO2.
2 3 . .
(Mg2Fe)2 Olivine
SiO4 .

 .
.

.

.
.

.

.

.
.

Crystallography
.
.
:

.
.
. .
.

. .

.

.

). (
:
. 1-

. 2-
3-
.
( ) .
.. .

.

.

( )
) . ( Chrysocolla ) Opal (SiO2. nH2O
.
. 9 6 20 .
.

.
.

." "
.

.

.
.
(
).

.
1848 14 .
The 14 Barvbis space lattices.

(

 .
.
) . ()
. ((, ,
.
C , I). F ( 4
P 1
.
( )
( ).


. ( )
.

.
.
.

. . ( )

.
Law .
of constancy of interfacial angles.
( ) (
) . ( )11 45
( ) 33 41
26 34 26
18.

( ) .
( )11
.

 ( )12
.
( )
. . ( )13 40 140
.1669
( )13 1 2 1
2 . -12
.
.
. . ( )14

. 90

( 14) .

. ()
( )14
). ( 14
( ) .
( )15
( ( ) )1 -15 ( 15 )
). ( 15

. .
. ( )11
.

.
Element of Symmetry

.

. .
. .

: .

). ( 1-
). ( 2-
). ( 3-
). ( 4-
.
Rotation axis of symmetry

.
( 360)
19 18 17 16().

. ( )16 180 .
360 . ( )17 120
( )18 90 360 .
( )19 60 .
). 6 4 3 2 : ( :

.
( -20
) ( -20 ) (
.)
Plan of symmetry 2-
"" ( )
21().
Center of symmetry 3-
.

( .)22 "" ( ) .
.
Inversion axis symmetry 4-
. .
() ( 360)
.
. .
( )18- ( ) 90

 . (
90
( .)23 90

. 3 2 1 :
64
)16( ( )19 ( )21
. ( )16
()21
.
( )22 . 23
.
Symmetry formula

Complete Symmetry formula

6 4 3 2 :
6 4 3 2 1
. /2 /3 ...
..
2 3 .. .
/2 /3 .

32/4 3 3
(
). /4

Crystallographic systems

. 1 : ( )
. 2-
. 3-
. 4-
. 5
. 6-
. 7-

 (

)

. .
32
. .

.

(. ) ( )32
Crystallographic axes

(( )24 )
( )
). (

() .
Axial cross .111

( ) ( ) ( ) .
). ( )+ ( )- (24
) ( ) (
. ) (

90 90 )( :
= = 90 90 90 90 90 90 120 90
> 90 >90 90 90 >90 90 90 90 90

( )2
( )25 ( )31
. .

.
.

) ( :
. :
. : 1 1 23
. : 12
. : 1 23
. :
:

.
:
(
.>>) ( ) .

.

.
.
( .)32
. .



.

.
( )32 1.354
2.562 1.242 .
.
( )
0.477 =2.562/1.242 1.00 =2.562/2.562 0.528 = 2.562/1.354
.
.0.528:1:0.477
.

 ( : : = .)0.528:1:0.477
.
. ()
( 1) (
).
()
.
. = /
:: ( 1
). 1:1:
( )32 . .
0.676 2.562 2.444
2.562/2.444 :2.562/2.562 : 0.562/1.676 :
.0.954:1:2.64 ( )
2 = 0.477/0.954 :1 =1.000/1.000 0.5 = 0.528/0.264 :
1 :1.52:
. ( )
.
: : : : : : : : ::
. : : : :
( )33 11 :1 : . ( )34 11 :1 :
. 11 : :
:
:
)34(.
): ( Indices

( ) .
. Miller indices
. ( ::) .
0.50.5:0.5: ( ) 111 :
.
:
0.5 :2:

 ( ( 2:0.5 :
42::
42: :
. 124
( ) ( )
: ( ) ( ) .
/1 :0.5 := 0.5- 1020.5-:1: = 1/1 :1:= 1 102 :2: = 2 0.5 :1 :
=221

. .3 2 1 2 : 1: 1 .2 :1
.
.
.
(
2 1.4 1.41 1.414
).
3 ( )
. ( )3 + = +
Crystal form

( ) . ()33
( )34 (
) ( ) .
.

( )111( )111 ()111( )111
. .
( )111( )111 ( )111 ( )111
.
Form symbol:
.
}. ( ) ( )321 { } {321
bolobedral form:
). (-25

 Bemibedral form:
). ( 35
. Open form:
). . (36
. closed form:
). (37
Combinations of form:
(.)34
.

Cubic or Isometric System

). ( 38
). (4
CaF2 / 6 2 4 3 34/
2 3 / 4 3 ZnS 6 4 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 2 6 --
CoAsS 2 2 3 4 FeS2

( :)4
Norma of Hexoctabedral

/3 4 : /6 2 4 3
: 13 ( )41 40 39 :
). (39
). (40
( )
). (41
: .
( .)42
.

 ( )43 24
. 48
. :
:
.
:
. 1:1:1 { .}111
: ( :)45
:: { .}011

.
: ( :)46
: : { }001
.
( )48 .
. ::
{ }122 > { } >1).> (
.
( : ) ( :)49

{ }112 > :1 :1 1 { } > > " "
.
( :)47
. :1 1 : { > > 1
}. { .}012
.

.
( )50 48

> ( : :) { } > >
{ }123 { .}135 >
.

Combinations of forms =



:
). (51
). (54 53 52
). (55
). (56
). (57
). (58

) Galena (PbS ) Franklinite (Fe2O4 ( )51 ) Magnetite (Fe3O4
Garnet (Fe3Al2Si4O2) ) Halite (NaCl ) )54 53 52( Flourite (CaF2
Analcite (NaAlSi2O) ) Argentite (AfS2 ) (Cu ) Uraninite (UO2
Leucite (KAlSi2O2).
, .
.


. .
.
.
Hexagonal System

120 ( ) (
). ) 1 2 3 (59



.
: .
. : = 0.996 : = 1.650

 ( ) . 2
( )+ ( .)- 1 ( )+ ( .)-
). 3 . (59

( )5

Be3Al2Si6O18 /6 2 6/

62323

BatiSi8O9

6233

ZnO

6/

--

Dihexagonal Bipyramidal Class

). /6 : /3 2 /3 2 (60
: . .
). 1 2 3 (60
): : (6


). . (
. :

dihexagonal di :
bi
. bipyramid
bipyramids
. .
( ( )61 12 ( :
: : ) . ( ) ( )65
{ }1101
}. { Unit pyramid.
( )63
( 2 )
( )
( )66 ( )66
( : : : ) {
2. } 12
( )67 2 2 3
( : : : ) ( )69 ( ) . 24
.
. = 1/
2 Prisms 2
. .3
( ) ( )62
( ) .
,
( ) .

}. . ( : : :) {0 1 01
( ) ( )64
2 2 3 . ( 22 ::1 :
).) { .}0211 (

 ( )68 12 ( )
. ( : : :) { }
.
: .
( : : :) { .}1000 ( )68 64 62
.
:
( )70 Beryl

. . ( )71
( )71 70 . ) Beryl (Be3Al2Si6O16 :
Pyrobotite (FeS). ) Molybdenite (MoS2
:

.
( )
( ) [
] . ( )
.
Tetragonal System

:
( ) .
). 1 2 (72
: .
: = ( 0.672 ) ) Vassitetite (SnO2
: = ( 1.777 ) Anatase (TiO2 : = 0.891 )Zircon (ZrSiO4
). ) . (
): ( ) (6
ZrSiO4 /4 2 4/
CuFeS2 4 2 2 2 2 (PbO)2CCl2O 4 2 2 2 2
4 CaWo4 4/ PhCuCl2(OH)4 2 2 4
PbMoO4 4

( )6

). /4 : / 2 2 / 2 2 /4 / 4 2 (73
:
. 1 2 12
: 1( 2 )
. 1( 2 )
. :

1 Bipyramids: 2
. .
( ) ( )74
: :
. .
: : { }
.
().
( ) ( )76
. ( : : ) { }
.
) : (
).
( )78 1 2
( ) ( : : ) { } .
. 16
.
( ) ( )75
1 2 ( : :) { .}011 1 2
1
.
( ) ( :)77
1 2 ( : :) { }001
. 1 2

 ( :)79
. ( : :) { } . ( )80
. 12
"" (:
:) { .}100
). (79 77 75
( )82 81 .
( )81 { }011 { .}111

). (82
. : ( )82 81
:
( ) ()
( 1 . )1

.

Trigonal System

( . )83

( 1 2 3) 120
). (
( )
.
): (7
3 2 3 3 2 3/
C2Mg(CO3)2 3 3 3 3

( :)7
Ditrigonal Scalenobedral Class

 ( )84 3 2 3/
. ( + 3 = 3)
). 1 2 3 (84

:
. }1000{ :
. }0101{
. { : }0
. { : 2 } 12
( )
.
.
.
: , ( 85 ) ,
.
(-85)
( )
( )
. 1 2 3
: (
). . : 1.5 :1 1.2245 + :1
1 1.2247
( ) 90 ( )87 86
1.2247 90
( .)89 88 ( : : : : ) { } { } {
} { } .
2 { }
. { }
( )90 ( )
( 12) .

. (
). ) 1 2 3 ( 91

 (
) ( 91))( . )
( 91 ) .
, .
{ } > ( : : : ) { } { }1312
.>

). (94 93 92
:
. :
:
( ) ( )
( 1 2 )3
.

Orthohombic System

( .)95

. .
. : : = 0.903 :1 :0.813 : : =
1.280 :1 :0.9.
): (8
Barite BaSO4 2 3/
Zo4(OH)2Si2O7H2O 2 MgSO47H2O 2 3
( :)8

Orthorhombic Bipyramidal system

:
). /2 : /2 /2 /3 2 (96
:
96().

. :
:
( )97 ( )
. ( : :) { }111
( : ) { } > ( : : ) { }
> ). > >1 0 ( >
( )98 .
. { }011 { }0 } }023{ }012
( )100 99 8
( )7 .
(. ) ( : : } {0 } { }120{ }110
( {100 (:
. : ) { } { }102{ }101

.
( )101

.
{ }001
:
{ }100{ }110{ }201{ }011 ( )102
( )103 { }010{ }120{ }101{ }021{ }011{ }111 ()104
: { }311{ }111
:
: ( )104
). ( [(Mg2Fe)2 SiO2] 103 ] [Al(F2OH)2 AlSiO4 )(BaSO4
:
.

> >
.
.
Monoclinic System


( )
( .)105 ( 90)
( ) .
. (
180)
) :: (
: : = (CaSO4 2H2o) 0.412 :1 :0.690
. = 80.42
_)
.
): (9
)=( 2 KALS3O8 2/
Na2(Al2Si3O10)H2o 2 H2CaZnSiO5
( :)9
Monocline Prismatic Class

/2 : ( )106 .
. ( )

( :)109 108
: : .
( ])108 [ ) (+
( )109 . ) (-
. { }111 }111{ .
( )
}. { } { } { } { }
( :)110 .
{ } 011 { }0
}. { > 021 { }012 { }0 >
:
: ( )112 ( : : } {0
}.

 : ( )115 114
. ()
{ } { }101 ( . )114 { }
). { }101 (115
: ( )111
. : }100{
. :}010{
. :}001{
:
). (119 118 117 116
:

: .
). ( Orthoclase (KALSi8O8) 117 116
). (Augite (Ca Al Fe Mg Silicate) 119
Hornblende [Ca Al Fe Mg (OH) silicate].
Biotite [K Al Fe Mg (OH) Silicate].
). ( Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) 118
:
(
) . () ( )
.
.
.
. . 90

Triclinic System

:
( )
( ) 120 . .
.
: : : .
= = 10.8.18 : : = Rhodonite (MnASiO3) 0.613 :1 :1.073
108.44 = 81.39.
): (10
1 CaSIO8 )=( 1

( :)10

: ( .)121
.
:
( :)122 .
8/1 .
4/1 . (
)
.

. }111{ : }111{
{ }111 }111{ . (
. )8/1
( :)123
{ }011
}. { .}011 . ( )123 {100
: . { }110
{ }110 ( )124 { }101 { }101 ( )125
.

 ( :)126 { }001 { }010

. { }100
:
). (127
:
Albite
( (127 ) Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8 )(NaAlASi8O8
.
:
.
.


( ) 11
:
010 0110 001 0101 011 0211 101 1110 110 1110 111 1211 /
1000 100
(( (( ((
) ((( (( (( 2
(( ) () 1 () 2 () 1 ((( 2
(( ) () 2 () 1 () 2 (1


20.000
:
. 50%
. 25%
. 15 %
( ) %90
( )%10
: .
.

 . ( ) .
.
( ) ( )
( ) (
. )
Crystal Habit

. (
) .
.


( )15 14 .
.

. ( )

.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
). (14
.

"".
. ""

.

 ( ).

.

. .
.
.
.
.

Groups of Crystals

.
180 ( )130( )129
.
.

( )
.
): (
:
- . 1- 2 .
- ( )3 .
.
- - 2 . ( )1 :
. - 3 .
: ) (1
.
( )128 .
: ) 2( .
.
( . )130 129
180
(

 ( )001 )129 .
.

. ( )129 . (
) . (
) ( ) 132 .
.

.

( .)132 129
( )133 .
( )130
. ( )134
.
( )135 ( )137 ""
(SnO2).
)(3

:


.

.
:) (

: )(1
.
( )

( ) . (
) ( )
.
.
.
(
) .

 ( ) (
. ..)
: )(2
.
.
: . )(3
.
Crystalline aggregates
()
(
): ) . (138
() () 1-
: - : (- 3 .)2 .
: - : - 5 . 4 .
: - ( ) 6 .
- : : - 8 . 7 .
: - 9 .
: (SiO2). 10-
: - 11 .
: (MnO2). 12-
: [Al8(OH)8(PO4)2.5H2O]. 13-
: - : (Al2SiO5). 14- 15 .
: - 16 .
: - 17 .
. .
: ( 18-
: -20 . : - ) 19 .
: - 21 .
. : - 22 .

=Chemical prosperities of Materials

() () .
. .


.

 Analysis by the Blowpipe

. .
. ()
: .
1-
( .)139 Blowpipe ()
"" ( )142
"" ( .)142
. .
( )145 144 - 1500 2 .
( )143
" " ( )140 " " ( .)141 ()146
- 3 .
- . :
( ) (
- ) .


.
- (- 2 .)12 ( )1 :
)1( : (( )13) (3 .)14 ( ) - ( ) (4 .)15
- ( ) (- 6 .)17 (5 .)16
: - (7 .)18(- 8 .)19
( ) - : 9 .
.
: 1-
( )12
( )143 .
( )
.
Ca . ) (
. Sr
Li ( )
K . Na .

 Cu . Ba .
.
As . Pb
Mo P Zn Sb
( :)12

) ( ) : ( ) ( 2
Ag
Sn . ( )
()
pb
Au . ()
Cu . ( )
Co .
Fe . . Ni
.
( :)13
.

) ( ) : ( 2
) () (
) () (
(
) ( )
) (


) (


. ( :)14

): ( 4-
.
) (HI
( (KHSO4). ) (KI
):) . (15
.
.



( :)15
Open tube tests: )(3
12 .
( )140 .

.


. .
. ( )16
. ) (volstile As2O8
. Sb2O8
. . MoO8
. Hg
. ( :)16

Closed tube tests: )(5

8 3
( )141 ( )101
( ) .

 . ( )17
.





( :)17

Bead tests: 6-
.
.
( .)143

.

.
()
.
( )18 .
. .
:
.

.
... :






( :)18

: )(7
:
(). ( ) (19

. ( )
.
.
. ) (
( ) .

.
( ) .
.
. .
. ( )19
: 8-
) Meigen's test ( :
5 . %10
.
.


.
20-15 Lemberg's test ( :)
(
(
) ) .
. .
. Mahelr's test :) (

.
:
.

 SnO2
.
). ( : 9-
. (AL) :
() . (Sb):
.
.
. (Ba):
. (K):
. () (W):
() (Ti):
.
. (Fe):
.
. (Au):
(Pb):
.
(As):
.
(Hg):
.
.
. (Sr):
. (Na):
. (Ag):
. (Sn):
. (Ca):
(Cr):
.
(Mg):
.

 (Mo):
.
(Ni):
.
(U):
.
.

.

.
( )
.
.
.
.

. .
(
Electron microprobe. ) .
.

.
.
"" .
NaCl
). ( 1:1
Chemical Formulae of Minerals
.
.

 (
) 100 .
( : Chalcopyrite .
100 .
100.5 99.5 .
). 100 100
= Cu 34.89 63.54 )(1) (2) (3) (4) (5
0.549 1.021 1 Fe 30.04 55.85 = 0.538 1.000 1 S 34.51/99.44 33.07 = 1.077 2.002 2
5 4 ( (
( )3 ( )0.538
Cu Fe S2 . Cu:Fe:S = 2:1:1
.

.
.

.
Cu 32.44 56.1 = 0.578 1 1 Fe 46.61 80.06 )(1) (2) (3) (4) (5
= 0.582 1.006 1 S 20.74 18.0= 1.152 1.979 2
2:1:1 . Cao:So8:H2O
CaSO4 2H2O. : Cao SO8 2H2O

( ) .
( )
.
Garnet:
= SiO2 36.66 60.1 )(1) (2) (3) (4) (5
0.61 0.096 3 Al2O3 4.18 102.0 = 0.041 0.197 1.000 1 Fe2O3 24.86 159.6 = 0.156 MgO
0.25 40.3 = 0.006 CaO 33.89 56.1 = 0.604 0.613 3.112 3 MnO 0.20 70.9 = 0.003 TiO2
0.10 79.9 = 0.000 100.14

( )

(Ca, Mg, Mn) O. (Fe2Al)2 O3. 2 SiO2 (Ca, Mg, Mn)8 (Fe, Al)2 Si3 O123 .

 .
(
) .

" Anorthite" CaAL2ASi2O8 " Albite" NaAlSi3O8 " "
.
Ab) 20 8 20 80 (
An). (
(Mg2Fe)2 SiO3
Faylite Fe2SiO4 [Fa] . ] Forstrite Mf2SiO4 [Fo
. Fo82Fa23 ..Fo80Fa70

Physical Prosperities of Minerals

.
.
.

..

.
. .

.



( )

.
Optical properties: 1-
.
Cohesive properties: 2-
.
Electrical and Magnetic properties: 3-
.

 Thermal - Specific gravity: 5 . 4-

properties:
. .
. ( ) : 6-
Optical properties 1-
Luster

.
. . : .
.
) Pyrite (FeSz : .
. )Galena (PbS
. -
: .
. Vitreous of Glassy:
. . Adamantino:
) (ZnS Resinous:
) Mg (OH) Silicate. ( Pearly: Sphalerite.
Silky:
Satinspar.
) [Al (OH Earth of dull:
Silicate].
. ( )
Color

.


) Malachite [Cu (OH . ()
).( Cinnabar (HgS) ) ( ) Magentite (Fe2O4 ]Carbonise

. ( )
.
Sphalerite

 .
Rose
crysptocrystalline Amethyat quartz
( ) ( ) jasper
.
). ( smoky quartz ""
Agate
). ( Tourmaline ) (
Play of colors

. (
( ( Labradorite )dispersion
Opal .
. )(SiO2. nH2O

Bornite .
(Cu5FeS4).
.
). ( Satinspar ( )
Luminescence

( ) .
.. .
Calcite .
. Willemite
] Fluorite [CaF2 Florescence
Phosphorescence. .

.
.
) Scheelite (CaWO4 -
Autunite (Hydrate Ca U Phosphate) . )Scapolite (Na Ca AL Silicate
.
.


.
Transparency

.
. .
. .
Streak

. ()

) Chromite (FeCr2O4
.
.
)) HFeO2 ) (Fe2O3 ) (Fe3O4 .

.

. .

) Milybdenite (MoS2
). (
Cohesive properties 2-
Hardness:

.
.
Diamond Tale
.
.


Calcite Gypsum 3- Tale 2- - 2 .9 1 :
Topaz 9 Quartz 8- Orthoclase 7- Apatite 6- Fluorite 5- 4- Diamond Corundum 10-

.
( )6 _ ) .

 ( )6 ( )7 .6.5
.
( )
.
.


( 9) ( 10)
. ( 1) ( 9
: ()
.
2.5
5.5
3
6.5
5.5
7-6
7
.
( )
04
07
). (
. 1
Cleavage

.
). ( 147
.
: .
{( }100 ) . {}111
( ) . {( }1110{ }1101

) {( }011 )
). {( }100 ) (148
:
). { }100 (-148
}. { }100 {010
}. {1000
). { }011 120 ( -140
). { }011 90 148(
). { }1101 ( 148
). { }001 ( 148
.

( )148 147
.
Parting

( )150
.
.
.

. ( )
( )150
.
Fracture

.
.
:
. ( )151
. :
. :
. :

). : (
) Tancity (

.
.
. :
. :
. :
. :
:
.
:
.

Electrical and Magnetic properties

Pyroelectiricity =

(
).


.

.
.
Piezoelectricity

.
.
.
Magnetism

.
.
( )
. Ilmenite (FeTiO8).


.
Density and Specific gravity 4-
( ) . 4

( ) . 2.65 2.65
./ 3 4
() = / -
=
=
- =
). ( =
2.65 2.65
. 19 19 .
( )


) 3.2 ( Olivine .
4.4 ( )3.2 ( )4.4
. 3.2 4.4
.

.
[ ( )6 ( ])13
3.4 [ ( )7 ( ])13
. 2.25


( )
.

:
1-
.

 2-
.
. 3-
: 1-
.
. 1
2
X = /1 12
1 1
.

.
.


" " ( .)152 -1 : ()1
.
( )2 ( )1 "" 2-
.
.
. ( )1
( )3 3-
. ( )4 ([ )5
.]
:
( ) 1-

.
() () 2-
() ""
.
. ( )6
() 3-
() . ()

 ( ) ""
(
) "" " "
:
= / = /
2-
( )153 . Pycometer
.
: .
.
). ( 1
. 1
. 2
. 3
. 4
) = ( 2( /)1 4( )3 32
Use of heavy liquids 3-
.
.



( )154
.
.
:
. Bromoform 2.9 1-
. ) . Thoulet's liquid (3.17 2-
. Methylene iodide 3.2 3-
. ) Clerici's solution (4 4-
( )4( )2
. ( )1 ( )3



:
. 02.4
. 3.2 2.4
. 5.00 3.2
. 5.00
. ( )2
.
.
. .

.
Magma
.

Thermal properties 5-
Fusibility

_ ) .
.

( )
). (20
800 2 . 525 1
1050 3 .
1300 5 . 1200 4 .
1400 6 .
. 1710 7 .
( :)2

6-

 taste. odour Feel

. . ( )
. Pyrite Fe A2
Arsenopyrite (Fe As S).
( )
). ( Spodumene



.

.
40 . 87
: .
U298 Ph206 + 8H4 U235 Ph207 + 7H4 Th323 Ph208 + 6H4
: .
K40 Ca40 + A40

Rh87 Sr 87
(
) 3.9
4.6 .
4.6 . 4.6 .
4.6
.

.
:
Optical microscopic properties 1-

 .
.
.
( ) .

( )
.
.

( ) ( )1559

( ) .
(). ) ( 156
(
)
(: )
). ( .... 1-
. 2-
. 3-
. () 4-
. 5-
6-
.

.
( )157
( )
( .)158
(
)
. .
( )
:
). ( ... 1-

. 2-
). ( 3-
. ( ) 4-
. ( ) 5-
. 6-
. 7-
Electron Microscopy 2-
( )159 ( 40
100 ) 0.05 (
) .
.

. ( 760 )
( )159
.
( ) .
( ) 160 .
.


.
X-Ray diffraction 3-
( .)161 0.02 100
) (Target () ( 40 )
. .
.
. 72000 4000
.
( )
( )162
.


.
: 4-
) (
( .)163
( ) ( (
( )
. "" "" ( )164
.
"" ""
). (164
) Differential Thermal Analysis (A.T.A. 5-
( )165
.
.
( )166 "Differential thermocouple" .
(. ) ( )
:

) (
Crystal Chemistry of Minirals



. ( )

.

. . ( )
.

Crystal Chemistry
.


.

:
.
( )


.

.

:
. 1-
. 2-
. 3-
: 1-


.
32
.
. 320 230
2-

( :)167
. ) (NaCl

. .
. (
. .. )

 ( )167
( )168
,.
.

( ) .
_ )168
,
). (169
"" 0.414 ()
.
( .)170 [ ]
0.414
.
( )171
(Si) 0.30
0.414
. ( )172
0.66
( 0.732 )
.
( )173 0.732
.1 1:0.732 1:01
0.564 ) (NaCl
.
.
Coordination number

. ( )171 [ ]
[ ] 4 00.30
. .
6 0.47
0.31 4 )(MgTe
.
. 8
(.)173


. ( )21 186
Chemical bonds 3-
.
.

. . ( )
: 3 0.15
> 4 0.22 0.22 6 0.41 0.41 8 0.73
0.73.
( :)21
(
)
( )175 .171 .
.

. .
) Halite (NaCl ) Periclasse (MgO
701 2800
.
: .

.
Ionie bond: 1-
.
.
.
.
.
. Covariant bond: 2-
. .
. .
.
( )



.
SiO4
). (174 171
( SiO4
. )
Metallic bond: 3-

.
.
Van Der Waal Force: 4-
.

.


( .)175
.
.
Isomorphism

.

.

.
.
(
) 1819
.


( )
.

 .
( )158 . ( )22
). (
^ 110 110 :: ^ 011 011
SrCO8 147.6 3.7 41 62 CaCo8 100.1 2.9 48 63 32 71 0.721:1:0.622
B8CO8 197.4 4.3 12 62 16 72 0.74:1:0.595 48 71 0.724:1:0.609

( :)22
( )
.
( )
15
. . ( )*23
. ( 0.97)
). ( 9..0

1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ Li 0.68 Be 0.35 B 0.23 C 0.16 Na 0.97 Mg 0.66 Al 0.51 Si 0.42 K 1.33

Ca 0.99 Se 0.81 Tl 0.68 V 0.59 Cr 0.52 Rb 1.47 Sr 1.12 Y 0.92 Zr 0.79 Nb 0.69 Mo 0.62 Cs
1.67 Ba 1.34 La 1.14 Hf 0.78 Tg 0.68 W 0.62 Cu 0.96 Fe 0.74 Fe 0.64 Ge 0.53 P 0.35 S
0.30 Ag 1.26 Zn 0.74 Cr 0.63 Sn 0.71 As 0.46 Se 0.46 Au 1.37 Ni 0.69 Co 0.63 Pb 0.84 Sb
0.62 Te 0.56 Co 0.72 Mn 0.60 1- 1- 1- 2- 2- Cl 1.81 F 1.36 (OH) 1.40 O 1.40 S 1.84
( :)23
( )
:
Na1 + Si1 = Ca2 + Al3
NaAlSi8O8 = CaAl2Si28

) 18 Sphalerite ( .
18
24().
S 32.93 33.36 33.25 Zn 66.69 63.36 50.02 Fe 0.42 3.60 15.44 Cd 00
00 0.30 Pb 00 00 1.01 100.04 100.32 100.02

 ( :)24
( ) :
) (CaAL2Si2O8 ) (NaAlSi8O8
( ) ( )25
). 2.75 (176
90 70 10 30 100 90 0 10 () ) (
10 0 70 90 30 10 70 90 50 30 50 70 70 50 30 50
( :)25
( )
Fayalite Fe2SiO4Forsterite Mg2SiO4
Olivine series (Mg2Fe)2SiO4.
.
.
Polymorphilism

() .
. ..
:
. .
. ( )26
.
.

2.2 1 FeS2 3.5 10 C

3.90 5.5 6 4.23 6 6.5 4.85 6 TiO2 5.0 6
2.95 3.5 SiO2 2.71 3 4.14 5.5 6 CaCo3
6 2.30 7 KAlSi8O8 2.57 2.26 7 2.65 7
2.565 6 2.54 2.57 6 2.5 2.6 6
( )26

: ( ) .

 .
. 1470 870 870
. 1470
. 450
Psedomorphisim

(
) .
(H ) (FeS2 :
)Fe O2
: .
): ( 1-

. :
. (
) (
)
.
2-
) : (
.
) (CaF2 ) (SiO2 :
) (CaCO8 ) (SiO2
) : (
( )
.
:
. [Fe8O4] .. ) (Fe2O8
:
. [CaSO4] .. ] [CaSO4 2H2O
:
. [FeS2] ... ] [HFeO2

 ( ) : 3-

.

.
Noncrystaline Minerals

.
:
.
.
.
.
.
"" .
.
ThO2
Allnite .
. ""
.
: .
. ( )

.

10 3 . SiO2.nH2O
.
.
. ""

=== Classification of minerals : ===

( )2000
( )

.

 (

) . .

( )
( ) (
) ( ) .
.
.


.


). ( " "1
( ) ( )2.5 1
( )3.5 2.5 ( )5 3.5 ( .)5
). ( ) ( " "2

. () ()
:

:
) ( .. ) (
( .. )
.
) . (


.

: Classes ( ) ( )
Native elements. 1-
Suffocates. Sulfides 2-

 Hydroxides. Oxides 3-
Halides. 4-
Borates. Nitrates Carbonates 5-
Tungstates. Molybdates Chromates Sulfates 6-
Vanadates. Arsenates Phosphates 7-
Silicates. 8
. Subclasses

""
SiO4 )17(7
( ) () ( )
) . (
: )
( ) Nesosilicates 1-
. ) (SiO4
Sorosilicates 2-
(Si2O7). ( )
) ( Cycosilicates 3-
()
(SiO8) 3,4,6.
) ( Inosilicates 4-
( )
. (SiO8) n
) ( Phyllosilicates 5-

(Si4O10).
) ( Tectosilicates 6-
(SiO2) n.
.
: ()
Silica group. -
Feldspar. -

 Felspathoid. -
Zeolite group. -

. .
( ).


]. [ ( )25 ( )176 176
.
Labradorite
70 -50 ([ )%30 50
) )25( 870 .]176 ( 573

) ( 573
.

Thulite Zoisite .
. Freibergite Tetrahedrite
()
. .
:
Subclass Class -
Type Group
Series Species
Variety Subspecies

-

.
). (
()
.
.


]. (= ) [

() [ ]
.
Native Elements 1-
. :
. :
. :
Sulfides and Sulfoslates 2-
As2S
HgS
Cu2S
AgS
Cu5FeS4
Ag2S8
PbS
Sb2S8
ZnS
FeS2
CuFeS2
FeS2
FeS
FeAgS
CuS
MoS2
Cu12Sb4S18
Cu12As4S13
Oxides and Hydroxides 2-

 Cu2O
FeTiO8
MgO
TiO2
ZnO
MnO2
Al2O8
SnO2
Fe2O8
UO2
HFeO2
MgAl2O4
FeFe2O4
FeCr2O4
) MnO(OH
) FeO(OH
Halides 4-
NaCl
CaF2
Cu2(OH)8Cl
NaAlF8
Carbonates, etc. 5-
CaCO3
MnCO8
MgCO8
SrCO8
BaCO8

 FeCO8
Cu2CO8(OH)2
Cu8CO8(OH)2
KNO8
NANO8
Sulfates 6-
CaSO4
PhSO4
BaSO4
CaSO4.2H2O
SrSO4
MgSO4.7H2O
PhCrO4
PhMoO4
(Fe.Mn)WO4
CaWO4
Phosphates, etc. 7-
(Ca,La,Th)PO4 Ca6(F,Cl,OH)(PO4)8
Silicates 8-
( ( ) [ ( )
()].
). (
). (
). (
). (
). ( ) (
). ( ) (
). (

). (
). (
). (
). (
" "

. ( (

).
: " " ( )
.
. :
. :
. :
. :
. : ()
. :
. :
. :
. :
. :
. :
. :
. :
. :
". : "
. :
. :
. :

Origin of Minerals

:
: :
( )
( )
( )
. :


.
.
:
) Lava: ( Magma 1-
. (
).
: ( ) 2-
() ( ) .
. .
: ( ) . 3-

.
.
( ) : . 4-


.

.
1-

.
. ( )
( ) .

 . .

.
.
%99 :
.

. ....
( )%99 ( ) .
.
: (
Augite) ( ) (
Hornblende ( Amphiboles )
) Biotite ( Mica )
Mocrocline (
). ) (
. .
. (
...) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) (
) .
. ( )
. ...

.
.
Magmatic solutions.
: 2-
(CaCO2) .. . ) (NaCl
:
) ( ) (
.
) . (
.

:
: 1- .
.
: NaCl (78%) MgCl2 (9%) MgSO4 (6%) CaSO4
(4 %) KCl (2%).
%99 .
. :
. :
: 2-
(
) . ( )

( )
:
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO2)2
Ca(HCO3)2 = CaCO8 + CO2 + H2O

.
Stalagmite.

Travertine.
: ( ) 2-
...
.

:
) - 300 ( Hypothermal deposits: 500 1-
Wolframite .
) ( Cassitrite ) ( Mloybdenite ) (
Mesothermal deposits: -2 .
) . - 200 (300
.
Epithermal deposits: 3-
) - 50 (200

 ( ) . ( ) ( )
.
( )

(
Geysers.
" Geyserite
".
"" : "" 4-
" " Smithsonite
.
. .
Opalized wood .
) (SiO2nH2O
.
: "" 5-
.
.
.
.
: 3-
.
(
...)
.
.
( ) .
""
.
.

" "
. ( )
( ) ( )

:

SnF4 + 2H2O = SnO2 + 4HF

4HF + 2CaCo3 = 2CaF2 + 2H2O + 2Co2

" Tormaline
Topaz " .
" Apatite " "
. "
Metamorphism: 4-

. .
.
.

.
.
: " " "
(CaSiO3) Wloisstonite "
. ...

.

.

"" ""
"" .

.

.
( )
Stalactite CaCO8
Stalagmite.

 Laterite
.
.
"
Bauxite.
: (FeS2) Pyrite
FeS2 + 2O2 FeASO4 + S
.
" "
CaSO4.21H2O. CaSO4

Occurrence of Minerals

.

.
.
. .
.
.
" "
.
. ( )178

.
: ( )
Ore Minerals
Gangue minerals
). (

. bydrothermal
) Hypothermal veins (300-500 . 1-
.

) Mesothermal minerals (200-300 2-

. .
) Epithermal minerals (200-50 3-
.


.

geodes of vuges. ( )
.
. in site primary
..
placer deposits Secondary.
.

. ()

. ( )
). . ( ) (
Rocks

.
Coal ( )
( ) ""
.

.
.
( Felspathoids :
)

.
.
.
.
. .


.
.
. .
.
.
:
Ligneous Rocks 1-
. ( )
Sedimentary Rocks 2-
.
Metamorphic Ricks 3-
.
. . ( ) () .
% : () 95
% 4
% 0.70
% 0.30

.
:
. 1-
. 2-
. 3-
. 4-
. 5-
. 6-
Mineralogical Composition: 1-

 .
-1 : -2 .
. :
(NaAlSiO4) Nepheline KAlS2O22 Leucite (
.
(CaTiSiO4) Sphene.
.

. ()
.
) . () ( 1000

( )
600 900
. . ( )179 ()
Chemical Composition: 2-
.
.
.
:
( %65 .)%80 - %65 Acid rocks: ) (

( ) .
.
%52 %65 Intermediate rocks: . ) (
. .
%52 Basic rocks: ) (
.
. .
Color: 3-

: () ()
). (
Texture: 4



.
.
.


.
.
.


(
)
. 150

( 180). ( 180)
() .
Phenocrysts.
180(.)
( )
.
.
Amygoidaloidal tecture.
Mode of Occurrence: 5-
.
.
.
( )
:
Platonic rocks: ) (
.
.
( 181)
Batholith

 1 40 . Stock Boss

( )
.
Hypsbyssal rocks: ) (
( )
.

.
( 180) . .
( 181) ( 181) .
.
.
.
.
( 181) . lacolith
Phacolith ( 181) "" Lopolith
( 181)
.
Extrusive or Volcanic rocks ) (
.

. ( ) .
Lava flows .
.
Structure 6-


.

() .
) . ( Zeolite
( ) .
.
.

 (

Volcanic bombs.

: .
: %65 %52 . 1-
. .
: ( 2
). ...) (
: . "" 3
""


.
.
. " "27
.

[
" " ]


[ ]%10 . .
.
.
.
( )%5 .
()
.
.

% () ) 65 ( ) (
2.65 2.80 2.90 %52 52 - %65%
- - - - -
-

 - -

( :)27
Synite:
.
%5 .
%5 Nephline Monzonite.
( ) ) (NaAlSiO4 .
(Al2O8). ( .)6 5.5
( ) Diorite:
. .

() .
.
. Gabbro:
.
Dunite Pyroxenite.
. Hornblendite.
" "
] . [ Serpentine
.

Volcanic rocks

) ( ) . ( Rhyolite

Obsidian . Pumice
. Pichetone

:
. 1-
. 2-

:
: 1-
). ( 1-
. 2-
) KAISi8O8 (
) KAISi8O8 (
) (
: 3-
) NaSISiO4 (
) KAISi8O8 (
: 4-
). (
). (
). (
: 5-
). (
: 6-
). (
). (
). ( 7-
: 2-
). ( 1-
). ( 2-
). ( 3-
). ( 4-
). ( 5-
). ( 6-
). ( 7-

). ( 8-
). ( 9-
). ( 10-
Pegmatites
.

.

.
( ) .
.
.
( ) (
.
(
Be8Al2Si6O18 )
.

( ) .
( : ) Weathering
( : ) ( )
.

.
.
300 200


.
.
.
. ( )

 .
.
. .
.
.
.

:
1-
.
. 2-
. 3-
4-
.

_) . ()
() ( )
:
. : 1-
. : 2-
: 3-
.
. : 4-
. : 5-
) ( Tronas 6-
.

.

 Mechanical sediments: 1-

. .
Chemical sediments: . 2-

.
.
. Organic sediments: 3-

.
. ( )

Conglomerate:
( ) ( 182)
( ) .
( 10 ) ( 2 )
.
Sands and Sandstones:
: 3 16/1 ( 182)
. : 22
. : 2 : 1
. : 1 : 2/1
. : 2/1 : 4/1
. : 4/1 : 8/1
. : 8/1 : 36/1
. : 16/2 : 256/1
. : : 256/2
Sandstones.
() ( ) .
( ) :
.

. () .

 Black Arkose.
Sand.
. :
.
(. )
.
.
. ( ) . .
.
Clay Silt Argillaceous rocks:
. 16/1
) . Clay Minerals (
. .
()
()
.
Marl.
%15

( 182) . shale
.
30 40 .
). . ( 400
:
Greywacke. Breccia
: 2
( ) ( 182)
.

.
:
(
).) (
:

 .
. .
Gypsum:
. .
.
Anhydrite:
.
( 182). Salt:

. (
. )Sylvite

.
( Oolitic limestone: 2
) ( 182)
( )
.
Stalactites & Stalagmites:

.
{ Travertine: .
.
Siliceous sinter:
. Geysers.
( ) Doloimites:

.
:
2CaCo2 + MgCl2 = CaMg (CO3)2 + CaCl2
Flint & CHert: .
. ( )

 : .

.
.
Shelly
. Foraminifera limestone ... Coral limestone limestone

.
Chalk:
.
. Phosphate rock:
(
). %60

.
.
.
(
. )
: ()
). (
Peat
%. 60
%55 %75 . Lignite
Anthracite .
. %75 %90
. .

). ( ) ( 28
31.3 - -- -- 6.9 11.5 -- 1.2 18.4 -- 52.3 46.2 8.4 17.6 2.2 79.8 31.9 3.7
-- -- 1.6 -- 7.6 -- -- -- 36.6 -- -- -- 2.4 -- -- -- -- 10.0 1.0
2.8 2.8 0.3 2.4 0.3 2.0 6.5 1.7 5.4 0.1 7.9 92.8
). ( :)28 (

( ) .
.
.
. ( )
:
Thermal metamorphic. 1-
Regional Metamorphic rocks. 2-

.
.
. (
).) ( 183

Hornfleis .
] [Al2SiO8.Fe(OH)2 (Al2SiO5) Andlosite
. [Mg,Fe)2 Al8Si5Al)O18] Corodierite Staurolite
.
.

( )
) (CaMg ) (Ca SiO8
(SiO2)8.
. () .
:
.

.

.

.


.


.
( 183) .
. .
.
) (Al2SiO5
(Al2SiO8) Sillimanite Kyanite
.
Zones
( ) .
( ) (
).
. :
. :
. : ()
. :
. :
. :
) non foliated (
foliated.
() ()
.
( )29 .
.
. Quartzite:


.
) (
6 3 6 7



( :)29
Marble:
.
.
.
. ( )
. Hornfles:
.

( ) .
Porphyroblast.
Slate:

.
.
Schist:

Mica schist .
( ) .
.

..
.
. Gneiss:
.


. .
. ...
.

( Precambrian).
Meteors and meteorites


.

. .

. .
.


: .
[Siderites of irons]. 1-
) [Siderites of ( 2-
stony irons].
[Aerolites of stones]. 3-
( %91 %8.5 %0.5
(Fe,Ni<Co)3P (FeS) Troilite)
. (Fe8C) Cohenite Schreibarsite
.
""
.
.

/. %5 %34
.
.
.
Minerals and tocks of the moon

3460 300.000 .
( 1969 11 24 16 )1969
.
:
%52.4 Soil breccias: 1-
.

 ( ) .
.
%37.4 . 30 1 Basalt: 2-
)1( : ( %50) .
( )2 ( )%25 [ ( ])100 90 ( )3 ( )%20
%). (0.7
: %5.1 1 3 3-
.
.
. ()
: %3.6 ( ) 4-
().
Meteoritic debris). : ( %1.5 %0.1 5-
25
.
. ""

. ....
..
. 1969
. 1969
. .
. " . "
:
:

:
. 100
2000 .
.


.
:

. 1-
. 2-
. 3-
. 4-
. 5-
. 6-
. 7-
. 8-
. 9-
. 10
:
. 1-
. 2-
. 3-
. 4-
. 5-
. 6-
. 7-
. 8-
. 9-
. 10-
Types Groups Classes
Varities. Series Species

Native Elements

.
)1( : )2( .
.

 .
:
Native metals:
. ) (Au
. ) (Ag
. ) (Cu
. ) (Pt
Native Nonmetals:
. ) (S
. ) (C
. ) (C

.
) (Au
Hexoctahedral) . (
. .
. = 3 2.5 = .19.3 15.6 .
. .
( )%40
.. . ( 20 )%40
) . . 1063( 3
). (
( )
.
. )1( : ( ) )2( . (
).
()
. .

.
.


45 .
50
0.001%.

.
.
.
. .

.
:
The Rand
. .
0 ) %40 .
. 90
50
.
:
: )(1
)2( . : )3( .
: .
.

.
.
.
.
.
%0.0001 [ 45 ( ) ]
.
.

) (Ag

 .
. =
3 2.5 10.5 12-10 .
. .
: .
. )(1
. )(2
UO2). ( )(3
()
.
.
) (Cu
.
.
. . = 3 2.5 =
. 8.9 . .
.

). ( ) (Cu2O
) (Keweenaw


. 175
.

.
. 600
) (Pt
.
. = ( 4.5 4 ) . = 21.4
19 14 . . .

 . :
(. )%19.5
) Sperryliter (
Dunite .
.

( ) .
(). ) (
.
.

.
) (S
.
. :
. = .2.5 1.5
= .2.09 2.05 . . .
. .

.
.
.
) . 112.7( 1
. .
). (
.

. .
Frash method .
) Superheated (160
. . %99.5
.

 .

.


.

) (C
.
. . .
( ) . = ( 10 ) . = .3.5 { .}111{ }111
.
Strong dispersion. 2.42
" . "
"" ( ) . Carbonado
. .
.
.
.
( Kimberlitre ()
) . :
. . %95
%50 .
() .
.


.
( )1 ( )2 .
.
.
.
.
. .
.

 200 0.2 ( Carat .

6 4)
1905 3106 ( 621.2) "" " "
. 96

.
Antwerpen ( .
) 20.000 (
).

) (C
.
= ( 2 1
) . = 2.2 { }1000
. . . . .
: .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
. )1( : ( ) )2(
(. ) )3(
.
.

 Ag2S Argenite -
Cu2s Chalcocite
Cu2FeS4 Bornite
PbS Galena
ZnS Sphalerite
CuFeS2 Chalopyrite
FeS Pyrrhotite
HgS Cinnabar
AsS Realgar
As2S8 Orpiment
Sb2S8 Stibnite
FeS2 Pyrite
FeS2 Marcasite
FeAsS Arsenopyrite
MoS2 Molybdenite
:
.
) (Ag2S
. .
. = 2.5 2 = .7.3 .
. .
). %12.9 (Ag2S) (87.1% . :

. .
.

.
) (Cu2S

 . ( 91
) . . 91
. = .3 2.5 = .5.8 5.5
.
Sooty.
. Supergene deposits
. Hypogene
( )
.
.
.
(AgCu)2S Stromeyrite
.
) (Cu8FeS4
. . = .3 =
.5.08 5.06 .
. Purple
(CuS).
Hypogene. .

( ) .
.
.
.
.
.
) (PbS
). . (184
= .2.5 = .7.6 7.4 { }001 . .
.
. = %86.6 = %13.4
.

 . = .2
.
.
.
). () (

.
.
.
. .
:
.
:
.

:
. 10 )(1
. 50 : )(2
. 73 )(3
. 115 )(4

. 205
.
.
.
. " "Galens
][ ) (ZnS
.

.
= Wurtzite.
.4 3.5 = .4.1 3.9 { }110 .

 .
. . .
(Zn,Fe)S = %67 = %33 (ZnS).
. %18

.
. ( )
{ .}110
.

( ) .
. .
.
.
.
.
.


. .
) (CuFeS8
" Biephenoidal class "
. = .4 - 3.5 = .4.3 4.1 .
. .
= %34.5 = %3.5 = ) (CuFeS8
%35
.
= 2 .
.
. .
). (
.
.

 .

.

.
. .
.
: () () ()
( ) () .
: ... .
. .
. .

) ( ) (FeS

. = 4 4.58
.
( Pentlandite
) . .

.
) (CuS

. = .2 1.6 = .4.76 4.6
Iridescent. . . .
.

.
. .

.
.
) (HgS

 . .
. = .2.5 = .8.1 { .}101
. ( ).
.
.

.
( ) () () .
.
]) [AsS (
. .
. = 2 1.5 = .3.48
{ }010 . .
.

. .
.

. " "
.
) (Ag2S8
.
. = .2 1.5 = .3.49
{ .}010 . .
. .
.
. .
.
.
Sb2S8
. .
. ( )185

 . = .2 = .4.62 4.52
. { .}010 .
: . = %71.4 = %28.6
.
= .1
.
( )
.
.
.
.
( .)185

.
.

. .
) (FeS2
.
( .)186 ()
( )187 . .
= ( 6.5 6 ) . = .5.02 .
. .
= %46.6 = .%53.4 (FeS2). :
.
= 3 2.5 . .

.
( )
. ( ) .
.
Gossan ()
.
.



. .
.

.

. .
.
) (FeS2
) (
.
. .
. .
.
.
.
.

. . concretions

. .

) (FeAsS
.
. . = .6 5.5 = .6.07 .
.

.

.

.
.

 .
.
) (MoS2
.
. = .1.5 1 = .4.72 4.62 {.}1000
. . . .
. .

.

.

.
. ( )
.
. ()
.
. .

) (Sulfosalts
( ...) (
) .
() . ) (FeAsS
:
Cu2S.As2S8). ( (Cu8AsS4) 3
: 100
. ) Pyrargyrite (As8SbS8
. ) Proustite (Ag8AsS8
] Tetrahedrite [(Cu, Fe,Zn, Ag)12 Sb4 S13
) Enargite (Cu8AsS4

 ) Bournonite (PbCuSbS8
) (Ag8SbS8
) (

. = 3 2.5 = .5.8
(purple). ) (cherry .
) (Ag8AsS8
.
. = 3 2.5 = .5.5 .
.
[(Cu, Fe, zn, Ag)12 Sb4S18
) (
. .
. .
.4.5 6 =. = .5.1 4.6 .
:
.
( )
Tennantite.
= .1.5
. .

.
.
.
.
. .
. () .
(.)
) (Cu8AsS8

 . .
. = .3 = .4.4 . .
. .

.
) (PbCuSbS8
. . .
. . = .3 2.5 = .5.9 5.7
. . . .
.
.

.
.
.
.
( A
: ) B
) Cn2O ( H2O A2O
ZnO AO
Al2O8 Fe2O8 FeTiO8 A2O8
TiO2 SnO2 UO2MnO2 AO2
MgAl2O4 FeCr2O4 FeFe2O4. AB2O4

-
. Quartiz SiO2
. Cuprite Cu2O
. Zincite ZnO
. Corundum Al2O8

. Hematite Fe2O8
. Ilmenite FeTiO8
. Rutile TiO2
. Cassiterite SnO2
. Pyrilusite MnO2
. Uraninite UO2
. Spinel MgAl22O4
. Magntite FeFe2O4
. Chromite FeCr2O4
-
. Opal SiO2nH2o
. ) Manganite MnO(OH
. Goethite HFeO2
. ) Limonite(
. ) Bouxite(
. Psilomelane

) (SiO2
: 573
573
) ( 573
( )
( .)188 .
.
( )190 left-banded ( )189 right-banded
.
. .
.

 = .7 = .2.65 . .

. ( ) . .
: . = %46.7 = %53.3
(inclusione) ..
. .
.
.
.
:
Coarsely crystalline varieties. 1-
Crystalline varieties. 2-
Fibrous varieties. -
granular varieties. -
1-
). ( Rock crystal: 191 1-
. Amethyst: () 2-
.
. Rose Quartz: 3-
. .
. Smoky Quartz: 4-
. . . Milky Quartz: 5-
. Ferruginous Quartz: 6-
. Citrine: 7-
() Cat's eye: 8-
.
Tiger's eye: 9-
). (
: 2-

.
-
. . .2.64 Chalcedony: 1-
. .
.
) Agate: ( 2-
( .)192 .
.
. ) Carnelian ( 3-
. Chrysoprase: 4-
. ) Onyx: ( 5-
: -
. . ) Jasper: (
Chert: ) Flint (
. .
.
.
.
.
.

. .
Soil.
. Rock crystal
.
. Maine
.
..
.


.


: ()
). ( ) ( Tridymite: 1-
). ( ) ( Crystobalite: 2-
) (SiO2
(
. . 1470 ) . 870
= 7 = .2.26 . .
. .

.
.
) (SiO2
( ) .
() . = .7 =
. . .2.30 Stable) 1470 . . (
) (SiO2.nH2O
. = .6 5 = (Amorphous) .2.30
. .
. .
. . )) (Opalescnce (
(SiO2.nH2o) . : .
.
: : .
.
. . :
(Siliceous sinter) : : ( ) .
: (Geyser).
. :
Diatomaceous earth. ( )

 .
.
. .
. .
.
. ) (Filler
) (Cu2O

) (Capillary
. . = 4 3.5 = .6.1 . .
.
.
.
) (ZnO
.
= .4.5 4 = .5.6 { :}0101 .
. . .

( ) ( )
.
) (Al2O2
Ditrigonal scalenohedral .
. . .
= ( 9 ) .
. = .1.02 { }1000 {.)1101

.
= %52.9= .%47.1 . ): (Al2O8
.
:
. Ruby:

 . Sapphire:
.
. :
. Emery:
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
. .
) (Fe2O2
.
Iron roses). (
Kidney ore.
. Martite . Specular
= .6.5 5.5 ( 5.26 .) . .
. .
. . Red ochre.
%70 = .%30 (Fe2O8). :
.
. .
Indian red. ( ) .
.

. ( )
( ) . .
.
.

 . Elba

. .
%54.8
%.88 .
( ) .
Precambrian ) (42
.
Specularite
. ( )
.
.
.
. ( ) .
. ""
) (FeTiO8
. .
. .
= .6 5.5 = .4.7 . . .
. .
= %36.8 = 31.6 = .%31.6 FeTiO8. :
. .
. .

.

.


.
.
( )
.

 .
. . %47.7

.

) (SnO2
.
Elbow-shaped.
. .
= . 7- 6 = ( 7.1 6.7 )
. . . .
= %78.6 = .%21.4 SnO2 :
.
.
.
.
.
.

. (
) . ( Wall rock)
( ) .
.
.
.
.
( )
.
). (
) (TiO2
. .
"" . . = 6

 .3.5 = .4.25 4.18 .

.

.
.
.
.
.
) (MnO2
.
). . (193
= ( 2 1 ) () = .6.5 6
.4.75 =. . .
= %63.2 = .%36.8 . . : MnO2.
.

. .
.

. ( )193
.
.
. .
.
.
. 29
( )
. 1
5
.
.

 ... .
.
. .
] [(Fe,Mn) (Nb, Ta)2 O6
. .
= .6 7.9 5.2 . {}010
. . .

.
. ( ) .

.
( ) .
.
) (UO2
. .
Pitchblende.
= .5.5 = ( 9.7 9 ) .8.5 6.5
. . .
U8O8 UO2 . : (UO2) .
Auto oxidation.
.
.
Ph205 , U238 Ph206 .
( ) ( ) . U2085
.
.
.
=
. ) (pitchy .
. .
.

 . (
). ) (
) (MgAl2O4
. = .8 =
4.1 3.5 . .3.55
. . : . .
.
.
() .. .
.
.
.
( )
Refractories.
) (FeFe2O4
.
.
= .6 = .5.18 .
. . Lodestone
= %73.4 = .%27.6 . FeFe2O4. Fe2O4
.
). (6
.
()
. .

Al2O8 . Dendritite
Emery.
.
Harz .
. . Bwshveld Elba
.
. ( )%15 .
) (FeCr2O4

 . .
.
Pitchy. = .5.5 = .4.6
. . .
= %32.0 = .%.68 : FeCr2O4.
.

.
.

.

.
Coal tar .
.
.


) (MnO.OH
. . .
. = .4 = (Bundles). .4.3 .
{ .}010
. .
.
. .
. .
. ( )
) (HFeO2

. = .5.5 = 4.27 3.3 .
{ .}010 .
. .

 . (FeO) OH .
.
.

.
Laterite. Iron bat. Gossan

. ( )
.
.
. .
.
.
.

[FeO (OH).nH2O] Limonite

.
. .
. . . .
. .
) (
Gibbsaite (
. ) Diaspore Boehmite
. .3 -1
.2.55 2 . . (
).

. .
. Baux
.
.

) ( Psilomelane

. = - 5
.7. = .4.7 3.7 . . .
( )
.

j,-Br, Halides . Cl, -F


). (
. ) (Bond
.
.
.
Covalent
Carnalite. Atacamite .
:
. Halite NaVl
. Silvite KCl
. Ceragyrite AgCl
. Flurite CaF2
. Cryolite Na2 AlF6
Atacamite Cu8Cl(OH)8
. Carnalite KMgCl26H2O
) (NaCl
. .
Rock salt. .

 = .2.5 = .2.16 { }001 .

. . .
: . = %39.3 = %6.7
.
= .1.5 () . .
(. ) .
:
. 1-
. 2-
3-
.
. 4-
.
.
( )

.

. .
.

.

.
. %70
.... .

.
) (KCl
.
. .
Solid Solution ) (A 0.97 ) (A 1.33
. = .2 = .1.99 { }100 .

 . . .
.
.
.
.

. .
) (AgCl
. .
. = .3 2 = .5.5 . .
. .
Enrichment .
.
.
) (CaF2
. ( )194
{ }111 . ( )194 .
.
= .4 = .3.18 { .}111 . .

.
. Fluorescence
%. = %51.3 = (CaF2) 48.7 :
= .3 () .
" etches "
.

.
. .

.
.

 ( )
.
.
.
. Flux
. ( )
. Prisms
) (Na8AlF6
. . = .2.5
= .3 2.95 .
. .
.
( )
. .
] [Ca2Cl(OH)2
.
() .
( ) = .3.5 3 = .3.77 3.75 {.}010
. .
.
.
.
.
.
) (KMgCl8.6H2O
. . . = .1
= . 1.6 .
. . . .

.


) (

.
CO32-
0.121 .
)+( 4 )-(2
. ( ) .
.
.

.
. .
.6
Calcite type .
.

. 74 55
. 90
.
.
.
.

) (electrovalent ( )
.
. .
.
()
. ( )80.74 ( )80.80

( )80.66 : (
) ( ) ( )
.
). (80.99

( .)%23
Solid Solution
.
.

.
6 .
. .
.

. .
:
. 1-
. 2-
. 3-

-
Calcite CaCO3
Magnesite MgCO3
Siderite FeCO3
Rhodochrosite MnCO3
Smithsonite ZnCO3
-
Aragonite CaCO3
Witherite BaCO3

 Strontianite SrCO3
. Cerussite PbCO3
-
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)12
2-
Natron Na2CO3-1IO H2O
3-
Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2
. Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)3

1-
-
( )
. . .
Isostructural. - 75 . 72
) (CaCO3

 . (
: 300 ) .
. 1-
). (195
( )196 2-
.
). (3- 197
. .
}2111{. { }1000 { }1101
). (198
) . = .3 = .2.72 {( }1101 = 74 55
{ .}2110 .
. .
. . .
. Icelandspar
= %56.0 = %44.0 CaCO3 :
( )
.
.
( ) 3 .
.
Meigen's test ""
Lilac red.
.
-1 : -2 -3 -4
. -5 -6 -7
Dog : : 1-).( Satinspar) ( Icelandspar ) ( teeth Spar
: 2-
. :
( Compact 10
%14) (
Bitomirous )

 Coquina
). ( Pisolitie
: 3-
. Marl
: 4-

:
-
.
-
.
Egyptian Albasterx -
( ) .
.
. : 5-
: ( 6-
)
.
: 7-
.
.
.
.

.
) (MgCO3
.
. = .4.5 3.5 = .3.2 3 { }1101
. . = 7235
= %48.8 = %52.5 MgCO3. :
( )
. .

 .
.
.
.
. Eubea
. :
.
.
) (FeCO8
. .
. = .4 3.5 = ( 3.96 )
) ( ) . {( }1101 =73
. . .
= %62.1 = %37.9 = ) (FeCO8 :
.%48.2
.
.
). (
. ""
Clay ironstone


" " .
.
.
.
) (MnCO8
. .
..2 =). . = .3.6 3.45 {( }1101 = 73
. .
( )4 " "
]. ([ )4 6.5 5.5


. .
) (ZnCO8
.
. . = ( 5- 4.5
) . = .4.45 4.30 { }1101 . .
. .
.
.
. .
. .

-

.
Isomorphous series 120
. : Pseudohexagonal.
) (CaCO8
.
. .
= .4 - 3.5 = ( 2.95 ) .
{ }010 { .}011 .
.
= %56.0 = CaCO8 :
.%44.0.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
. .

 .
( Flower of iron).
() .
. . ""
) (BaCO8
{ }011
. .
. = .3.5 = .4.3
{ }010 . . . = 3 2.5
.
. . .

) (SrCO8
. .
. . = .4- 3.5 = .3.7
{ .}011 . . .
.". "
" "
.
.
.

) (PbCO8
. .
. = .3.5 -3 = ( 6.55
. ) . .
( = .).1.5
.

.
. .
.

 -
] [CaMg(CO8)2
. .
.
) = .4 3.5 = .2.85 {( }1101 = 73 45
.
. .
CaMg (CO8)2 :
.1:1 .
. Ankerite
.
. .
. . .
.
.
.

.

) (Na2CO8.10H2O
.
. = .1.5 1 = .1.478 { }100 }010{ .
. . .
. 34.5 . .
Thermonatrite. Monohydrate

). . ( 32
.

] [Cu2CO8(OH)2

 .
. .
= .4- 3.5 = .4.03 3.9 { .}100
. . . 3
.
.
( )
.
.
( ) (55
. )
] [Cu8 (CO8)2(OH)2
. .
( ) . . .
.
() .
. .
.

NaNO8
] [
.
... . .
. = .2 1 = .2.29 { }1101 .
. . . .
( = )1 .
.
.
Caliche .
.

 .
. .
) (Borates
Colemanite Ca2B6O11.5H2O
Kernite Na2B4O7.4H2O
Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O

) (Ca2B6O11.5H2O

. = .4.5 4 = .2.42 { }010 . .
. .
Tertiary.
.
.
.
.
) (Na2B4O7.4H2O
. . = .2
= .1.95 { }100 { .}001
. .
Na2P4O7.5H2O). (
.
.
.

]) [Na2R4O7.10H2O (
. . .
= .2.5 2 = .1.7 . { .}001
. .

 . .
). ( 327

( )
SO42- .
.
( : :
: )
.
. { }012{ }100
.

. .
. { }010
( ) .
.
.
:
. )2( . )3( . )(1
:

Barite BaSO4
Celestite SrSO4
Anglesite PbSO4
Anhydrite CaSO4
. Glauberite Na2Ca(SO4)2

. Gypsum CaSO4.5H2O
. Chalcanthite CuSo4.5H2O
. Epsomite MgSO4.7H2O
. Melanterite FeSO4.7H2O
. Polyhalite K2Ca2Mg(SO4).2H2O

Abtlerite Cu3(OH)4SO4
. ALunite KAl3(OH)6(SO)2

) (Barite Group
.
. :
.
:: = 1.210:1:1.627
:: = 1.276:1:1.561
:: = 1.288:1:1.571
) (BaSO4
.
( ) . = .3.5 3
= ( 4.5 ) . { }100 {. }012

.
= %65.7 = .%34.3 BaSO4 :

.
= 4 () .
.
.
. .

 .
.
Rose crystals
.
.
%80 ( )
. (
. )Lithophene
). (
) (SrSO4
. .
.
= .3.5 3 = .4 3.9 . { }100
{ . } 012 . .
. = .4 3.5
). (

.
.
. .
.
) (PbSO4
. .
.
. = 3 = ( 6.4 6.2) .
{ }100 { .}012 ( ) (
. ) . .

.
.
.
.

) (CaSO4

.
= .3.5 3 = .2.98 2.89 { }100
{ .} 001{ }010 .
.
= .3
.
. .
.
.
.
). (
.

.
] [Na2Ca(SO4)2
. . = .3 - 2.5
= .2.85 2.75 { }100 . . . .
.
.
.

) (CaSO4.2H2O
. .
Satinspar . .
( 332 Alabaster
. Selinte)
= ( 3 ) . = .2.22 .
{ }010 . ()001

 ( .)110 .
.
= .2
.

.
.
.
. .
. Folding
.
.
.
). (
Piaster of Paris .
.
] [CuSO4.5H2O
) (Blue Vitreol
{.}111
. = .2.30 2.12
. = .2.5 . . .
.
. .
) ( ] [MgSO4.7H2O
. . .
. = .2.5 2 = .1.68 { .}010
. . . .

.
] [FeSO4.7H2O

 . . .
. = .2 = .1.898 . . .
. . . .
.
.
. .

] [K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4.2H2O
. . .
.
= .3.5 - 3 = .2.78 { }101 . .
. . .
.. .
. .

] [Cu3(OH)4SO4
. .
. . = .4 3.5
= .3.9 { } 010 . . . .
.
.

) ( ] [LAL3(OH)6(SO4)2
. .
. . = 2 = .2.8 2.6 { .}1000
. .
.
.
.

 KFe8(OH)6(SO4)2 Garosite
.
) (PbCrO4
. .
= .3 2.5 = .6.1 5.9 { .}011 . .
. .

.

) A ( = 0.62
.

.
( :)
( .)
) A (0.99

(PbMoO4). ) (PbWO4 ) (CaMoO4A ) (CaWO4
:
. Schelite CaWO4 . Wolframite (Fe2Mn) WO4
. Wulfenite PbMoO4
(Fe2Mn) WO4
. . .
. = .5.5 5 = bladed .7.5 7
{ .}010 . .
.
] [(Fe2Mn) WO4. :
= %76.3 = WO8 (MnWO4) . )(FeWO4
.%76.6 4 3 . .
. .

 .
. .
.
.
.
.

.
.
) (CaWO4
.
. = .5 4.5 = .6.1 5.9
. . . .
. ( ) . = 5
.
.
. .
.


( PO4 8- . ) (Tetrahedral
(Polymerized). )
.


.

.
.
.
.
.

: 1-
]) Monazite [Ce,La,Y,Th)PO4 (
: 2-
) (
Vivianite Fe8(PO4)2. 8H2O
Erythrite Co8(A8O4).8H2O
( ) 3-
Amblygonite LiAl(F.OH)PO4
) (
Apatite Ca5(F,Cl.OH)(PO4)3
Ca5F(PO4)3
Ca5Cl(PO4)3
Ca5(OH)(PO4)8
) (
Pyromorphite Pb5Cl(PO4)3
Mimetite Ph5Cl(AsO4)8
Vanadinite Ph5Cl(VO4)3
) Lazulite MgAl2(OH)2(PO4)2 (

( ) 4-
) (
Turquoise CuAl6(OH)8(PO4)4.2H2O
) Wavellite Al8(OH)3(PO4).5H2O (
) (
Torbernite Cu(UO2)(PO4)2.8-12H2O
Autunite Ca(UO2)(PO4)2.10-12H2O
) Carnotite K2(UO2)2 (VO4)2.3H2O (


] [Ce,La,Y,Th)PO4
. .
( .)199 = .5.5 5 = .5.3 5
. { . }100 . .
] [(Ce,La,Y,Th) PO4 :
%20
. (ThSiO4) Thorite

). (

. ( ) .
.
.
.
..
%20 %1
. %9 3


] [Fe3(PO4), .8H2O
. . .
. = .2 1.5 = .2.68 2.58 { }010.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
] [Co3(ASO$)2.8H2o

 . .
. = .2.5 1.5 = .3.09 { }010 .
. . . .

.
.



] [LiAl(F,OH)PO4
. .
= .6 = .3.1 2 { }001 {.}011
. { . }001 .

. .

] [Ca5(F,Cl,OH)(PO4)3
. . .
.
. .= ( 5 ) . = 3.15
.3.20 { .}1000
. .
Ca5F(PO4)3. :
Ca5(OH)(PO4)3 .Ca5Cl(PO4)8
.
. Collophane
.
.
.

 ( . )5.5 5
(
).

: () ()
() .
.
) (Pb5Cl(PO4)3
. .
. . =
.4 3.5. = .7.1 6.5 . .

.
) (Pb6Cl(AsO4)3
. .
. . = .3.5
. = .7.2 7 . .

.
] [PbCl(Co4)3
. .
. . = .3 = .7.1 6.7
. .
.
.
[MgAl2(OH)2(PO4)2
. .

 (azure = .6.5 5 = .3.1 3.0 { }011 .

. blue) .
MgAl2(OH)2(PO4)2. :
.
. . .
. . . .
.
.
.
. . .
.

) CuAl5(OH)8(PO4)2H2O (
. .
. = .6 \ 2.6
.2.8 . . .
CuAl6(OH)8(PO4)2H2O . :
. .
( ) . .
. . .

. .
.
.
.
] [Al8(OH)8(PO4)2.5H2O
.
. = .4 3.5 = .2.33 } }011
.}101{. . .
.
. .

 Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2.8- 12H2O
. . .
.
= .2.5 2 = .3.22 { . }100
. { .}100 .
. . .
.
.
.
[Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2.10-12H2O
. .
. = .2.5 2 = .3.2 3.1
{ .}100 { .}100 . .
. . .

. .
] [K2(UO2)2(VO4)2.3H2O
.
.
= ( 1.03) . { .}100 .
.
.
.
. .
.

Silicates

25 40
.
. 90

 100 50 25
8 .
.

.

.

.

.

.
.


.
(A,1.32) .0.38 ) (A,42
.

( )201 200
. ""

: .


.
.
" Polymerization "
.
:
.
.
.
( ) .
( .)211

 Bowen
. ( )
(
. )
.
0.386 (A,0.51) .
. ( 21
) 168 .


. .


:
. 1-
. 2-

.
.
. .
.
A,0.99 A0.97 .
8 .

.


.
.
.

. .
( )30
.
:

XmYn(ZpOq)Wr
RA:RO Z 4 Si4 0.42 0.300 4 Al8 0.51 0.364 Y 6 Al8 ) (A +
0.51 0.364 6 Fe8 0.64 0.457 6 Mg2 0.66 0.471 6 Ti4 0.68 0.486 6 Fe2 0.74 0.559 6 Mn2
0.80 0.571 X 8 Na 0.97 0.693 8 Ba2 0.99 0.707 X 8 - 12 K 1.33 0.950 8 - 12 Ba2 1.34 0.957
8 - 12 Rb 1.47 0.050
( :)30
). Y 8 ( X
O Z 4 6
P q . Cl- F- ) (OH W
. .
:
)XmYn (ZpOqWr
: K (Mg,Fe)8 (AlSi8O10) (OH)2


(:) p:q .
.
Mg2SiO4 1930
MgSiO8 H2SiO4
H2SiO8.

.
). : (31
4:1 Nisosilicates O:Si SiO4
Zn4(Si2O7)(OH)2.H2O 7:2 Sorosilicates (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
) Be8Al2(S6O18 3:1 Cyclosilicates
Phyllosilicates Ca2Mg5(Si8O22)(OH)2 Mg2Si2O6 11:4
Mg8(Si4O10)(OH)2 5:2
SiO2 2:1 Tectosilicates
( :)31
: : : : : : (
). :


SiO4
.
] [(Mg,Fe)2-SiO4 ( )
USiO4). ( ) ThSiO4 ( ) ZiSiO4 (
SiO4. ) (OH
. ( )
A A8B2(SiO4)8 ( )
. B
Al2SiO5
.

TiSiO5 .
.
:

) Phenacite (Be2(SiO4
) Willemite Zn2(SiO4

) Forstirte Mg2(SiO4
) Fayalite Fe2(SiO4

Pyrope Mg8Al2(SiO4)9
Almandite Fe8Al2(SiO4)8
Spessartite Mn8Al2(SiO4)8
Grossularite Ca8Al2(SiO4)8
Andradite Ca8Fe2(SiO4)8
Uvarovite Ca8Cr2(SiO4)8


) Zircon Zr(SiO4
] [A;2SiO5
Andalusite Al2SiO5
Sillimanite Al2SiO5
Kyanite Al2SiO5
Topaz Al2(SiO4)(F,OH)2
Stairolite Fe2Al6O7(SiO4)(O,OH)2

Chondrodite Mg5(SiO4)2(OH,F)2
) Danolite CaB(SiO4)(OH
) Sphene CaTiO(SIO4

) (Be2SiO4
. = .8 7.5 = .3.00 2.97 { .}0211 .
. .
.
) (Zn2SiO4
. = .5.5 = .4.2 3.9 { .}1000
. . .
(. ) .
. .
.

] [(Mg,Fe)2(SiO4


. . = .7 6.5
= ( . 4.4 3.27 ) . . .
. .
])[Mg,Fe2(SiO4 :
Fayalite Mg2SiO4. Forstertite Mg2SiO4
.

.
Donite . .
. .
.
. Peridot
. St. John's Island

.
". " Olive green

,
.
( )202 ()203
). (204
= .7.5 6.5 = ( 4.3 3.5 ) .
.
. .
A A8S2(SiO4)8 :
B
: . ( )3688
3.58
3.59 4.69 4.33
3.80 3.86
: . .
.

 : .
). . ( ) (
. :
: . ( )
). (
: .
.
. :
3.5 3 (
.) .
. .
.
.
.
. .
. .
.
.
( ) .
.

. ]) [Zr(SiO4
( .)207 206 205
.= .7.5 = .4.68 .
. . .
ZrO2 .Zr (SiO4) = 67.2% SiO4 = 32.8%. :
. .
.

.

 .
.

.

.
Th(SiO4).

] [Al2SiO5
] [Al2SiO5
. .
= .4.5 = .3.20 3.16 .
. Chiastolite .
.
. ""
.
.
.

) (Al2SiO5
. .
. = .7 6 = .3.22 {.}010
. . .
. .
.
) (Al2SiO5
. .
. = 5 7 .
{ }001 . = .3.66 3.26 .
. .
). . (

] [Al2(SiO4)(F2OH)2
. .
.
.
= .8 = .3.6 3.5 { .}100 .
. .
. ( )8

. .
. ()
. . .
]) [Fe2AlqO6(SiO4)4(O2OH2
. . ( . )208
. ( .)210 209
= .7.5 7 = .3.75 3.65
. .

.

] [Mg5(SiO4)2(F2OH)2
. . . = .6.5 6 = 3.1
.3.2 . . .
: . .
. :

.
]) [SaB(SiO4)(OH

 . .
. = .5.2 5 = .3.0 2.8 .
. .
.
.
) ( ]) [CaTiO(SiO4
. .
. = .5.5 5 = .3.55 - 3.4 . .
. .

.
. .
] [(Al,Fe)7O8(BO8)(SoO4)3
. . = .7
= .3.36 3.26 { }001 . .
. . : .
.
.

SiO4
. ( .)212 211 7:2
.
Si2O7. . SiO4
Y . X
.
X2Y2O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH).
( )
.
: (
. ) SiO4 , Si2O7 .
Zu4(SiO7)(OH)2.H2O

 . . .
. .
.
= .5 4.5 = .3.5 3.4 { .}011 .
. . .
.
. .

X2Y8O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)
). (32
.
Al,Fe'',Be,Mg,Mn Al,Fe'',Mn Ca Al,Fe' Ca Al Ca Y X
Ca,Ce,La,Na
( :)32
) Ca2Al8O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH
. . . =
.6.5 6 = .3.27 3.25 . .
. . .
Thulite.

.
. Zoisite
.
) Ca2(Al,Fe)Al2O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH
. . .
. . = .7 6 = .3.45 3.25
{ }100 { .}001 .
. . 4 3
. .

 .
. .
. .
( ) Piedmontite
.
)) X2Y8O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH (
. . = .6.5 5
= .4.2 3.5 .
. . .

. .
.
.
) Ca10(MgFe2)Al4(SiO4)6(SiO7)2(OH)4 (
. .
. . =
.6.5 = .3.45 3.35 .
. . .
.
.
Ca2Al2(Si3O10)(OH)2
. .
() . = .6.5 6 = .2.95 2.8 .
.
.
.

SiO4 . ( )
: .3:1
( )214 Si8O9: 1-
BaTiSi8O9 Benitotite .

 ) (OH BO3 Si4O12: 2-

Axinite.
( )213 Si6O16:
.
:
Bernitoite BaTiSi8O9
) Axinite Ca2(Fe,Mn)Al2(BO8)(Si4O12)(OH
:
) Beryl Be8Al(Si6O61
) Cordierite Ma2Al8(AlSi6Oa8
Tourmaline XY8Al6(BO3)8(Si6O18)(OH)4
Chrysocolla CuSiO8-nH8O
BaTiSI8O9
. . = .6.5 = .3.6
. Sapphire = .3
. Natrolite
) Ca2(Fe,Mn(Al2(BO8)(Si4O12)(OH
( ) . .
. = .7 6.5 =
. 3.35 - 3.27 . .
.
. ( )
)) Be8Al2(Si6O18 (
. . .
Maine . .
. 27 25
= .8 7.5 = .2.8 3.75 . .
. .
. .

 .
.
.
. ( )
.

. .
)) Mg2Al8(AlSi5O18 (
. .
. . = .7.5 -7 = .2.66 2.60
.}010{ Pleochroism. . ( ) . .
. .
.
.
). ( ) (
) (
. . ( .)216 215
Pedion. ( .)217
( ) .
.
= .7.5 7 = .3.25 3 .
. ) Schorlite (


.
: :
Y = Mg, Li, Fe, Al. X = Ca , NaYX8Al5(BO8)8(Si6O18(OH)4
. .
.

.
. .


.
.
.
Rubellite .
Indicolite.
. . :

CuSiO3nH2O
. . . = .4 2 = 2.0
.2.4 . . . .
. . ()
.
. .
) Dioptase Cu6(Si6O18)6H2O
.

SiO4
. ( ) . ( .)218
( )219 .
. SiO4
.3:1

. 11:4
) XY(SI2O6 Pyroxenes
( )218
) X Y ( .
X
Y .
.
X Y .
. X Y .
M(SiO8) X Y

 { }011 Ca(SiO8).
{ }001 )220( SiO8
100{}.
( ) (Mg,Fe)2(Si2O6) Mg2(Si2O6
) .
.
Amphibles

( )219 . Si4O11
{ .}011
. ( .)224 124 56
.
.
( X Y
) (OH( .
X X0-7H7-14Z16O14(OH)4 .
Y . ( ) .
.

.
.
( .)211
. .
Mg, Fe Mg,Fe Mg Mg X Y
Na Na Al Ca Fe Ca Mg
Mn,Al Fe,Ti Ca,Na Mg,Fe Li Al 'Fe
( :)33

. ( 87 93
) ([ )220 ( .])224

 ( .)33
.

) Enstatite Mg2(Si2O6
) Hypersthene (fe,Mg)2(Si2O6

) Diopside CaMg(SiO6
) Hedenbergite caf(Si2O6

) Spodumene LiNa(Si2O6
) Jedeite NaAl(Si2O6
) Aegirite NaFe(Si2O5

) Augite XY(Si2O5
) (Mg,Fe)2(Si2O6 Mg2(Si2O6) -
. 1:1
%13 5 FeO
%13 . FeO
. %10 Fe2(Si2O6).

. . = .5.5 = 3.5 3.2
{ .}011 87 93 .
. .
.
.
.
.

 ( ) ) Mg2(si2O6 ( )
(Mg,Fe)2(Si2O6).
) CaMg(Si2O6
. .
.
}. {100
= .6 5 = .3.3 3.2 .
{ }100 { .}001
{ .}001 . . Diallage
. . 4
:
Hedenbergite caf(Si2O6).
87
. 93

.
) LiAl(Si2O6
. . { }001
. .
= .7 6.5 = .3.20 3.14 { }011 87 93
. { .}001 .
. . . = 3.5
. ( )
.
. .
) (kunzite ) (HIddenite .
.
) NaAl(Si2O6
.
.

 = .7 6.5 = .3.5 3.3 { }001 87 93

. . .
. . = .2.5

..
.
.
) NaFe'(Si2O6
. . . = .6.5 6
= .3.55 3.40 { }011 87 93
. . . . = 3
.
.

. .
(Ca,Na)(Mg,FeFe'',Al)(Si,Al)2O6
. . ()223 222 221
. 87 93 .
.
= 6 5 = .3.4 3.2 { .}011 .
. . .
: .
. . = 4.5 4
.
). ( 87 93


.

) Mn(SiO8

 . { .}100
. = .6 5.5 = .3.7 3.4 {}/011{ }011
88 92 . . .
. . . = 3
.
. .
.
.
) Ca(SiO8
. . .
= .5.5 5 = .2.9 208 { }100
{ .}001 . .
. . . 4

.
CS2NaH(SiO8)3
. . .
. = .5 = .2.8 2.7 .
. { }100 { .}001 = .3 2.5
. .
.


.
(OH) . ( )391
.
56 124 ( )224
87 93 ( .)220
:
Anthophylite (Mg,Fe)7(Si5O22)(OH)2

 Tremolite Ca2Mg8(Si8O22)(OH)2
Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5(Si8O22)(OH)2

Riebecjite Na2Fe8Fe'2(Si8O22)(OH)2
Arfvedsonite Na8Mg4Al(Si8O22)(OH)2
Glaucophane Na2Mg8Al2(Si8O22)(OH)2

Hornblende X2-8Y5-7Z8O22(OH)2
(Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2
( . ) .
. = .6 5.5 = .3.2 2.85
{ }011 . . .
.

.
Ca2Mg5(Si8O22)(OH)2
. .
. = .6 5 = .3.3 3.0
{ }011 56 124 . .
. . Actinolite). (
: . %2
. ( ) 4 3
.

. .
.

.
. = .6 5 = .3.2 { }011 56
124. . . .

 : .
NaCa Si:AL,Fe'':Al,Fe:Mg. .
:
Ca2Na(Mg,Fe1)4(Al,Fe',Ti)(Al,Si)8O22(O,Oh)2
. = .4 .
.

.
. Amphibolite .
) (
phyllon
( ) .
. .
. ( )225
. Si:O 5:2 SiO4
) (OH
.
.

.
.
.
.
:
Apophyllite KCa4(Si4O10)F.8H2O
) (
Kaolinite AL4(Si4O10)(OH)8
Montmorillonite Mg,Al,(OH)(H2O)Silicate
Illite K.Mg,Fe,Al.(OH)Silicate

Muscovite KAl2(AlSi2O10)(OH)2

 Phlogopite LMg8(AlSi2)10)(OH)2
Biotite K(Mg,Fe)9(AlSi8O8)(OH)2
Lipidolite L2Li8AL8(AlSi8O10)(OH.F)4
) (Britile mica
Margarite CaAl2(Al2Si2O10)(OH)2
Ottrellite Fe,Al,Mn,(OH)Silicate
Chloritoid FeAL(ALSIO8)(OH)2

Chlorite Mg,Fe,Fe',Al2(OH)Silicate
Serpentine Mg6(Si4O10)(OH)2 Talc Mg5(Si4O10)(OH)2
Garnierite (Ni,Mg)SiO8.nH2O
Pyrophyllite Al2(Si4O10)(OH)2
Sepiolite Mg4(Si8O10)(OH)2.6H2O
) Vermiculite Mg,Fe,AL,(OH)(H2O)(Silicate
]) [KCa4(Si4)10)2F6H2O
. = .5 4.5 = .2.4 1.3
{ }100 . .
. . . 2
.

.
) Clay Minerals (
() .

. Plastic 256/1

" " .

 .
.
Al4(Si4O10)(OH)8
.
. = .2.5 2 = .2.63 2.6
{ .} 100
.
.
.
.
Soil . .
" " Kauling
.
Nacrite Dickite :
.

:
.
.
.

.
.
Sbales.

 . .
.

. 90
( ) . 60 120
{ .}100
.
KAL5(AlSi8O10)(OH)2
.
. ( ) 90
.
{ }100 . = .2.5 2
= .3.1 2.76 . .
. . = 5
.
.
. .
Sericite
.

.
.
.
. .
KMg8(AlSI8O10)(OH)2
. Magnesia mica.
. .
{ .}100 . = .3 2.5 = .2.86 .
. . .
5 4.5 =.

. .

 K(JMg,Fe)8(AlSi8O19)(OH)2
. .
.
.
{ .}100 . = .3 2.5 = .3.2 2.8 .
.
. . = 5
:
. .
.


.
) ( Glauconite :

.
) . ( Vermiculite
) . Berm (
.
K2Li8Al3(AlSi8O10)2(O,OH,F)4
. Lithia mica.
. .
{ .}100 = .4 2.5 = .2.9 2.8 . ,
. . . . = Lilac 2
.
.
. .
.

 CaAl2(Al2Si2O19)(OH)2
. . . = ( 5 3.5 ).
= .3.1 3.0 { }100 . . .
= .4.5 4 (brittle). .
.
(Fe,AL,Mn)(OH)Silicate
) . = .7 3 = .3.3 = .6 . (
.
Fe,Al(AlSiO5)(OH)2
. = .6.5 = .3.57 3.52 = .6
. . .
.

.
. ""
. :
(Mg,Fe,FE',Al)8(AlSi)4O10(OH)2.Mg(OH)6
.
.
. .
{ }100 . = .2.5 2 =
. 2.9 2.6 . .
. . . = 5.5 5
.

.
3 .
.

. .

) Mg8(Si4O10)(OH)2 (
. Steatite. . Soapstone
. .
.
{ .}100 . . = ( 1
) . = .2.8 2.7 . .
. .
. = .5 .
.

.
.
.
( ) .

().
] [Mg(Si4)10)(OH)8
. .
Antigorite :
CHrusotile.
. . 5 2 2.1 2.65 .
. .
.
.
.
. ()
.
Asbestos ()
. .
.
Verd Sntique marble.

] [(NiMg)SiO8.nH2O
. = .3 2 = Amorphous. 2.2
. 2.8. . . .

. ( ) .
.
Al2(Si4O10)(OH)2
. . .
= ( 2 1 ) . { .}100 .
. = .2.9 2.8 . .
. .
.
) Mg(Si6O15)(OH)2.6H2O (
.
. = . 2.5 2 = .2 .
. .
. . . = .5.5 5
.
.
) (
SiO4
.
. 2:1
). ((SiO2)n 226
.
. SiO4.
. ( ) ( )
( ) .
Al SI4O8 4 (SiO2)n n
] [K(AlSi8O80 ) (AlSi8O8 Si
).( ] [Na(AlSi8O80) (

 .
( ) .
: [Ca(AlSi8O8)].

Quartiz SiO2
Tridymite SiO2
Cristobalite SiO2

) Microcline K(AlSi8O8
) Orthiclase K(AlSI8O8

) Albite Na(AlSi8O8
) Anorthite Ca(Al2Si2O2

) Leucite K(Ali2SO6
) Nepheline (Na,K)(AloSO4
Sodalite Na4(AlSiO4)3Ol
) Lazurite (Na,Ca)4(ALSIO4)8(SO4,S,Cl
) Petalite Li(AlSi4O10

) Marialite Na4(AlSI8O8)8(Cl
) Meonite Ca4(Al2Si2O8)8(Co8


) Analcite Na(AlSI2O8)8(Cl
Natrolite Na2(Al2Si8O10)2.H2O
Cabazite (Ca,Na)2(Al2Si4O12).6H2O
Heulandite Ca(Al2Si2O18).6H22O
Stilbite Ca(Al2Si2O18).7H2O

). . (289 282

.
. .
.
. 6 . 2.76 2.55 90
KAlSi8O8 : :
CaAl2Si2O8.NaAlSI8O8
. BaAl2Si2O8
.

( ) 227 ( () () . 12 1 ( 2
). ) 20 2 ( 78

. KALSi8O8
:
. : .
. :
. :
. :
.

 KAlSi8O8
. . .
. ( )228
.
= .6 = .2.57 { }100 .
. { }010 . . .

.
.
.
.
( )
.
.

.

.
KAlSi8O8
( . 90
) .
. .
.
= .6 = .2.57 2.54 { }100 { }101
. ) . (90 89 30
Amazon stone. .
.
( )
.
.
.


.
NaALSi8O8
. CaAl2Oi2O8
.
Oligoclase 90 - 70 10 - 30 Albite 100 - 90 0 - 10 % %
Bytownite 30 - 10 70 Labradirite 50 30 50 70 Andesine 70 - 50 30 50
Anorthite 10 - 0 90 100 90

.

. {}010
.
Pericline
. .
= .6 2.62 2.76 ( )176 ( .)176
{ }100 { }010
. 95 12 94 12
.
. .
: .
CaAl2Si2O8NaAlSi8O8
. . 4.5 4
.

..
: ( )
. ( )
.


.
:
. .
.
: .
AVENTURINE OLIGOELASE.
. :
:
. Anorthosite
. :
: .
.

( )
.

.
.
.
( ) .
( )
( ) .
.
KAlSi2(6
. . ()
. . = .5.5 = .2.50 2.45 . .
. . .
.
NaAlSiO4

 . =
.6 5.5 = .2.65 2.55 { .}0101
. . .
. .
. (
).
.
:
.
Na8(AiSiO4)Cl2
. . . . =
.6 5.5 = .2.17 2.15 { .}011 .
. . . = .4 3.5

.
(Na,Ca)4-8(AlSiO4)8(SO4)1-2Hauynite :
Na8(AlSiO4)SO4 Noselite

) (NaCa)8(AlSiO4)8(SO4.S.Cl)2 (
. . . = .5.5 5 = .2.45 2.4
" Azure blue { }011 . . "
). . = .3.5 (
) (Lapis Lazulie

. . . .
) Li(AlSI4O10
. . .
= .6.5 6 = .2.4 { }100 . . .
. ( .)100 . . = 5
.

.


.
.
Marialite .
Meonite .
NaCl. )2(NaALSi8O8
CaSO4. CaCO3 )23(CalAl2Si2O8
.
.
( Werterite.) ()
) (
. = .6 5 = .2.74 2.65
{ . }011{ }001 .
. .
: :
: )(Na,Ca)4Al8(Al,Si)3Si6O24(Cl,CO3,SO4
= .3 (Ca,Na)4Al8(Al,SI)8Si6O24(Cl,CO3SO4) .
.

.
. .
Zeolites

.
. 5.5 3.5 .2.4 2.00

"" "" .
.
( )
AlO4,SiO4

 CHanedl ways .
.

.

. .
.
.
" " " "
.
( ) . Na2Al2Si8O102H2O
( )
. CaAl2Si8O102H2O

. Na2Al2Si8O102H2O .
" Na(ALSi2O6).H2O "
. .
. . = .5.5 5 = .2.27 .
. . = 2.5 .
. () .

. .
Na2(Al2Si8O19)2H2O
. . . .
. .
= .5.5 5 = 2.25 { }011 . . .
. .2.5 () . .
.
(Ca,Na)2(Al2Si4O12)6H2O
. . . = .5 4 = .2.15 2.05
{ }0111 . . . .3 ( )
.

.
Ca(Al2Si7O18).6H2O
. . = .4 3.5 = .2.02 2.18
{ .}010 . .
. . 3

.

Ca(AL2Si7O18)7H2O
. ( ) . . = .4 3.5 = 2.1
.2.2 { }010 . . . .
. .3
:

.
.
()
.
.
.

. (2925 2960
. ). .
2.5 .
7000
.
.
.
(
) ( ) ( ) ()
. .

 ( ) 3700
.
2000. .
.
. ( )
() .
.
.
300 .
.
()
.
.
( ) (
).

( ) .
()
(
).
.
.
:
. 1-
. 2-
. 3-
. 4
. 5-
. 6-
. 7-
. 8-

 1-
:

.
( ) (
) .) ( ) (
: ( ).
:
. () .

. 150
( )
.
1980 700 ( 149 )
( 111 ) ( 100 )
). . (

.
:

. .
. 150
: ( %40 ) ( )%45
( . )%15
. .
: ( )%22 ( )%21 ()%15
( )%13 ( )%12 ( .)%5
.
: . ( )1

)2( .

 )3( .
.

. ( )
: 1950
()
.

.
: ( )
60 .
( ) .
.
:
%2 %95
. .
( )
( ) .
. .
:
: ( ) .

. ( %88 80 )
( ) ( ) (
).


.
.

 :
.
( ) .
.


. .

.
.

). (
()
.
:

.
( 75 )
.
:
.
.
( )
. 25 / 20
( 20 ) . (
).
( 2.7 )
. (
) .

.
: .



. .
. ( 16 )
( ) .
. 76
: .
.
. 55 .
:
:

.
25 15 .
.
12 18 21 24 3 6 12

.
( 19 ) ( 12 (
. )
1940 ( ) .
. 925 75 .

.

. 200
.
.
( 22.5 22.4 21.5 : )
.
.

:
:
.
.
.
: .
""
( ) .
. .
. 6000
.
:

200
100 ( 150 ) . ( 1939
) "" .

.
.

.
.
. .
.
2-
() ( )
()
.

() .

 .
.
.
(:) ( )
. 1-
"" 2-
()..
. 3-
. 4-
. 5-
. 6-
. 7-
. 8-
. 9-
3-

. () .
.

. .

.

.
4

.

. ()
.


.
.

.

.
5-
:
. -2 ( ) -3 4 -5 1-

.
:
()
). (
6-
.

.
.
.
7-

.
1648 1490 . ( )
.
.
.
8-

 . :
( )
.

.
(
) .
. 1000
90
.

= 1
= 1
= 1.5 -1
= 1.5 -1
= 1.5 1
= 2 1
= 2 -1
= 2 1
= 2 1
= 3 -1
= 2 1.5

 = 2 1.5
= 2 1.5
= 2 1.5
= 2 1.5
= 2 1.5
= 2
= 2
= 1
= 2.5 2
= 2.5 2
= 2.5 2
= 2.5 -2
= 2.5 2
= 2.5 2
= 2.5 2
= 2.5 2
= 2.5 2
= 3.5 3
= 3.5 3
= 3.5 3
3.5 3
= 3.5 3
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5

 = 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 4 3.5
= 5 3.5
= 5 3.5
= 4
= 4.5 -4
= 4.5 4
= 5 -4
= 5 4.5
= 5 4.5
= 4 - 3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5

 = 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4-3.5
= 4.5-3.5
= 5-3.5
= 5-3.5
= 4
= 4.5-4
= 4.5-4
= 5-4
= 5-4.5
=5-4.5
= 5-4.5
= 5-4.5
= 5-4.5
= 5
= 5
= 5
= 5.5-5
= 5.5-5
= 5.5-5
= 5.5-5
= 5.5-5
= 5.5-5

 = 5.5-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 6-5
= 5.5
= 5.5
= 5.5
= 6-5.5
= 6-5.5
= 6-5.5
= 6-5.5
= 6
= 6
= 6
= 6
= 6
= 6
=6

 = 6
= 6.5-6
=6.5-6
= 6.5-6
= 6.5-6
= 6.5-6
= 6.5-6
= 6.5-6
=6.5-6
= 6.5-6
=7-6
= 7-6
=7-6
= 7-6
= 7-6
= 7-6
= 7-6
= 6.5
= 7-6.5
= 7-6.5
= 7-6.5
= 7-6.5
= 7
= 7
= 7.5-7
= 7.5-7
= 7.5-7
= 7.5

 = 8-7.5
= 8-7.5
= 8
= 8
= 8
= 8.5
= 9
= 10

= 1.6
= 1.7
= 1.75
= 1.95
= 2.99
= 2.55 2
= 2.4 2.0
= 2.0
= 2.09 2.05
= 2.15 2.05
= 2.2 1.9
= 2.14 2.09
= 2.2 2.1
= 2.16
= 2.30 2.12
= 2.20 2.18
= 2.30 2.12

 = 2.65 2.2
= 2.25
= 2.26
= 2.27
= 2.29
= 2.30
= 2.30
= 2.3
= 2.32
= 2.33
= 2.4 2.3
= 2.39
= 2.55 2.0
= 2.65 2.25
= 2.42
= 2.42
= 2.45 2.4
= 2.50 2.45
= 2.8 2.2
= 2.57 2.54
= 2.57
= 2.65 2.55
= 2.62 2.6
= 2.62
= 2.66 2.60
= 2.68 2.58
= 2.65
= 2.65

 = 2.69
= 2.8 2.6
= 2.8 2.6
= 2.71
= 2.74 2.65
= 2.72
= 2.9 2.6
= 2.76 2.62
= 2.9 2.6
= 2.74
= 2.8 2.7
= 2.8 2.7
= 2.85 2.70
= 2.76
= 2.8 2.75
= 2.78 = 2.9 2.6
= 2.9 2.8
= 2.9 2.8
= 2.85
= 2.86
= 3.1 2.76
= 2.95 2.8
= 3.0 2.8
= 2.98 2.89
= 2.95
= 2.95
= 3.2 2.8
= 3.0 2.95

 = 3.00 - -2.97
= 3.2 2.85
= 3.1 3.0
= 3.1 3.0
= 3.1 3.0
= 3.25 3.0
= 3.2 3.0
= 3.2 3.1
= 3.2- 3.0
= 3.2 3.15
= 3.20 3.15
= 3.20 3.16
= 3.18
= 3.2
= 3.3-3.2
= 3.3-3.2
= 3.4-3.2
= 3.37-3.25
= 3.36-3.26
=3.35-3.27
= 4.37 3.27
= 3.5-3.2
= 4.27-3.27
= 3.5-3.3
=3.45-3.35
=3.45-3.35
= 3.45-3.35
= 3.5-3.4

 = 3.45
= 3.55 3.40
= 3.55-3.4
= 3.48
= 3.49
= 3.6-3.4
= 3.5
= 3.60-3.45
= 4.3-3.5
= 4.27-3.27
= 4.2-3.5
= 4.0-3.6
= 4.0-3.6
= 3.70-3.58
= 3.75-3.65
= 3.7
= 3.8-3.65
= 3.77-3.75
= 3.77
= 4.7-3.7
= 4.0-3.6
= 4.0-3.6
= 3.88-3.83
= 4.3-3.5
= 4.3-3.5
= 3.9
= 4.3-3.9
= 3.97-3.95

 = 4.3-4.1
= 4.7-3.7
= 4.25-4.18
= 4.3
= 4.3
= 2.27
= 4.40-4.35
= 4.45-4.43
= 4.5
= 4.79-4.6 4.65-4.52
= 4.7-3.7
= 4.6
= 4.65-4.58
= 4.7
= 4.75
= 4.76-4.6
= 4.73 4.62
= 4.99-4.8 4.68
= 5-4.6
= 5.1-4.6
= 5.1-4.6
= 4.89
= 519-5 4.9
= 5.02
= 5.3-4.8
= 5.08-5.06
= 5.15
= 5.3-5.0

 = 5.59-5.4 5.39-5.2 5.18

= 5.5
= 5.5
= 5.79 5.56 5.55
= 5.8-5.5
= 5.68
= 6.0-5.5
= 5.9-5.8 7.3-5.3
= 5.9-5.8
= 6.49-6.0 5.85
= 6.1-5.9
= 6.1-5.9
= 6.0
= 6.07
= 6.2-6.0
= 6.3-6.2
= 6.4-6.2
= 7.3-5.3
= 6.99-6.5 6.33
= 6.55
= 6.68
= 7.1-6.5
= 6.8
= 7.1-6.7
= 7.49-7.0 7.1-6.8
= 7.2-7.0
= 7.5-7.0
= 7.99-7.5 7.3

-7.6 = 7.4
= 7.9-7.3
>8.0 = 7.78
= 8.2-8.0
= 8.10
= 8.9
= 9.7-9.9
= 9.35
= 9.8
= 10.5
= 19.3-15.5
= 19-14

. -1 :

. 2-
( ) : 3 () : 5.5 ( ) : 3- 7
.
. : = . =
:
. : 1-
. : ( )3( .)2( )1 2-
: ( )1 : (3- )1
( )1 .
.


. ( 2.5 ) 1- 439
. : ( 3.5-2.5 ) 2- 440
. : ( 5.5 ) 3- 442

. 1- 446 444
: 2-
. - : ( 2.5 ) 448-447
). - : ( 3.5-2.5
. 3- 450-449
. 4- 451-450
). - : ( 5.5-3.15
. 1- 454-452
. 2- 456-455
). ( 7-5.1 :
. 1- 458-457

2- 459-458 .
( 7 -).
1- 460 .
2- 461-460 .
()

Crystallography

Bragg,W,L.: Atomic Structure of Minerals. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1937.

Bunn,C.W.: Chemicak Crystallography. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1966.
Evans, R.C.:An Introduction to Crsytal Chemistry. The University Press, Oxford, 1966.
Maso, B.: Princilples of Geochemistry, 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1958.

Pauling, L.: The Nature of the Chemical Bond. 3rd ed. Cornell Univ. Press. Ithaca, 1960.
Phillips, F.C.: An Introduction to Crystallography. 4ht ed. Oliver and Boyd. Edingburgh,
1971.
Mineralogy
Bateman, A.A,: Economic Mineral Deposites.2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons. N.Y. 1950.
Bateman, A.M.: The Formation of Mineral Deposits. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y. 1950.
Bates,R.L.: Geology of Industrial Minerals and Rocks. Harper and Row, N.Y., 1960.
Berry, L.G., and Mason, B.: Mineralogy. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1959.
Deer, Howie, and Zussman: An Introduction to the rocl forming
Minerals. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y. 1966.
Ford, W.E.: Dana's text book of Minerlogy. 4ht ed. John Wiley and Sons. N.Y., 1932.
Hyrlbut, C.S.: Dana's Manual of Minerallogy. 18th ed. John Wiley and Sons. N.Y. 1971.
Kraus, Hunt , and Ramsdell: Mineralogy. 5th ed. KcGraw Hill Book Co., N.Y., 1959.
Kraus and Slawson: Gems and Gem Materials, 5th ed. McGraw Hil Book Co., N.Y., 1951.
Lindgren, W.: Mineral Deposits. 2nd ed. . McGraw Hil Book Co., N.Y.,1933.
Palache, Berman, and Frondel, Dana's System of Mineralogy. Vols I, andd II, 7th ed. John
Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1944,1951.
Petrology

Harker, A,: Metamorphism 2nd ed. Methuen, London, 1933.

Pettijohn, F.J.: Sementary Rocks. 2nd ed. Harper, N.Y., 1957.
Pirsspn, I.V. and A. Knof.: Rocks and Rock Minerals, 3rd ed. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.,
1947.