Engineering Failure Analysis 31 (2013) 442461

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Review

A review on the vibration analysis for a damage occurrence of a cantilever beam

Z.A. Jassim a, N.N. Ali b,, F. Mustapha c, N.A. Abdul Jalil a
a

Mechanical and Manufacturing Department, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia Civil Department, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia c Aerospace Department, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Identication of defects in structures and its components is a crucial aspect in decision making about their repair and total replacement. Failure to detect the faults has various consequences, and sometimes may lead to a catastrophic failure. The conducted research work reported analytical and experimental investigations on the effects of a crack on the cantilever steel beam with circular cross section. The objective of this review is to quantify and to determine the extent of the damage magnitude and the location of the cantilever beams. In analytical study, nite element method (FEA) software was used in developing the model. The results showed that, by monitoring the change of the natural frequency it is a feasible and viable tool to indicate the damage occurrence and magnitude. Unlike for small crack depth, the natural frequencies are not a good damage detector. Mode shapes indicated good sensitivity to detect the damage magnitude for all crack parameters. Frequency Reduction Index (FRI) and Modal Assurance Criteria (MAC) were found to be in order a feasible tool to nd the magnitude of the damage in beam structures. While, Coordinate Modal Assurance Criteria (COMAC) and Curvature Change Index (CCI) were used to predict the location of the crack tested beams and proved to be feasible. 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 18 June 2012 Received in revised form 8 February 2013 Accepted 8 February 2013 Available online 7 March 2013 Keywords: Vibration analysis Damage detection Cantilever beam

1. Introduction Cantilevers are considered as one of the important components in engineering applications. Examples of these applications are the cantilevers used in mechanical and aerospace models such as xed-wing aircraft, helicopter fan blades and solar array. Moreover, the civil construction engineering uses these structures in cantilever bridges and balconies. Machineries and construction structures should be more exible and capable of withstanding high levels of stress. Hence, the best cantilever beam designs are based on the optimization of multiobjectives, namely, maximum strength and long lifespan coupled with minimum weight and cost effective. A number of non-destructive techniques are available to detect faults and defects in a structure. Their use and reliability consequently became an important factor in the evaluation of the safety of the investigated structure. Many engineers and scientists have devoted their time and efforts towards developing new, more reliable, efcient and less tedious detection techniques [1]. It is well established that, vibration theory is correlated with the modal parameters, namely (frequency, damping, and mode shapes). These physical system consists of the structure physical properties (mass, stiffness, and damping). These model parameters are the solutions of the homogeneous part of the differential equation of motion of a physical model expressed

Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 172390105.

E-mail address: nisreen_sofo@yahoo.com (N.N. Ali). 1350-6307/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2013.02.016

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in terms of its mass, damping, stiffness, acceleration, velocity, and displacement. Consequently, any changes in the physical properties of the model due to damage is directly proportional changes in the model parameters. Recently, vibration-based structural damage identication has gained a lot of interest in engineering research [2]. The basic theory of vibration-based structural damage identication is the changes in structural properties such as stiffness and mass. The presence of damage inuences the vibration response as well as the dynamic properties of the given structure. The dynamic properties of a structure in general are: natural frequencies, mode shapes and damping ratios. These properties are used as the damage indicators of the tested structure. Detecting the structural damages at an early stage enables timely maintenance and repair works to extend system lifetime. In order to ensure structural safety and reliability, it is necessary to perform long-term, mid-term and short-term continuous health monitoring of the structure during its service life. One of the dynamic property is the stiffness, which could lead to changes in the mode shape as well as reduction in frequencies and increases damping. Based on these changes, its could be possible to locate and determine the magnitude of the crack. Most researchers used this technique because it can be easily observed as cited by Ref. [3]. In vibration-based structural damage identication, it is very critical to extract model parameters information based on structural response measurements. Global information of a structure provides accuracy and critical data for determining the structural status of the structure, which reects on the dynamic properties namely the natural frequency. Experimental model analysis has been widely used in the engineering research community to extract structural model parameters such as natural frequencies, mode shape and damping ratio from the vibration measurements. These model parameters are necessary for structural damage classication and structural health monitoring. The effects of structural damage can be classied as linear or nonlinear [4]. Denes a classication system for damage identication methods as follows: Level 1: Damage is detected. Level 2: Damage is localized. Level 3: Damage severity. Level 4: Prognosis.

2. Vibration analysis Based on the changes in the structure dynamic properties to detect the damage, the vibration based damage detection (VBDD) is a technique to health monitoring the structure which studied experimentally and numerically. Ref. [5] used an evolutionary algorithm to identify multiple cracks in cantilever beam as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Based on the changes of the Eigen frequencies and some strain energy parameters to detect the cracks which modeled as a rotational spring, natural frequencies change were connected to the damage index vector due to the presence of the cracks. The bees algorithm, a swarm-based evolutionary optimization technique used to optimize the objective function and to nd the damage index vector. The positive components of damage index vector illustrated the number and position of the cracks. To nd the crack depths, cracked cantilever beams were conduct to ensure the integrity of the proposed method in an experimental study. The method can be used to predict the number of cracks as well as the cracks sizes and locations. Ref. [6] have introduced the effects of geometric and elastic characteristics of cantilever beam on the natural frequency. Differential quadrature method was employed to analyze the free vibration of a cracked cantilever beam resting on elastic foundation. A line spring model used to simulate the functional graded material cantilever crack (Fig. 3). The authors results agree with the previous studies result. Different parameters of crack (location, side and length) in cantilever rectangular plate have investigated by Ref. [7] to study their effect on the vibration characteristics. In addition, the natural frequency and mode shape were analyzed. The study used two model functions: rst, a cantilever rectangular plate intact from beam functions combination method, second, a corner functions presenting the discontinuity of displacement and slope along the crack. They showed that, the method of Ritz can takes as a modal function to obtain the natural frequencies and mode shapes. The vibration displacement and natural frequency of an atomic force microscope (AFM) cantilever with a crack were obtained by Ref. [8]. The study included analyzed the effects of crack exibility, crack location, and tip length on the vibration displacement of the cantilever (Fig. 4). To simulate the crack, a rotational spring was used after divided the cantilever into two parts. Due to the crack interaction the corresponding boundary conditions were coupled. The results showed a significant effect on the vibration response due to the crack occurs in the AFM cantilever.

Fig. 1. Geometry of cantilever beam having multiple cracks.

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Fig. 2. Modeling multiple cracked cantilevers beam with rotational springs.

Fig. 3. Cracked functionally graded beam on a WinklerPasternak foundation.

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of a cracked atomic force microscope (AFM) cantilever nano machining a sample.

Fig. 5. Cantilevered beam having a damage case induced at elements 4 and 12.

Ref. [9] has proposed a two stage method to identify the site and extent of multiple damage cases in a cantilever beam (Fig. 5) within two tests. A modal strain energy based index (MSEBI) is the rst stage method, used to exactly locate the ultimate damage of a beam, which calculated depending on the model analysis extracted from a nite element modeling. The amount of real damage is determined in the second stage, using a particle swarm optimization (PSO) depending on the rst stage results. Therefore, the combination of MSEBI and PSO can provide a dependable implement through the numerical results, to precisely identify the multiple cracks in structure. An algorithm method with two stages has proposed by Ref. [10] to identify the locations and extents of multiple damages in a cantilever beam (Fig. 6). Element damage probability ordering vector (EDPOV) was the rst stage, which included the all structural elements. These elements ordered regarding to their damage. Subset selection unit (SSU) was the second stage which employed the rst stage, and then the corresponding set of nonlinear equations was solved. Through, a comparison between the presented algorithm results and the authors literature, the algorithm method has achieved the actual damages successfully. Ref. [11] has studied the wavelet based damage detection technique by using a single notch in different depths of a cantilever beam height (Fig. 7). The results presented experimental and numerical analyses of damage detection according to the higher order modes. The analysis detail included the rst eight modes and the inuence of the mode order on damage detection by the wavelet transform. Ref. [12] have reported an investigation for different crack depths detection of a cantilever aluminum beam under a static displacement with the spatial wavelet transform. Practically, the method enhanced to detect the crack location. Gabor

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Fig. 6. Cantilever beam having 15-elements, in which elements 4 and 12 are damaged.

Fig. 7. Geometry of the analyzed beam.

Fig. 8. Finite element meshing of a cracked cantilever beam.

Fig. 9. The deection of the cracked cantilever beam from FEM.

wavelet used to analyze and identify the static prole of cantilever beam which the crack subjected to static displacement. When the crack was 26% of the beam thickness, the spatial wavelet transform approved it effectiveness to identify the damage in the beam. Figs. 8 and 9 illustrated FE meshing and the deection in the beam. Ref. [13] analyzed the free vibration for uniform and step cracked beams with circular cross section and presented a novel numerical technique (Fig. 10). The authors explained that the knowledge of model data of cracked beams have formed an important aspect in assessing the structural failure. In additions, they found that locations and sizes of crack can notably inuence the model features, i.e. the effect was clear on natural frequencies and mode shapes of the cracked beams. From the author result, the effect of the crack was increased to words the xed end. This effect decreased when the crack moved to the free end, due to the bending moments which concentrate in the xed end. Single and two cracks in cantilever beam (Fig. 11) analysis under the effect of free and forced vibration have veried the crack by Ref. [14]. Suitable information about the detection of single and two cracks were provided from the free vibration analysis results, while, the single crack only can be predicted by force vibration analysis. To describe the changes in location and depth of crack, the dynamic response of force vibration is better than the dynamic response of free vibration. As a conclusion; the depth of crack increased and the natural frequency decreased when the beam is in both cases (single and two cracks). The reduction in the natural frequency is less when the crack location moves to the free end. It was found that the direction of the cracks have an effect on dynamic properties, where the presence of cracks in the one-way impact is greater. In case of several cracks in various directions, this will reduces the impact on the dynamic properties and the decline is less. Therefore, when location of crack at the top it will be affected more than when the beam has two cracks in different sides (top and bottom). Ref. [15] proposed a numerical model that combined the nite element and component mode of synthesis methods for the model analysis of beams with circular cross section and multiple non-propagating open cracks. Geometry of circular cross section beam for multi cracked and nite element model illustrated in Fig. 12.

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Fig. 10. Geometry of the beams with a crack: (a) stepped cantilever beam; (b) uniform cantilever beam; (c) two-step simply supported beam.

Fig. 11. Finite element modeling of the cracked beam.

Ref. [16] has investigated the dynamic analysis depending on the impact shock method of beam with crack. The effect of location and the depth of crack investigation have been done experimentally. The study aimed to collect the information of different depth and different location of crack in cracked beam by vibration analysis. The experimental results evaluated with nite element model constructed by ANSYS software, the results comparison were within a good agreement. The ndings of the study were: a. The natural frequency increased and the amplitude of low frequency decreased when the crack location was close to the xed end. b. The amplitude of vibration increased and high frequency decreased when the depth of crack increases due to the stiffness reducing which is inversely proportional to the depth of a crack.

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Fig. 12. Geometry of circular cross section beam: (a) multi-cracked; (b) nite element model.

c. High accuracy was obtained. Ref. [17] investigated the inuence of transversal cracks. The major aim of the study was to investigate crack effects by taking into account the nonlinear dynamical behavior due to the breathing transverse crack in order to obtain some indications that might be useful in detecting the presence of a crack in rotating system. The change of the shaft frequencies, as well as the harmonic component of the dynamical system response, and the evolution of the orbits are the principal effects due to the presence of a crack in a shaft. Ref. [18] presented an investigation on the effects of cracks on the dynamical characteristics in a cantilever composite beam (Fig. 13). Two methods: the nite element and the component mode synthesis used to model the problem. The crack sections, has been divided the cantilever composite beam into several components. The effect of the depth and location of the cracks on the mode shapes and natural frequencies of the beam with transverse non-propagating open cracks, are explored. The results presented an adequate method for the vibration analysis of cracked cantilever composite beams. Ref. [19] obtained the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a cracked beam with rectangular cross sectional by using the nite element method. For a cracked beam, a new shape interpolation function has been successfully developed to compute the vibration modes, which can perfectly satisfy the local exibility conditions at the crack locations (Fig. 14). When compared with analytical results found the new stiffness matrix obtained using the overall additional exibility matrix can give more accurate natural frequencies than those resulted from using the local additional exibility matrix. Ref. [20] presented a new technique to compute the frequencies for vibrating beam. The transverse open crack with randomly nite element number was used in the study. The dimension reduction of the matrix was the aim of the method used. The authors demonstrated mathematical analysis which showed the determined equation could be written in a very simple way for any number of cracks. An analytical and experimental investigation presented by Ref. [21] to study the effect of a transverse crack on the dynamic properties for cantilever beam. They provided a relationship between the changes in mechanical impedance and frequencies for exural vibration which is related to the size and location of the crack. The presence of the crack led the mechanical impedance of the beam changes substantially (Fig. 15). The size and location of the crack were estimated, depending on the combined test of frequency and mechanical impedance changes. Ref. [22] presented a method to analyze an inuence of two cracks in cantilever beam upon the frequencies of natural vibrations. Two cases of cracks were studied: double-sided under the cyclic loadings and a single-sided which was under the effect of uctuating loadings (Fig. 16). Fortran 77 language was used to carry out the numerical calculations. The cantilever beam, which was affected upon the vibration frequencies, was analyzed for both cases and the magnitude for two cracks. From results, the relationships found between the magnitude, location of the cracks and rst frequencies of cantilever beam were obtained as followed:

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Fig. 13. Geometry of the cantilever composite beam: (a) multiple cracks; (b) number of nite elements.

Fig. 14. A typical cracked beam element subjected to axial force, shearing force and bending moment (rectangular cross sectional beam).

Fig. 15. Model of the cantilever beam with a crack at the clamped end.

1. The location of cracks affected the natural frequencies of vibration. 2. In two cracks with different depths, larger depth of crack has more effect on the frequencies. 3. Crack with double side has smaller effect on the natural frequencies compared with single crack in the same depth and location. 2.1. Vibration analysis using EulerBernoulli beam theory Based on energy method, an analysis have been done by Ref. [23] to detect, localize , and quantify multiple cracks according to EulerBernoulli multi-stepped beams. Natural frequencies used to measure and estimate the un-cracked mode shapes.

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Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of a beam with two cracks.

The cracks modeled as rotational springs and reveal a relationship amongst natural frequencies, crack locations and depths. Numerical examples for a two-step cantilever beam were presented to illustrate one, two and three cracks to authenticate the method (Fig. 17). Regularly, the Mode shape and static deection are extremely similar in congurations used to identify the damage in beam (Fig. 18). EulerBernoulli cantilever beam with a crack was used in Ref. [24] investigation. The potential scatter in actual measurements and three-dimensional elastic nite element simulation used to validate the approach (Fig. 19). To identify damage in beam, these features were provided a theoretical basis for best use [25] has presented an efcient and simple method to detect a multiple cracks in a beam (Fig. 20). The nite element method depends on Euler Bernoulli theory used to solve the model of crack when simulated as a mass-less spring. Newton Raphson method used to solve the inverse problem for the size and location of the crack. Two dimensional nite element (2D FE) modeled by ANSYS software used to simulate the beam. The Vibration amplitude measurements were obtained from 2D FE model (Fig. 21). Double and triple cracks in beam veried via numerical examples. Free vibration of multiple cross section steps of cantilever beam have been investigated by Ref. [26] theoretically and experimentally. The results of the experimental test compared with EulerBernoulli solution as well as the nite element using ANSYS software. Investigations have been done for Timoshenko beam which used nite element for 2D shell and 3D solid. The result comparisons between the nite element model beam and experimental test were modest agreement. An analytical study on the free and forced vibration presented by Ref. [27] and reported an adopted homogeneous Euler Bernoulli beams containing open edge cracks (Fig. 22). The study was on three kinds of beams; cantilever, hingedhinged, and clampedclamped beams to obtain analytical solutions of natural frequencies and dynamic deections. It was found that the presence of the axial compressive force and the edge crack effect; the natural frequency decrease as well as thee dynamic deection increases. Edge crack have great inuence on the natural frequency especially when it is located at some specic positions. The free vibration and the dynamic response are much more affected by the axial compression than by the edge crack. The axial compression has much more effect than edge crack on free vibration and dynamic response. The effect of mass attachment on the transverse vibration characteristics of a cracked cantilever beam investigated theoretically by Ref. [28]. Based on BernoulliEuler equation to govern the free vibrations of the cracked beam, they used a rotational spring to present the crack and to model the transverse vibration (Fig. 23). A comparison between results has depended on the changes in frequencies in two cases: beam without crack and beam with crack carrying the point mass. It was observed from results that the natural frequency could be useful to identify the cracks in beams.

Fig. 17. Cantilever beam analysis: (a) a multi-step beam with a crack at the ith step; (b) a crack modeled by an equivalent rotational spring.

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Fig. 18. Static deection of cantilever beam: (a) concentrated loading and (b) uniformly distributed loading.

Fig. 19. Cracked cantilever beam modeled with a single edge crack: (a) a cantilever beam with a single-edge crack; (b) a two-segment model with a massless rotational spring; (c) tip-concentrated loading and (d) uniformly distributed loading.

Fig. 20. Beam with cracks.

Fig. 21. Two dimension nite element model.

Ref. [29] proposed modeling method to transverse vibration. The method solved the differential equation of EulerBernoulli for two slender beams, with and without crack. Each beam content two segments: one segment was uniform in depth and the second with a linearly variable depth. A rotational spring was considered for crack section in cracked beam. The inverse method employed was to detect the damage according to the size and location of crack. Natural frequency was used as input. The accuracy of the proposed method was illustrated by a number of numerical examples. The results improved the error in prediction of crack location and crack size as (<3%) and (25%), respectively.

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Fig. 22. A cantilever beam with an open edge crack under a moving load.

Fig. 23. Cracked cantilever beam with a point mass.

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Fig. 24. Structural model.

The aim of Ref. [30] research work was to evaluate the force response of an EulerBernoulli cracked beam. They used many numerical examples concerning several case studies of cantilever beams with a single crack. The nite element method was used to develop a mathematical model of the beam (Fig. 24). The method assumed the nonlinearity to introduce the crack as a structures stiffness matrix during the vibration. The linear differential equation of motion has been solved through the harmonic balance method and Fourier analysis. It was found that, the resonance amplitude peak was increased when the crack size increase and the position is closed to the clamped end, in contrast, the resonance frequency is as decreased. Ref. [31] have analyzed the vibration for cantilever beam with crack under the effect of harmonic force. By EulerBernoulli nite elements with two nodes and two degree of freedom, the undamaged parts of beam were modeled. Through the beam analysis, the damage could be found and it was dependent on the size and location of the crack. They reported that it could be possible to identify the structural damage according to the shape, value of function, position and size of crack. Therefore, it is possible to get more information about damage detects. 2.2. Vibration analysis with fatigue crack A new method was introduced by Ref. [32] to detect the fatigue damage localization in an aluminum cantilever beam (Fig. 25). A different size with different location, the damage has been realized in the beam. Based on measured modal parameters, the analysis included an attempt of damage identication with the most often used damage indicators. To dene the new damage indicators (frequency change based damage indicator, Hybrid Damage Detection method), by using the changes in natural frequencies and mode shape (measured or modeled) as the measurement of frequencies is much less time waste in comparison to total mode shape measurement. The dynamic behavior of a structure with a fatigue crack changes with the level of the excitation force, from this idea [33] have reported a new method to identify the damage in a cantilever beam. They proposed a real fatigue crack which does not require relative measurement on an integral structure, and they did a several measurements on a damage beam with at different level of excitation forces (Fig. 26). The authors have employed the frequency domain to calculate the differences between the dynamic behavior of beam with a fatigue crack at the low excitation and one at the high excitation. The nite

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element analysis with experimental results showed a well agreement to dene the location and level of the crack through using the damage index method (Fig. 27). 2.3. Vibration analysis using Timoshenko beam theory Ref. [34] have developed a measurements method for the crack localization and sizing in a beam from the free and forced response (Fig. 28). The beam modeling for transverse vibrations was used by Timoshenko beam theory. Free and forced vibration (harmonic excitation) for beams cracked analysis using nite element method (FEM). From the measurement of the fundamental natural frequency and force response measurements, the location and the size of the crack have been found. For estimation of bounded exibility coefcients, a regularization technique has been adopted. Ref. [35] investigation included the changes in the magnitude of natural frequencies and model response introduced by the presence of a crack on an axially loaded uniform Timoshenko beam using a particular member theory. The theory was demonstrated by two illustrative examples of bending. First, on bendingtorsion coupled beams with different end conditions. Second, on which the inuence of axial force, shear deformation and rotator inertia on the natural frequencies is studied. From results, noticed that the larger crack has the more signicant effect on the frequency when cracks of different depths are considered.

Fig. 25. A scheme of the specimen and excitation methodology.

Fig. 26. Experimental set-up.

Fig. 27. Finite element model representing the damaged cantilever beam structure.

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Fig. 28. A cracked beam element in a general loading.

Fig. 29. Geometry of cracked cantilever beam.

The vibration characteristics of a cracked Timoshenko beam are analyzed by Ref. [36]. They applied two methods: component mode synthesis and nite element. The beam divided into two segments using a exibility matrix (Fig. 29). The theory of fracture mechanics derived the forces as the inverse of the compliance matrix. The calculations used the stress intensity factors and strain energy. Timoshenko beam theory modeled each substructure using nite element with two nodes and three degree of freedom. The presented approach which was applied, lead to the development of design implementation that satised the precise analysis of nonlinear interface effects. 3. Damage magnitude Many previous researches included analytical, theoretical and experimental studied by using the dynamics properties to determine the damage magnitude. 3.1. Using the frequency for assessment Two approaches were done to detect the crack by using the vibration tests namely; open crack model which depends on change in the parameters of model and the breathing crack model focusing on nonlinear response characteristics [37]. Presented a procedure and suggestion to estimate the damage in structure for cracked cantilever beam by measuring the rst and second harmonic amplitude. The study approximated by nite term polynomial series and response amplitude under harmonic excitation. A numerical simulation for two different damage levels used to illustrate the method. It was an accurate estimation provided for the damage through the study, even when the crack size was very small. An experimental and numerical vibration-based damage detection (VBDD) technique in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) was studied by Ref. [2]. The experimental work successfully detected small scale damage under forced harmonic excitation. The dynamic analyses by using the nite element model of the steel-free bridge deck were performed to investigate the implications of using random forced vibrations. It was found that the likelihood of successful damage localization based on the severity of the damage, the number of trials used to obtain the average mode shape, the location of damage relative to the nearest sensor, the distance between the damage and the support, and the magnitude of measurement errors. A method that depends on the repeatability of measured mode shapes was proposed to calculate the probability of successful damage detection and localization.

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Cantilever beam (Fig. 30) with crack was investigated by Ref. [38] depending on kurtosis analysis to identify the crack. The mode of the fundamental vibration of cracked beam analyzed the size and the location of crack. Due to the rapid change in the spatial difference in analyzed response, the crack location was computed. In addition, the cracks size was associated to the kurtosis evaluation. The numerical results conrmed by applying the shape mode for a cracked beam through experimental tests. The position and the size of crack were predicted with suitable accuracy by using the data of experimental tests. A new method was proposed by Ref. [39] to detect the crack in beam depending on instantaneous frequency (IF). The study investigated the dynamic behavior for the beam with breathing crack (Fig. 31). The research was carried out under harmonic excitation with experimentally and theoretically results. The response data of the simulation and experimental test were analyzed using MATLAB. The relation between the depth of crack and the main difference of instantaneous frequency was established. The instantaneous frequency was a good indicator for the size of crack. Ref. [40] adopted an investigation method included an experimental and analytical to identify the crack location and depth of uniform beam (Fig. 32). The linear fracture mechanics theory was developed by authors. The cracked beam constructed and modeled using nite element to determine the dynamic properties (mode shape and frequency). The results of an experimental and theoretical analysis showed that the position and the size of the crack have an effect on the rst and second natural frequency in cracked beam. In addition, the location of crack has a signicant effect in case it is located at xed end; hence the reduction in frequency was higher. Their study provided a procedure for the crack size prediction. Ref. [41] presented a veried method experimentally and theoretically depend on the measurements of the dynamic properties to predict the position and the size of the multiple cracks. Two and three cracks in a slender for aluminum alloy cantilever beam were considered with a different location and size of cracks as in Fig. 33. The crack was represented as a rotational spring through the analysis depending on the energy method. The divided segment which was considered, were associated with a damage index in theoretical prediction, based on the standard relation between the size and the stiffness of the crack. The adopted method was in a good accuracy to predict the location of crack and lowers for prediction the size of crack. Multi crack in a cantilever beam detected by frequencies formulated in a nonlinear optimization problem formulation, using MATLAB function was reported by Ref. [42]. For the frequency equation, the crack simulated as a spring model depending on the dynamic stiffness of beam with crack. The set parameters of crack to be predicted included the depth and the location as well as the probable cracks. The numerical results for the three studied cases (one, two and three cracks) in cantilever beam (Fig. 34) illustrated the acceptably and efciency related to their proposal. Ref. [43] proposed a method to compute the cracks location and depth in cantilever beam with double crack as in Fig. 35. They found that, the presence crack caused a signicant change in the anti-resonance frequencies. Thus, anti-resonance changes gave extra details about the crack appearance which balanced the change of natural frequency; this additional information could be used to detect the crack. As equivalent spring the crack was modeled to connect the beams segments. Ref. [44] have investigated the location of a damage in cantilever beam with non-propagation crack by inspecting the frequency vibration. The numerical application applied on cantilever cracked beam, which showed a higher sensitivity for the nonlinear behavior of rotational degree of freedoms coefcient. The authors reported that by using this coefcient measurement the presence of the crack location can be estimated. Ref. [45] proposed new procedure which was suitable to predict a small crack. They investigated an efcient method for multiple damage location in beam structures. They applied two methods using nite element model (FEM) simulations on beam structure. First, they computed changes in exibility and exibility curvature of the beam with various damage patterns on a reinforced concrete beam. They also compared sensitivities of exibility and exibility curvature for closely

Fig. 30. Cantilever beam: (a) with crack; (b) cracked cantilever beam model.

Fig. 31. Geometry of the cracked cantilever beam.

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Fig. 32. Schematic model of beam.

Fig. 33. Experimental set-up.

Fig. 34. Modeling of multiple cracked beams.

distributed damage patterns of various extents. Flexibility curvature was recommended for multiple damage location due to closely distribution of damages. Secondly, they conrmed the relationship between the changes in analytical frequency and relative frequency by FEM analysis. The experimental work and determined the cracks location and depth have been investigated by Ref. [1]. Seven aluminum beams were used, in each two sets beams; xed end for the rst set and simply supported in the second set. A simple method was presented and discussed to predict the cracks depth and location depending on the changes in frequency and changes in the amplitudes of the frequency response function (FRF) of the beam. Different locations of crack were initiated in the position nearest to the xed end moving to the free end. From the results, it was found that the vibration behavior of the beams was inuenced by the depth and location of crack and the number of mode. A crack simulated as a rotational spring combined with transverse matrix method (TMM), a method presented by Ref. [46] to model a vibration of cantilever beam with multi crack. The method was presented based on frequency measurements to predict in EulerBernulli cantilever beam with circular cross section included multi crack. Each segment of the beam considered to be related with the parameter of the damage. The segments number was limited due to the cracks that could be handled. The authors work was depending on the parameter inuence of damage and it continuity along the segment length which could be predicted.

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Fig. 35. Cantilever beam: (a) with crack; (b) double-cracked cantilever beam model.

Ref. [47] investigated experimental and analytical deication of crack in cantilever beam depending on wavelet analysis. The size and the location of the crack evaluated using wavelet transform for fundamental mode of vibration. Due to the rapid changes in the spatial difference of the response, the crack location was determined. The intensity factor was important to estimate the crack depth; the factor related the crack size to wavelet coefcient. Ref. [48] have detected the crack in the vibrating rod by knowing the damage induced in a pair of frequencies. The experimental and analytical investigation with same boundary condition has been done. The crack simulated as spring connection between two segments, depending on the sensibility of the analysis. The results agree well with steel rood cracks analysis. A new method developed by Ref. [49], depending on rotational spring model and transverse matrix method for crack to analyze the natural frequency of beam with random crack number. For beam with multi-crack, the equation of frequency applied in the method, was obtained by computing 4 4 dimensions matrix. The frequency equation investigated based on the inuence of location, depth and number of cracks. Decreasing the time for natural frequencies estimating was one of the benets of proposed method. Ref. [50] illustrated the model behavior for cantilever beam with opening crack (Fig. 36) based on the vibration state. Spectrograms of the response were used to explain the damping and time draft of the natural frequency. Three vibration states observed within the study which related to the cracks depth; rst state, the crack was opened and closed alternately; second state, with a partially opened crack, and third state, the force acting with closed crack alternately. The phase spectrogram and transform method was developed to calculate the accuracy to show the behavior of beam without crack, nonlinear stiffness slight generated by the clamping. Ref. [51] investigated the crack position and magnitude by examining changes in the dynamic behavior of the structure. Timoshenko cracked beam theory was developed to model the structure used nite element analysis. To get the mass matrix for beam with an edge crack (Fig. 37), they used transverse displacement and rotational for shape function. The mass matrix and stiffness matrix which was affected in presence crack were investigated too. The proposed procedure was to identify the cracks in beam using the data of model test. The effect of crack on the local exibility has been ignored because the transverse crack surface considered always opened. Ref. [52] proposed a new method to detect the location and the depth of crack in the structure easily. They used Eigen frequency measurements to identify the location and depth of crack in an examined frame structure. It has been approved that there is a signicant effect of crack parameters on the dynamic behavior of the beam. This inuence was mainly based on the location and the size of crack. The method depends on the measurements of the rst two or three Eigen frequencies of the structure. The location and the depth of cracks can be estimated by plotted contours. Ref. [53] studied a cantilever rectangular cross section beam with transverse crack. The transverse crack was uniformly along the beam width as shown in Fig. 38. Analytical results used to nd a relation between the cracks depth and location, with the measured vibration modes. The estimated cracks depth and location with acceptable accuracy has been done by amplitude measurements between two points in vibrating structure at one of its mode, the analytical solution, and frequency of dynamic response. The method based on the model characteristics measurement to identify the crack. The method features needs two locations to measure the amplitude, it is suitable for dimension structures, and it is easy, simple and accurate method to carry out in site with simple devise. 3.2. Using mode shape for assessment (MAC) Mode shape vectors are used for graphical display of deformation behavior of the structure. The underlying principle in using mode shapes for identifying defects in structure when there is a limited damage. Therefore, the derivatives in the mode

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457

Fig. 36. The equipments set-up.

Fig. 37. Geometry of cantilever beam with an edge crack.

Fig. 38. Cracked cantilever beam specimen.

shape will be change at the damage position. The estimation of the frequency will be easy by taking measurements at a point on the structure. In addition, to get a mode shape; measurements have to be taken at several points on the structure. When the number of measurement increased the accuracy estimation of the mode shape will be greater. To identify the crack location Ref. [54] have used the change in fundamental mode shapes. A joint of local spring, the crack modeled between cracked and un-cracked shaft. The crack in beam was simulated by several authors and used curvature and mode shape to nd the location of crack. A criterion that measures mode shape changes in the whole structure is termed as modal assurance criterion (MAC). Ref. [55] established the fact that Nodal line MAC, which is a MAC based on measured point close a nodal point for a particular mode was a more sensitive indicator for changes in mode caused by damage to the structure. However, he concluded that the suitable way to detect the position of damage is by comparison of the relation of change in the mode shape in the examined the mode shape and resonance frequency. The modal assurance criterion (MAC) has been used by several authors as a damage indicator. The amplitude can be described in any resonance frequency as a mode shape. For analytical and experimental structural dynamic area, the different relations with MAC were developed as a good indicator to nd the information of spatial model. Several studies have been done to study the change in mode shape and detected the presence and location of damage. The related assurance criteria for the correlation between two modes, Ref. [56] presented in an overview of the use of MAC values. The dynamic properties (frequency and mode shape) are important and they are used as validation criteria for vibration test data to update nite element model. A numerical example and a benchmark study with real measured data were presented by Ref. [57]. The study revealed the advantages of the enhanced energy based on criterion in comparison to the traditional MAC. The pure mathematical MAC used to improve by additional physical information of the numerical model in terms of model strain energies. Single-number

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measures of mode shape changes have been proposed to detect damage. The model assurance criterion (MAC) is a common single-number measure. For two modes shape in the un-damaged and damaged states / and /00 , respectively, the MAC value is dened by the following equation:

P 2  n   j1 /j /00 j MAC Pn 2 Pn 002 j /j j /j

where / is the mode vector for data set one, /00 is the mode vector for data set two, j is the number of degree of freedom and n is the equal to the degrees of freedom dening the mode shape. The MAC value therefore, indicates the degree of correlation between two modes and varies from 0 to 1, with 0 representing the case where there is no correlation and 1 for the case with perfect correlation. An indication of damage in the structure could be interpreted by the deviation from 1 for a MAC value derived from a comparison of two mode shape measurements on a given structure [58]. The possibility of detecting damage using a comparison between the vector of measured change in frequency due to damage and the vector of predicted changes in the natural frequency at a known location was investigated by Ref. [59]. To compare the mode shape by connecting the relation between MAC and the Multiple Damage Location Assurance Criterion (MDLAC), Ref. [48] used the equation of motion of a simple beam to calculate the size and location of the crack in beam using a pair of Eigen-frequencies. To identify the location of crack between the un-cracked and cracked beam, the change in mode shape used by Ref. [54]. As a local spring joint, the crack was modeled. The change in mode shape is more sensitive indicator than the change in frequencies for damage in structure [60]. The change in MAC values was used to compare between undamaged and damage of mode shapes. To detect the damage in structure, MAC was the rst systematic investigation proposed by Ref. [61]. For the structure with or without damage, a statically indicator was relating the mode shapes without using of a prior nite element model. The author used the Modal Assurance Criteria MAC, to determine the limit of correlation between mode shapes. Using the different schemes, the mode shapes of structure were divided; MAC across the different techniques was used to localize the damage of structure. 4. Damage localization The previous researches included analytical, theoretical and experimental studied by using the dynamics properties to determine the damage localization. 4.1. Using mode shape (COMAC) The Coordinate Modal Assurance Criterion (COMAC) is the difference in mode shape vectors between the damage and the control cases. The data of theoretical and experimental tests for concrete beam were used to verify the model characteristics by Ref. [57]. The theoretical model based on Timoshenko and Euler Bernoulli theories and obtained results were compared with the experimental results. In their study, methods namely; Co-ordinate Modal Assurance Criterion, Modal Assurance Criterion, Frequency Changes and the Modal Curvature (COMAC, MAC, FC and MC) have been used. Depending on the parameters of model, the identication of these methods was investigated. Through the comparison between the four methods, it was clear that the frequency changes method was not completely able to predict and detect the damage in the beam. The value of MAC can detect the change in the beam stiffness. While, COMAC and modal curvature methods were evaluated the changes in beam stiffness of each degree of freedom. According to the comparisons, the modal curvature was the best method for damage identication. Fig. 39 shows the relation between the 1-COMAC versus degree of freedom. Residual error method in movement equation was evaluated by numerical analysis. This method used to quantify and identify the damage in beam Ref. Ref. [62]. The method was depending on the change in dynamic properties of the beam due to the damage. The authors presented two methods; coordinate modal assurance criterion (COMAC) and changes in curvature. The efciency of the residual error method approved the value and the location of the damage in the structure. The system development to a health monitoring for damage detection, an experimental results for frame work presented by Ref. [63] depending on changes of the dynamic properties in engineering structure. For damage detection and

Fig. 39. The relation between the 1-COMAC versus degree of freedom.

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459

Fig. 40. The relation between COMAC and measurement point.

identication of the location, MAC and COMAC methods were used. The analysis results showed that the Eigen frequency is affected by crack accumulation in beam. The sensitivity of MAC factor was less than sensitivity of Eigen frequency against the crack damage. The COMAC factor was good tool to detect damage and the location in a structure. Fig. 40 illustrated the relation between COMAC and measurement point. The MAC values could be used to indicate that the mode was beneting more by structural repairs Ref. [64]. Moreover, as well as the COMAC values, MAC could be good indications of the presence and location of the repairs. Using MAC and COMAC values were successful to nd the damage location, depending on whether or not the modes and measured locations used in the analysis are adequately reecting the damage. COMAC is differentiated from the MAC definition as it gives local information, as well as combining information from different modes. The COMAC at modal co-ordinate j using m modes is dened in the following equation:

P 2  n   j1 /j;i /00 i; j  COMACj Pn 2 Pn 002 i1 /j;i i1 /j;i

where / is the mode vector for data set one, /00 is the mode vector for data set two, i is the denote the values of jth mode shape at a point, j is the number of degree of freedom and n is the equal to the degrees of freedom dening the mode shape. Another criterion in damage detection is COMAC that identies the coordinates when two sets of mode shapes does not agree [65]. If the model displacements at co-ordinate j from two sets of measurements are identical, the COMAC value equals one for this co-ordinate. The smallest COMAC value at any point indicates the most likely location of damage, [61]. 4.2. Using curvature change index (CCI) Curvature change index (CCI) is the difference in mode shape curvature between the damage and the control cases. Ref. [57] presented many methods to detect the damage and location in structure. One of these methods called mode shape curvature; it is good method to describe the location of damage. Due to the damage in structure which caused the reduction in stiffness, the curvature increased. Measuring the amount of changes in curvature can be estimated the location of damage. The modal curvature method is the foundation for non-destructive damage nding for many dynamic methods. A modal curvature is more sensitive to detect the location of damage compared with model displacement. Hence, from the second derivative of model displacement and modal curvature it is possible to detect the location of damage. The equation for curvature at location (x) can be represented by the following equation.

K x

M x EI

where K(x) is the curvature at a section, M is the bending moment at a section, E is the Youngs modulus and I is the moment of inertia equation illustrates the estimation of mode shape curvature.

uj 1r 2ujr uj 1r
h
2

where h is the distance between the measurement coordinates, u j r is the modal displacement of coordinate j at mode r Damage detection and location based on the curvature mode shapes can be used to compare between the damaged and un-damaged structures, presented by Ref. [62]. The structure stiffness is decreased when the damage increases. Numerical

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calculations could be done to get the curvature mode shape. The curvature equation value can be calculated at a point using Eq. (3). And the curvature mode shape calculated numerically by applied the central difference approximations (Eq. (4)). For the damage in beam structure, the changes in mode shape curvature are a signicant indicator. The use of mode shape derivatives, like curvature (i.e. the second derivative of the mode shape related to location) is an option to use mode shapes to get information regarding changes in vibration characteristics. For beams, the curvature K, and bending strain e, is directly related [66].

e Kyy

y R

@2w @ x2

where e is the strain in the point of reference, R is the radius of curvature, y is the perpendicular distance from the point in question to the neutral axis k is the curvature, w is the deection, and x is the distance from support. Ref. [67] established a method for damage detection in simply supported and continues beams used the changes in mode shape curvature. The features of the method are; inexpensive, rapid, and direct. It is used to estimate and determine the damaged location by the changes in dynamic properties between damaged and un-damaged structure. They investigated the damage location in the structure by technique Mode Curvature (MC) and results were drawn. The conclusion presented the damage indicator named (the curvature damage factor). The factor can be identied by collecting the differences in curvature mode shapes for all modes in the measured point and all points along the beam. Ref. [68] discussed practical issues related to the direct measurement of strain or the computation of strain from displacements or accelerations. The nite element model curvature of simply supported and cantilever beams gave more accurate results for damage than the values from MAC and COMAC. An experimental curvature mode shape can be obtained by the strain measurement directly as an alternative of acceleration and displacement. To calculate the mode shape curvature, Ref. [64] have applied the central difference approximation. A comparison of the performance in this approach is based on the direct changes in mode shape in each point. The most important factor was approved for the selection of modes to be used in the analysis. For large structure, the methods (mode shape curvature and mode shape relative difference) would be necessary to measure the response at a sufcient number of points. 5. Conclusion The important element in the research of vibration analysis for real engineering applications is a cantilever beam. The cantilevers should be more exible in machineries and construction structures to be capable of withstanding high levels of stress and strain. An important factor in the evaluation of the safety of the investigated structure and to detect faults and defects in a structure, a non-destructive technique was adopted and reviewed in this paper. This technique used widely in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) in order to acquire analytical solutions of natural frequencies and dynamic deections. Based on the changes in dynamic properties such as the stiffness which could lead to changes in: i. ii. iii. iv. the mode shape as well as, reduction in frequencies, and increase in damping, in addition, the location and the magnitude of the crack can be determined.

The vibration analyses for cantilever beam with crack were illustrated analytically, theoretically and experimentally; with the beams having various properties and dimensions. In computing the Damage Magnitude Index one needs to rely on the frequency and mode shape (MAC) and inherently the damage localization can be dened by using mode shape (COMAC) and Curvature Change Index (CCI). References
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