EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES

AN OVERVIEW OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

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TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

This note will just cover the overview of various topics This material does not cover all the topics of the syllabus Problematic portions are not covered in this material This material is just to guide not enlighten Students are advised to follow prescribed text book along with this material

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UNIT I Definition of quality, dimensions of quality, quality planning, quality costs Analysis Technique for quality costs, Basic concept of TQM, Historical review, Principles of TQM, Leadership Concept, role of senior management, quality council, quality statements, strategic planning, Deming Philosophy, Barriers of TQM implementation. Unit Overview This unit is introduction to the concept of TQM and how the top management has to approach and understand the concept. TQM must come from the top management and also deals the basic philosophy and difficulties of TQM Total Whole, entire, complete Quality Excellence, class, meeting expectation Management organising, administering, art of getting things done TQM is defined as both philosophy and a set of guiding principles that represent the foundation of continuously improving organisation. It is the application of quantitative methods and human resources to improve all the process within the organisation and exceed customer needs now and in the future. TQM Basic Concepts 1. Management Involvement Participate in quality program, develop quality council, direct participation 2. Focus on customer who is the customer internal and external, voice of the customer, do it right first time and every time. 3. Involvement and utilisation of entire work force All levels of management 4. Continuous improvement Quality never stops, placing orders, bill errors, delivery, minimise wastage and scrap etc. 5. Treating suppliers as partners no business exists without suppliers. 6. Performance measures creating accountability in all levels Barriers in TQM Implementation 1. Lack of commitment from top management avoiding training for self and employees, meetings 2. Lack of employee involvement particularly at managerial level, supportive attitude, trust 3. Lack of team work Co-operation and co-ordination within workers. 4. Lack of customer oriented approach Know the customer need, demand, taste, shortcomings 5. Lack of attention to feedback and complaints 6. Supplier control in terms of materials, cost, quality, delivery etc 7. Review quality procedures up gradation, correct past errors. Learn from experience Historical Review of TQM Industrialisation led to mass production in which it led to the concept of one product at a time to the assembly line of production. Though workmanship was affected but mass production led to more job and reduction in cost of the product and increase in quality, reduction of defects etc. 1924 After WWI, W.A. Sherwat of Bell Telephone statistical chart for the control of various. Concept of sample tests were followed. It was a failure in the initial stages. 1946 ASQC American Society for Quality Control, now ASQ. Frequent meetings, conferences and publications were made to public. 1950 W.Edwards Demings his guidance and lecture to Japan engineers transformed quality concepts in the organisation. His cycle ACT-PLAN-DO-CHECK 1954 Joseph M.Juran Concept of efficient and productive. Juran Trilogy Quality planning Quality Control Quality Improvement Einstein College of Engineering

1960 Quality control circles was formed. Zero defects concepts 1970 Reactive approach to proactive approach. Shift from Japan to USA 1980 SPC Statistical Process Control. Concepts of parameter and tolerance. Experiments 1990 Concepts of certification of ISO, CMM etc 2000 six sigma concept - Six Sigma stands for Six Standard Deviations (Sigma is the Greek letter used to represent standard deviation in statistics) from mean. Six Sigma methodology provides the techniques and tools to improve the capability and reduce the defects in any process. Demings 14 Points Summarised
1. Create constancy of purpose and continual improvement 2. Adopt the new (Japanese) philosophy by management and workers alike. 3. Do not depend on (quality) inspection build quality into the product and process 4. Choose quality suppliers 5. Improve constantly to reduce variation in all aspects 6. Training on the job for workers and management. 7. Leadership not supervision to get people to do a better job, not just meet targets. 8. Eliminate fear encourage two-way communication, encourage employees 9. Break down internal barriers departments are internal customers 10. Eliminate slogans (exhortations) processes make mistakes not people. 11. Eliminate numerical targets management by objectives not numbers 12. Remover barriers to worker satisfaction including annual appraisals 13. Encourage self improvement and education for all 14. Everyone is responsible for continual improvement in quality and productivity particularly top management

Quality When a product or service meets or exceeds expectation considering the intended use and the selling price. Quality = performance / expectation Definition by ISO 9000:2000 It if defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirement. Degree good, excellent, bad Inherent existing, within, natural Requirement need or expectation Dimensions of quality 1. Performance Fulfilment of primary requirement 2. Features Additional things that enhance performance 3. Conformance Meeting specific standards set by the industry 4. Reliability Consistence performance over a period of time 5. Durability Long life and less maintenance 6. Service Ease of repair, guarantee, and warranty 7. Response Dealer customer relationship, human interface 8. Aesthetics exteriors, packages 9. Reputation Past performance, ranking, branding Quality Planning Identifying customers both internal and external and determining the need and developing product features. Setting goals and objective Goals are long term objectives are short term Steps to Quality planning 1. Customer Needs Who, will they change, their wants 2. Customer positioning Retain, reduce or expand customer base 3. Predict the future update product or service to the latest trends and needs Einstein College of Engineering

4. 5. 6. 7.

Gap Analysis identify gap between current state and future actions Closing the gap establish goals and responsibilities Alignment align to the vision and mission of the orgn. Plan without align will fail. Implementation resource allocation, design changes, overcome resistance, monitoring etc

Quality Costs Quality leads to profit, more quality more profit. It is defined as those costs associated with non achievement of product or service quality as stated in the requirements established by the organisation and with its association to the customers and society. Analysis technique for Quality Cost The term "trend analysis" refers to the concept of collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern, or trend, in the information. In some fields of study, the term "trend analysis" has more formally-defined meanings. Although trend analysis is often used to predict future events, it could be used to estimate uncertain events in the past, such as how many ancient kings probably ruled between two dates, based on data such as the average years which other known kings reigned. Pareto Analysis This fact gave rise to the Pareto effect or Paretos law: the vital few and the trivial many. The Pareto effect is named after Vilfredo Pareto, an economist and sociologist who lived from 1848 to 1923. Originally trained as an engineer he was a one time managing director of a group of coalmines. Pareto analysis is a statistical technique in decision making that is used for selection of a limited number of tasks that produce significant overall effect. It uses the Pareto principle - the idea that by doing 20% of work you can generate 80% of the advantage of doing the entire job. Or in terms of quality improvement, a large majority of problems (80%) are produced by a few key causes (20%). Pareto analysis is a formal technique useful where many possible courses of action are competing for your attention. In essence, the problem-solver estimates the benefit delivered by each action, then selects a number of the most effective actions that deliver a total benefit reasonably close to the maximal possible one. Use of Pareto principle in prioritizing or ranking a range of items which have different levels of significance. Its objective is to separate the 'vital few' from the 'useful many.' Steps to identify the important causes using Pareto analysis

Step 1: Form a table listing the causes and their frequency as a percentage. Step 2: Arrange the rows in the decreasing order of importance of the causes (i.e, the most important cause first) Step 3: Add a cumulative percentage column to the table Step 4: Plot with causes on x- and cumulative percentage on y-axis Step 5: Join the above points to form a curve Step 6: Plot (on the same graph) a bar graph with causes on x- and percent frequency on yaxis Step 7: Draw line at 80% on y-axis parallel to x-axis. Then drop the line at the point of intersection with the curve on x-axis. This point on the x-axis separates the important causes (on the left) and trivial causes (on the right)

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TQM UNIT II
Customer satisfaction Customer perception of quality, customer complaints, service quality, customer retention, employee involvement Motivation, Empowerment, Teams, recognition and rewards, Performance appraisal, benefits, continuous process improvement Juran trilogy, PDSA Cycle, 5S, Kaizen, supplier partnership Partnering, sourcing, supplier selection, supplier rating, relationship development, Performance measures - Basic concepts, strategy, Performance measure Unit Overview This unit deals with the customer in focus what they expect in terms of quality and their attitude towards a product or service. Then how a organization must focus and appraise the employees in satisfying customers. Few commonly adopted process improvement like Juran, PDSA, 5S and Kaizen. Last how the external suppliers contribute towards quality and an organization is mutually dependent on suppliers. Customer Satisfaction Customer A person who buys the product or service or even a consumer who may become future customer Customer Satisfaction 1. Understanding customer needs 2. Defining quality 3. Teboul Model Penetration 4. Customer satisfaction is a process never ending Who is the customer 1. External customer user of product or service, buyer and influencer 2. Internal customer for his personal use only Basic Requirement of Internal and External Customers 1. High level of quality meeting all his needs 2. High degree of flexibility product flexibility 3. High levels of service maximum service 4. Low costs value for money, customers pride is that he has bought for the lowest cost 5. Quick response Less waiting period, demo, billing, packing, delivery 6. Little of no variability minimum deviation from the target and expectation Customer perception of quality Before 1988 Performance, Prize and service After 1989 Performance, service and prize ASQ American Society for Quality 1. Performance availability (ready for use), reliability (free from failure), maintainability 2. Features psychological and technical. Added feature along with main usage 3. Service intangible, made up of many small things 4. Warranty Vs guarantee. Customer feels comfortable with this 5. Price value for money, ready to pay at the same time comparative study to be done 6. Reputation Branding merges with quality. Good exp reaches 6 bad reaches 15 Features of Feedback Finds dissatisfaction dissatisfied customer normally tend to report and register complaint Priority for quality Match between organization perceptions of quality to that of customer Comparison with competitors Evaluation by customers who would have known the competitors Customer needs The real needs of customers is known directly from the customer Scope for improvement Future enhancement in terms of quality Einstein College of Engineering

Sources of Feedback 1. Comment Card card attached with the warranty to get the basic information. Asking reasons for the purchase of product or service. 2. Questionnaire Most popular. Mostly close ended and few open questions. Time consuming. Analyze and interpret data. 3. Focus Group Select few customer, call for a meeting and discuss and collect data from them. Also ask them what their expectation is. Incentive for participation is assured in advance so that the customer is comfortable and not forced to participate. 4. Toll Free Numbers Free telephone customer can call for assistance, register complaints 5. Customer Visit It is very effective as customer is put on top priority but at the same time consuming, costly and customer interest. 6. Report Card giving a grading sheet to the customer regarding the organization. Very effective, customer is at pride that he could evaluate the product or service. 7. Internet Online and email feedback. Though easy but not 100% reliable source and lot of misrepresentation and lags seriousness on the part of the consumer. 8. Employee feedback Untapped source of effective information. Customer says what is happening employees say why it is happening. Reactive to proactive approach 9. Mass Customization make instant changes to the requirement of the customer. Dress materials, computer, furniture etc. Complaints Feedbacks are proactive complaints are reactive. 1. Organization must take complaints as a proactive device for the future. 2. All complaints must be acknowledge as early as possible 3. The complainant must get the information about the progress of the complaint 4. Dissatisfied customers complaints not adhered tend to move to the competitors 5. Small organization has the advantage of being in direct contact with the customer 6. Frontline staffs get the direct complaint they must be trained to handle and take decisions Handling complaints 1. Investigate the complaint promptly both positive and negative 2. Develop procedure for complaints, recording, actions to be taken, inform the staffs 3. Categories the complaints product, service, cost, ambience etc 4. Senior managers must have direct involvement 5. Communicate the process of handling the complaints to all staffs 6. Provide regular complaints reports complaints received, decisions taken etc 7. Identify customer expectations before hand Service Quality Shift in focus from manufacturing industry to service industry and the services involved in manufacturing organization. Customer service is the set of activities an organization uses to win, attract and retain customers. It can be provided before, during and after the sale of the product. Elements of customer service Organization 1. Identify each segment where the organization needs to concentrate on quality 2. Write down requirement Proper documentation of quality policy in the form of a handbook 3. Communicate requirements Inform its importance to all levels in the organisation 4. Organize process create a systematic process as it is ongoing and never ending process 5. Organize physical spaces aesthetics, atmosphere, room space, recreation, wifi etc Customer Care Henry Ford The boss just handles the cash it is the customer who pays your salary Einstein College of Engineering

1. Meet the customers expectation treat all customers alike, respond quickly 2. Get the customers point of view think in the point of view of a customer 3. Deliver what is promised keep up promise at any cost 4. Make the customer feel valued customer must feel that due respect and importance is given to him 5. Respond to all complaints minimize complaints and eradicate similar and repeated complaints 6. Over-respond to customer make him feel he is cloud nine 7. Provide clean and comfortable reception area cleanliness, spacious, dress code, weather etc Communication All forms of communication written, verbal, advt, web site must prove quality 1. Optimize trade off between time and personal attention 2. Minimize the number of contact points channels and levels 3. Provide pleasant and knowledgeable enthusiastic employees 4. Write document in customer friendly language simple and point blank Front-line people The people who have first and direct contact or interaction with the customer 1. Hire people who like people train groom them 2. Challenge them to develop better methods small changes in packing, billing etc 3. Give them authority to solve problems give discounts, free gifts etc 4. Serve them as internal customers 5. Make sure they are adequately trained written and oral communication, body language etc 6. Recognize and reward performance - Nordstorm example obsess with the customer Leadership 1. Lead by example spend time with all level, dealers and suppliers. Like having food , using co product 2. Listen to front line people 3. Strive for continuous process improvement Customer Retention - It is the final result of customer satisfaction and customer loyalty - Most cases what customer says or feels may vary from actual consumption or purchase - Customer must refer more customers and increase the revenue - External research must be done to feel the pulse of the customer - Employee retention is proportional customer retention Five S Seiri Sorting, Seiton Straighten, in Order, Seiso Sweep, Seiketsu -Standardizing Shitsuke Sustaining Kaizen is defined as making continuous improvement - slow, incremental but constant. Western way of pragmatic approach why-fix-it-if-it-aint-broke Kaizen extends a more optimistic philosophical view: Everythingeven if it aint brokecan be made better! "kai > Means "change" or "the action to correct" "zen > means "good Importance is given to the process not the results, as Japanese believe that good process will deliver good results. Juran Trilogy The Trilogy consists of three sequential and logical groups of activities: Quality Planning Quality Control Quality Improvement All three processes are universal Applied to a particular process Performed by top management or by middle management Einstein College of Engineering

Juran Trilogy: A systematic and comprehensive system for break-through quality improvements Quality Defined: meet customer needs and freedom from deficiencies Trilogy Components Quality Planning discover customer needs and deficiencies and design adequate processes Quality Control -- compare actual performance to goals and take action on the differences Quality Improvement -- the attainment of unprecedented levels of performance PDCA Cycle PLAN > DO > CHECK > ACT The PDCA (or PDSA) Cycle was originally conceived by Walter Shewhart in 1930's, and later adopted by W. Edwards Deming. The model provides a framework for the improvement of a process or system. It can be used to guide the entire improvement project It can be used to develop specific projects once target improvement areas have been identified. Plan - a change or a test, aimed at improvement. In this phase, analyze what you intend to improve, looking for areas that hold opportunities for change. The first step is to choose areas that offer the most return for the effort you put in-the biggest bang for your buck. To identify these areas for change consider using a Flow chart or Pareto chart Do - Carry out the change or test (preferably on a small scale). Implement the change you decided on in the plan phase. Document the procedure and observation Use tools to collect information

Check or Study - the results. What was learned? What went wrong? This is a crucial step in the PDCA cycle. After you have implemented the change for a short time, you must determine how well it is working. Is it really leading to improvement in the way you had hoped? You must decide on several measures with which you can monitor the level of improvement. Run Charts can be helpful with this measurement. Act - Adopt the change, abandon it, or run the cycle again. After planning a change, implementing and then monitoring it, you must decide whether it is worth continuing that particular change. If it consumed too much of your time, was difficult to adhere to, or even led to no improvement, you may consider aborting the change and planning a new one. However, if the change led to a desirable improvement or outcome, you may consider expanding the trial to a different area, or slightly increasing your complexity. This sends you back into the Plan phase and can be the beginning of the Ramp of Improvement. Supplier Partnership Ten Principles of Customer/Supplier Relationship 1. Customer and supplier fully responsible for quality control 2. Customer and supplier must be independent and interdependent 3. The customer must provide clear information to the supplier Einstein College of Engineering

4. Proper understanding in quality, quantity, price, delivery and payments 5. Supplier must satisfy the customer need 6. Both must accept the evaluation in terms of quality and service 7. Contracts must be signed so the disputes can be settled amicably 8. Both must have exchange of information to improve quality and service 9. Both should strive for mutual satisfaction and good relationship 10. Both should think in the shoes of the end user. Partnering Benefits 1. Improved Quality 2. Increase efficiency 3. Lower cost 4. Increase the opportunity for innovation 5. Continuous improvement of product and service Key Elements in Partnering 1. Long-term commitment 2. Trust 3. Shared vision Performance Measures It is systematic examination of quality performance. Performance measure helps to check the course of action and enhance the performance to the required standard. Objectives 1. Reveal trends 2. Identifies which process to be improved 3. Indicates process gains and losses 4. Helps to compare performance with plan 5. Source of information to the individual and team 6. Helps to decide the overall performance Typical Measurements What should be measured 1. Human resource loss of time by accident, late, absent. Training and its cost and effect etc 2. Customer complaints, delivery, warranty, replacement 3. Production inventory, scraps, output etc 4. R & D new product, redesign, 5. Suppliers delivery, service, billing, accuracy etc 6. Marketing and sales ad and its return, promotions, sales target 7. Administration revenue, cost of quality, receipts and payments Criteria How to set measurements 1. Simple easily understandable to all 2. Few in Number 3. Developed by users user input in measuring 4. Relevance to customers measure must seek to benefit of the customer 5. Importance focus on improvement, prevention, safety 6. Cost measure must help in cost reduction and increase in profit 7. Visible The measuring procedure must be known to all 8. Timely Processing of data, creation of report etc

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TQM UNIT III Statistical Process Control The seven tools of quality, Statistical Fundamentals Measures of central tendency and dispersion, Population and sample, Normal curve, control charts for variables and attributes, Process capability, concept of six sigma, New seven management tools Unit Overview: This unit deals in statistical ways to measure and calculate the impact of quality. Any thing has to be measured and analyzed for which statistics plays a major role. The unit also gives idea of new and old tools to analyze quality. The modern quality concept six sigma is also discussed here. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data. It is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines, from the natural and social sciences to the humanities, government and business. The word statistics is also the plural of statistic (singular), which refers to the result of applying a statistical algorithm to a set of data, as in economic statistics, crime statistics, etc. Seven tools of Quality I - Pareto chart: Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto Shows on a bar graph which factors are more significant. This method helps to find the vital few contributing maximum impact. Purpose: The purpose of the Pareto chart is to prioritize problems No company has enough resources to tackle every problem, so they must prioritize. Pareto Principle: The Pareto concept was developed by the describing the frequency distribution of any given characteristic of a population. Also called the 20-80 rule, he determined that a small percentage of any given group (20%) account for a high amount of a certain characteristic (80%). Conclusion: The most important thing in improving quality is to start somewhere, doing something. As you begin using the Pareto chart to decide where your problems are, you will discover many things about your processes and will come because you will know where to improve. II - Flowchart: A technique that separates data gathered from a variety of sources so that patterns can be seen (some lists replace "stratification" with or "run chart"). Purpose: Flow Charts provide a visual illustration of the sequence of operations required to complete a task. A picture of the steps the process undergoes to complete it's task. Every process will require input(s) to complete it's task, and will provide output(s) when the task is completed. Flow charts can be drawn in many styles. Flow charts can be used to describe a single process, parts of a process, or a set of processes. There is no right or wrong way to draw a flow chart. The true test of a flow chart is how well those who create and use it can understand it. Input ---------------------Process----------------Output III - Cause-and-Effect Diagrams - 1943 by Mr. Kaoru Ishikawa at the University of Tokyo Purpose: One important part of process improvement is continuously striving to obtain more information about the process and it's output. Cause-and-effect diagrams allow us to do not just that, but also can lead us to the root cause, or causes, of problems.

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Constructing the Cause-and-Effect Diagram: Step 1: Select the team members and a leader. Team members knowledgeable about the quality. Team members focus on the problem under investigation. Step 2: Write the problem statement on the right hand side of the page, and draw a box around it with an arrow running to it. This quality concern is now the effect. Step 3: Brain-storming. The team members generate ideas as to what is causing the effect. Step 4: This step could be combined with step 3. Identify, for each main cause, its related sub-causes that might affect our quality concern or problem (our Effect). Always check to see if all the factors contributing to the problem have been identified. Start by asking why the problem exists. Step 5: Focus on one or two causes for which an improvement action(s) can be developed using other quality tools such as Pareto charts, check sheets, and other gathering and analysis tools. Conclusion: Improvement requires knowledge. The more information we have about our processes the better we are at improving them. Cause-and-effect diagrams are one quality tool that is simple yet very powerful in helping us better understand our processes. IV - Check Sheets Purpose: Check sheets allow the user to collect data from a process in an easy, systematic, and organized manner. Data Collection: Before we can talk about check sheets we need to understand what we mean by data collection. This collected data needs to be accurate and relevant to the quality problem. The first is to establish a purpose for collecting this data. Second, we need to define the type of data that is going to be collected. Measurable data such as length, size, weight, time,...etc., and countable data such as the number of defects. The third step is to determine who is going to collect that data and when it should be collected. V- Histograms Purpose: To determine the spread or variation of a set of data points in a graphical form. It is always a desire to produce things that are equal to their design values. Histograms: A histogram is a tool for summarizing, analyzing, and displaying data. It provides the user with a graphical representation of the amount of variation found in a set of data. Constructing a Histogram: The following are the steps followed in the construction of a histogram: Data collection: To ensure good results, a minimum of 50 data points, or samples, need to be collected Calculate the range of the sample data: The range is the difference between the largest and smallest data points. Range = Largest point - smallest point. Calculate the size of the class interval. The class interval is the width of each class on the X axis. It is calculated by the following formula: Class interval = Range / Number of classes. Calculate the number of data points (frequency) that are in each class. A tally sheet is usually used to find the frequency of data points in each interval. Conclusion: Histogram is simple tools that allow the user to identify and interpret the variation found in a set of data points. It is important to remember that histograms do not give solutions to problems. Einstein College of Engineering

VI - Scatter Diagrams Purpose: To identify correlations that might exist between a quality characteristic and a factor that might be driving it. Scatter Diagrams: A scatter diagram is a nonmathematical or graphical approach for identifying relationships between a performance measure and factors that might be driving it. This graphical approach is quick, easy to communicate to others, and generally easy to interpret. Interpreting the Results: Once all the data points have been plotted onto the scatter diagram, you are ready to determine whether their exists a relation between the two selected items or not. When a strong relationship is present, the change in one item will automatically cause a change in the other. If no relationship can be detected, the change in one item will not effect the other item. Their are three basic types of relationships that can be detected to on a scatter diagram: 1. Positive relationship 2. Negative relationship 3. No relationship Conclusion: Scatter diagrams allow the user to graphically identify correlations that could exist between a quality characteristic and a factor that might be driving it. It is a quality tool that is simple, easy to communicate to others, and generally easy to interpret. VII - Control Charts Purpose: Process is in control and to monitor process variation on a continuous basis. Identifying the tolerance level in the variations. Control charts is one SPC tool that enables us to monitor and control process variation. Types of variation Common and Special Cause Variation Control charts: Developed in the mid 1920's by Walter Shewhart of Bell labs. There are two basic types of control charts, the average and range control charts. The first deals with how close the process is to the nominal design value, while the range chart indicates the amount of spread or variability around the nominal design value. A control chart has basically three line: the upper control limit UCL, the center line CL, and the lower control limit LCL. A minimum of 25 points is required for a control chart to be accurate. Measure of Central Tendency and Dispersion Step 1: Do you want to measure the disperison with in the data? Yes: Calculate the range ( Highest value - Lowest Value ) Step 2: Do you want to know more about other observations in the data sets by avoiding the extreme values? Yes: Calculate the interquartile range (Q3-Q1) Step 3: Do you want a better measure of the dispersion that takes every observation in to account: Yes: Calculate the variance of the population (to calculate Population variance each item in the population by the total number of items in the population. By squaring each distance we are converting the -ve values to the positive values and at the same time assigning more weightage to to the large deviations). Step 4: Do you want to a measure of dispersion with more convenient units? Yes: Calculate the standard deviations where the standard deviation of the population is the square root of population variance. Step 5: Do you want to know how many standard deviation a particular observation lies below or above the mean: Yes: Calculate the standard score of the population Step 6: Do you want to know a relative measure of magnitude of the standard deviation as compared to the magnitude of the mean for use in comparing two distributions? Yes: Calculate the coefficient of variation Measure Central Tendency Einstein College of Engineering

The arithmetic mean is found by adding the numbers and dividing the sum by the number of numbers in the list. This is what is most often meant by an average. The median is the exact middle number. Place them in order from least to greatest and see which number is in the middle. The mode is the most frequently occurring value on the list. Measure of Dispersion Range = highest observation in a series lowest observation in that series Standard deviation It measures the spreading tendency of the data The smaller the deviation better the quality Formula for SD S = sample SD X = observed value X = average N = number of observed value

Population and Sample A population is any entire collection of people, animals, plants or things from which we may collect data. It is the entire group we are interested in, which we wish to describe or draw conclusions about. In order to make any generalisations about a population, a sample, that is meant to be representative of the population, is often studied. For each population there are many possible samples. A sample statistic gives information about a corresponding population parameter. For example, the sample mean for a set of data would give information about the overall population mean. It is important that the investigator carefully and completely defines the population before collecting the sample, including a description of the members to be included. A sample is a group of units selected from a larger group (the population). By studying the sample it is hoped to draw valid conclusions about the larger group. A sample is generally selected for study because the population is too large to study in its entirety. The sample should be representative of the general population. This is often best achieved by random sampling. Also, before collecting the sample, it is important that the researcher carefully and completely defines the population, including a description of the members to be included. Control Charts When the quality controls have to focus on a quality characteristic hard or expensive to measure on a numerical scale, the control chart for attributes are a useful alternative. Attributes concern quality characteristics which are able to be classified in two types, conform and not conform to specifications. What is called nonconforming means that the unit controlled is not conformed to standard on one or more of examined quality characteristics. The goal of control charts for variable is still to control mean and variability of a process but here, we focus of number of nonconforming units or nonconformities in a population. Three types of charts exist. Their use depends on the production (which quality characteristic to control, how many to examine), the characteristic of controls (constant or variable sample size): The p-chart: it is a control chart for fraction nonconforming The c-chart: it is a control chart for number of defects or nonconformities The u-chart: it is a control chart for number of nonconformities per unit It is so to choose the best adapted control chart to the production. The p-chart: Control chart for fraction nonconforming The focus of the chart is the ratio of the number of nonconforming units in a population over the total number of units in this population. This fraction is called p.

pi

Di ni

where p : fraction of nonconforming Einstein College of Engineering D : number of nonconforming units in the ith sample n : sample size of the ith sample

In general, m samples of n units are tested but the sample size can be either constant or variable. In the following, we study both cases. 1. For a constant sample size Mathematical notions If the sample size is constant, the formula for the value plotted on the p-chart is:

Di n The central line and control limits are computed as shown bellow: pi

Central line

i 1 pi
m

Limits

UCL p 3

p (1 p)
n

p (1 p ) LCL p 3 n To construct the p-chart, we plot the fraction nonconforming for each sample.

The c-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities observed The focus of the chart is the number of nonconformities in a population. This number is called c and is directly plotted on a c-chart. In this case again, m samples of n units are controlled and the sample size can be constant or not. For a constant sample size Mathematical notions The central line and control limits are computed as shown bellow: Central line

i 1

Limits

UCL c 3 c
LCL c 3 c

The u-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities per unit The u- chart is often used for controls where the sample size is variable. It consists plotting the number of nonconformities per unit tested.

ui

xi ni

where u : average nonconformities per unit Einstein College of Engineering x : number of total nonconformities in a sample n : sample size

Mathematical notions Here are formulas for control chart characteristics:

_

Central line

i 1 i m i 1

xi ni

Limits

UCL u 3

u ni
_

LCL u 3

u ni

The scheme for building a u-chart is the same than the one for other charts. Seven New Management and Planning Tools In 1976, the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) saw the need for tools to promote innovation, communicate information and successfully plan major projects. A team researched and developed the seven new quality control tools, often called the seven management and planning (MP) tools, or simply the seven management tools. Not all the tools were new, but their collection and promotion were. The seven MP tools, listed in an order that moves from abstract analysis to detailed planning, are: 1. Affinity diagram: organizes a large number of ideas into their natural relationships. 2. Relations diagram: shows cause-and-effect relationships and helps you analyze the natural links between different aspects of a complex situation. 3. Tree diagram: breaks down broad categories into finer and finer levels of detail, helping you move your thinking step by step from generalities to specifics. 4. Matrix diagram: shows the relationship between two, three or four groups of information and can give information about the relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various individuals, or measurements. 5. Matrix data analysis: a complex mathematical technique for analyzing matrices, often replaced in this list by the similar prioritization matrix. One of the most rigorous, careful and time-consuming of decision-making tools, a prioritization matrix is an L-shaped matrix that uses pairwise comparisons of a list of options to a set of criteria in order to choose the best option(s). 6. Arrow diagram: shows the required order of tasks in a project or process, the best schedule for the entire project, and potential scheduling and resource problems and their solutions. 7. Process decision program chart (PDPC): systematically identifies what might go wrong in a plan under development. Einstein College of Engineering

Affinity Diagram This tool takes large amounts of disorganized data and information and enables one to organize it into groupings based on natural relationships. It was created in the 1960s by Japanese anthropologist Jiro Kawakita. Interrelationship Diagraph This tool displays all the interrelated cause-and-effect relationships and factors involved in a complex problem and describes desired outcomes. The process of creating an interrelationship diagraph helps a group analyze the natural links between different aspects of a complex situation. Tree Diagram This tool is used to break down broad categories into finer and finer levels of detail. It can map levels of details of tasks that are required to accomplish a goal or task. It can be used to break down broad general subjects into finer and finer levels of detail. Developing the tree diagram helps one move their thinking from generalities to specifics. Prioritization Matrix This tool is used to prioritize items and describe them in terms of weighted criteria. It uses a combination of tree and matrix diagraming techniques to do a pair-wise evalutaion of items and to narrow down options to the most desired or most effective. Matrix Diagram This tool shows the relationship between items. At each intersection a relationship is either absent or present. It then gives information about the relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various individuals or measurements. Six differently shaped matrices are possible: L, T, Y, X, C and roof-shaped, depending on how many groups must be compared. Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) A useful way of planning is to break down tasks into a hierarchy, using a Tree Diagram. The PDPC extends the tree diagram a couple of levels to identify risks and countermeasures for the bottom level tasks. Different shaped boxes are used to highlight risks and identify possible countermeasures (often shown as 'clouds' to indicate their uncertain nature). The PDPC is similar to the Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) in that both identify risks, consequences of failure, and contingency actions; the FMEA also rates relative risk levels for each potential failure point. Activity Network Diagram This tool is used to plan the appropriate sequence or schedule for a set of tasks and related subtasks. It is used when subtasks must occur in parallel. The diagram enables one to determine the critical path (longest sequence of tasks). (See also PERT diagram.) Six Sigma has evolved over the last two decades and so has its definition. Six Sigma has literal, conceptual, and practical definitions. Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality improvement initiatives include A clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any project. An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support. [1] A special infrastructure of "Champions," "Master Black Belts," "Black Belts," etc. to lead and implement the Six Sigma approach.[1] A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data, rather than assumptions and guesswork.[1] Einstein College of Engineering

At Motorola University, we think about Six Sigma at three different levels: As a metric As a methodology As a management system Essentially, Six Sigma is all three at the same time. Six Sigma as a Metric The term "Sigma" is often used as a scale for levels of "goodness" or quality. Using this scale, "Six Sigma" equates to 3.4 Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO). Six Sigma started as a defect reduction effort in manufacturing and then applied to other business processes for the same purpose. Taking the 1.5 sigma shift into account, short-term sigma levels correspond to the following long-term DPMO values (one-sided): One Sigma = 690,000 DPMO => efficiency 31% Two Sigma = 308,000 DPMO => efficiency 69.2% Three Sigma = 66,800 DPMO => efficiency 93.32% Four Sigma = 6,210 DPMO => efficiency 99.379% Five Sigma = 230 DPMO => efficiency 99.977% Six Sigma = 3.4 DPMO => efficiency 99.9997% Six Sigma as a Methodology As Six Sigma has evolved, there has been less emphasis on the literal definition of 3.4 DPMO, or counting defects in products and processes. Six Sigma is a business improvement methodology that focuses an organization on: Understanding and managing customer requirements Aligning key business processes to achieve those requirements Utilizing rigorous data analysis to minimize variation in those processes Driving rapid and sustainable improvement to business processes At the heart of the methodology is the DMAIC model for process improvement. DMAIC is commonly used by Six Sigma project teams and is an acronym for: DMAIC - The basic methodology consists of the following five steps: Define process improvement goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy. Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data. Analyze the data to verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered. Improve or optimize the process based upon data analysis using techniques like Design of Experiments. Control to ensure that any deviations from target are corrected before they result in defects. Set up pilot runs to establish process capability, move on to production, set up control mechanisms and continuously monitor the process. DMADV The basic methodology consists of the following five steps: Define design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy. Measure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), product capabilities, production process capability, and risks. Analyze to develop and design alternatives, create a high-level design and evaluate design capability to select the best design. Design details, optimize the design, and plan for design verification. This phase may require simulations. Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and hand it over to the process owners. Implementation roles - One of the key innovations of Six Sigma is the professionalizing of quality management functions. Prior to Six Sigma, quality management in practice was largely relegated to the production floor and to statisticians in a separate quality department. Six Sigma borrows martial Einstein College of Engineering

arts ranking terminology to define a hierarchy (and career path) that cuts across all business functions and a promotion path straight into the executive suite. Six Sigma identifies several key roles for its successful implementation. [12] Executive Leadership includes the CEO and other members of top management. They are responsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma implementation. They also empower the other role holders with the freedom and resources to explore new ideas for breakthrough improvements. Champions are responsible for Six Sigma implementation across the organization in an integrated manner. The Executive Leadership draws them from upper management. Champions also act as mentors to Black Belts. Master Black Belts, identified by champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They assist champions and guide Black Belts and Green Belts. Apart from statistical tasks, their time is spent on ensuring consistent application of Six Sigma across various functions and departments. Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to specific projects. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma project execution, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma. Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along with their other job responsibilities. They operate under the guidance of Black Belts.

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TQM UNIT IV TQM Tools Benchmarking Reasons to Benchmark, Benchmarking process, Quality Function Deployment QFD House of Quality, QFD Process, Benefits, Taguchi Quality Loss Function, Total Productive Maintenance TPM Concept and improvement needs FMEA Stages of FMEA Unit Over view: This unit covers the new topic of benchmarking wherein an organization has to set standard with the industry and other similar companies. QFD in keeping in mind of voice of the customer. Later house of quality which is deals with WHAT the customer wants and HOW the organization must meet it. Most importantly in this unit deals with loss function, FMEA and TPM which deals the negative aspects of business. "Benchmarking is the process of measuring an organization's internal processes then identifying, understanding, and adapting outstanding practices from other organizations considered to be best-inclass. "Benchmarking: A continuous, systematic process of evaluating and comparing the capability of one organization with others normally recognized as industry leaders, for insights for optimizing the organizations processes." Benchmarking is the process of comparing the cost, time or quality of what one organization does against what another organization does. The result is often a business case for making changes in order to make improvements. The systematic process of comparing an organizations products, services and practices against those of competitor organizations or other industry leaders to determine what it is they do that allows them to achieve high levels of performance. (Society for Human Resources Management) Advantages of benchmarking Benchmarking is a powerful management tool because it overcomes "paradigm blindness." Benchmarking opens organizations to new methods, ideas and tools to improve their effectiveness. It helps crack through resistance to change by demonstrating other methods. Allows employees to visualise the improvement which can be a strong motivator for change Helps to identify weak areas and indicates what needs to be done to improve. The Benchmarking process The formal 10-step benchmarking process is shown in outline below.

The benchmarking process consists of following phases: 1. Planning. The essential steps are those of any plan development: what, who and how. What is to be benchmarked? Every function of an organization has or delivers a product or output. Benchmarking is appropriate for any output of a process or function, whether its a physical good, an order, a shipment, an invoice, a service or a report. Einstein College of Engineering

To whom or what will we compare? Business-to-business, direct competitors are certainly prime candidates to benchmark. But they are not the only targets. Benchmarking must be conducted against the best companies and business functions regardless of where they exist. How will the data be collected? Theres no one way to conduct benchmarking investigations. Theres an infinite variety of ways to obtain required data and most of the data youll need are readily and publicly available. Recognize that benchmarking is a process not only of deriving quantifiable goals and targets, but more importantly, its the process of investigating and documenting the best industry practices, which can help you achieve goals and targets. 2. Analysis. The analysis phase must involve a careful understanding of your current process and practices, as well as those of the organizations being benchmarked. What is desired is an understanding of internal performance on which to assess strengths and weaknesses. Ask: Is this other organization better than we are? Why are they better? By how much? What best practices are being used now or can be anticipated? How can their practices be incorporated or adapted for use in our organization? Answers to these questions will define the dimensions of any performance gap: negative, positive or parity. The gap provides an objective basis on which to act to close the gap or capitalize on any advantage your organization has. 3. Integration. Integration is the process of using benchmark findings to set operational targets for change. It involves careful planning to incorporate new practices in the operation and to ensure benchmark findings are incorporated in all formal planning processes. Steps include: Gain operational and management acceptance of benchmark findings. Clearly and convincingly demonstrate findings as correct and based on substantive data. Develop action plans. Communicate findings to all organizational levels to obtain support, commitment and ownership. 4. Action. Convert benchmark findings, and operational principles based on them, to specific actions to be taken. Put in place a periodic measurement and assessment of achievement. Use the creative talents of the people who actually perform work tasks to determine how the findings can be incorporated into the work processes. Any plan for change also should contain milestones for updating the benchmark findings, and an ongoing reporting mechanism. Progress toward benchmark findings must be reported to all employees. 5. Maturity. Maturity will be reached when best industry practices are incorporated in all business processes, thus ensuring superiority. Tests for superiority: If the now-changed process were to be made available to others, would a knowledgeable businessperson prefer it? Do other organizations benchmark your internal operations? Maturity also is achieved when benchmarking becomes an ongoing, essential and self-initiated facet of the management process. Benchmarking becomes institutionalized and is done at all appropriate levels of the organization, not by specialists. Types of Benchmarking Process benchmarking - the initiating firm focuses its observation and investigation of business processes with a goal of identifying and observing the best practices from one or more benchmark firms. Activity analysis will be required where the objective is to benchmark cost and efficiency; increasingly applied to back-office processes where outsourcing may be a consideration. Financial benchmarking - performing a financial analysis and comparing the results in an effort to assess your overall competitiveness. Performance benchmarking - allows the initiator firm to assess their competitive position by comparing products and services with those of target firms.

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Product benchmarking - the process of designing new products or upgrades to current ones. This process can sometimes involve reverse engineering which is taking apart competitors products to find strengths and weaknesses. Strategic benchmarking - involves observing how others compete. This type is usually not industry specific meaning it is best to look at other industries. Functional benchmarking - a company will focus its benchmarking on a single function in order to improve the operation of that particular function. Complex functions such as Human Resources, Finance and Accounting and Information and Communication Technology are unlikely to be directly comparable in cost and efficiency terms and may need to be disaggregated into processes to make valid comparison IN A NUTSHELL Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a way of making the 'voice of the customer' heard throughout an organization. It is a systematic process for capturing customer requirements and translating these into requirements that must be met throughout the 'supply chain'. The result is a new set of target values for designers, production people, and even suppliers to aim at in order to produce the output desired by customers. QFD is particularly valuable when design trade-offs are necessary to achieve the best overall solution, e.g. because some requirements conflict with others. QFD also enables a great deal of information to be summarized in the form of one or more charts. These charts capture customer and product data gleaned from many sources, as well as the design parameters chosen for the new product. In this way they provide a solid foundation for further improvement in subsequent design cycles. QFD is sometimes referred to by other 'nicknames' - the voice of the customer (from its use as a way of communicating customer needs), or the House of Quality (from the characteristic house shape of a QFD chart). HISTORY The creation of QFD is generally attributed to Mitsubishi's Kobe shipyard in Japan. The original approach, conceived in the late 1960's, was adopted and developed by other Japanese companies, notably Toyota and its suppliers. In 1986 a study by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) revealed that 54% of 148 member companies surveyed were using QFD. The sectors with the highest penetration of QFD were transportation (86%), construction (82%), electronics (63%), and precision machinery (66%). Many of the service companies surveyed (32%) were also using QFD. Specific design applications in Japan range from home appliances and clothing to retail outlets and apartment layouts. In the USA the first serious exponents of QFD were the 'big three' automotive manufacturers in the 1980's, and a few leading companies in other sectors such as electronics. However, the uptake of QFD in the Western world appears to have been fairly slow. There has been no survey comparable to the JUSE study regarding the spread of QFD in North America, and there are relatively few sources of literature and case studies, compared with other methodologies such as Benchmarking. There is also some reluctance among users of QFD to publish and share information - much more so than with other quality-related methodologies. This may be because the data captured and the decisions made using QFD usually relate to future product plans, and are therefore sensitive, proprietary, and valuable to competitors. BENEFITS OF QFD The main 'process' benefits of using QFD are: improved communication and sharing of information within a cross-functional team charged with developing a new product. This team will typically include people from a Einstein College of Engineering

variety of functional groups, such as marketing, sales, service, distribution, product engineering, process engineering, procurement, and production the identification of 'holes' in the current knowledge of the design team the capture and display of a wide variety of important design information in one place in a compact form support for understanding, consensus, and decision making, especially when complex relationships and trade-offs are involved the creation of an informational base which is valuable for repeated cycles of product improvement The main 'bottom line' benefits of using QFD are: greater likelihood of product success in the marketplace, due to the precise targeting of key customer requirements reduced overall design cycle time, mainly due to a reduction in time-consuming design changes. This is a powerful benefit: customer requirements are less likely to have changed since the beginning of the design project; and more frequent design cycles mean that products can be improved more rapidly than the competition reduced overall cost due to reducing design changes, which are not only time consuming but very costly, especially those which occur at a late stage. reduced product cost by eliminating redundant features and over-design. When to use QFD QFD is a powerful tool that leads to significant improvements in product/process performances. However, it is not a short-term answer to product development problems. The method on which QFD is implemented may have a large impact on benefits derived and companies should take up QFD only after getting the consent and commitment of the team members. QFD provides a systematic approach to build a team perspective on what needs to be done, the best ways to do it, the best order to accomplish the tasks proposed and the staffing and resources required to enhance customer satisfaction. It is also a good format for capturing and recording/documenting decision making. Applied through the Kaizen philosophy under Total Quality Control, QFD is the most highly developed form of integrated product and process development in existence. Strengths and weaknesses of QFD Strengths include: 1. Enhanced customer satisfaction Listening to the voice of the customer Robust design 2. Shorter time to market Reduced rework during development Creates team consensus and commitment 3. Reduced costs Competitive benchmarking Concurrent Engineering Weaknesses Targets set based only on the House of Quality, may be unrealistic Customer requirements are a mix of functional requirements and customer attributes Sometimes customer influences may backfire Success with QFD Companies using QFD for product development have on the average, experienced: 50% reduction in costs 33% reduction in product development time 200% increase in productivity Companies that have successfully applied QFD include Toyota, Honda, ICI, Black & Decker, Integrated Design Control Systems and Rover. Einstein College of Engineering

Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a procedure for analysis of potential failure modes within a system for the classification by severity or determination of the failures' effect upon the system. It is widely used in the manufacturing industries in various phases of the product life cycle and is now increasingly finding use in the service industry as well. Failure causes are any errors or defects in process, design, or item especially ones that affect the customer, and can be potential or actual. Effects analysis refers to studying the consequences of those failures. Step 1: Severity Determine all failure modes based on the functional requirements and their effects. Examples of failure modes are: Electrical short-circuiting, corrosion or deformation. It is important to note that a failure mode in one component can lead to a failure mode in another component. Therefore each failure mode should be listed in technical terms and for function. Hereafter the ultimate effect of each failure mode needs to be considered. A failure effect is defined as the result of a failure mode on the function of the system as perceived by the user. In this way it is convenient to write these effects down in terms of what the user might see or experience. Examples of failure effects are: degraded performance, noise or even injury to a user. Each effect is given a severity number(S) from 1(no danger) to 10(important). These numbers help an engineer to prioritize. If the severity of an effect has a number 9 or 10, actions are considered to change the design by eliminating the failure mode, if possible, or protecting the user from the effect. A severity rating of 9 or 10 is generally reserved for those effects which would cause injury to a user or otherwise result in litigation. Step 2: Occurrence In this step it is necessary to look at the cause of a failure and how many times it occurs. This can be done by looking at similar products or processes and the failures that have been documented for them. A failure cause is looked upon as a design weakness. All the potential causes for a failure mode should be identified and documented. Again this should be in technical terms. Examples of causes are: erroneous algorithms, excessive voltage or improper operating conditions. A failure mode is given a probability number(O),again 1-10. Actions need to be determined if the occurrence is high (meaning >4 for non safety failure modes and >1 when the severity-number from step 1 is 9 or 10). This step is called the detailed development section of the FMEA process. Step 3: Detection When appropriate actions are determined, it is necessary to test their efficiency. Also a design verification is needed. The proper inspection methods need to be chosen. First, an engineer should look at the current controls of the system, that prevent failure modes from occurring or which detect the failure before it reaches the customer. Hereafter one should identify testing, analysis, monitoring and other techniques that can be or have been used on similar systems to detect failures. From these controls an engineer can learn how likely it is for a failure to be identified or detected. Each combination from the previous 2 steps, receives a detection number(D). This number represents the ability of planned tests and inspections at removing defects or detecting failure modes. After these 3 basic steps, Risk Priority Numbers (RPN) are calculated. Risk Priority Numbers RPN do not play an important part in the choice of an action against failure modes. They are more threshold values in the evaluation of these actions. After ranking the severity, occurrence and detectability the RPN can be easily calculated by multiplying these 3 numbers: RPN = S x O x D This has to be done for the entire process and/or design. Once this is done it is easy to determine the areas of greatest concern. The failure modes that have the highest RPN should be given the highest priority for corrective action. This means it is not always the failure modes with the highest severity numbers that should be treated first. There could be less severe failures, but which occur more often and are less detectable. QFD House of Quality MEANING: The voice of the customer from the market research and various benchmarking is linked to the technicalities of the design and process of the product both new and existing. Einstein College of Engineering

DEFINITION: It is kind of conceptual map that provides a means of interfunctional planning and communication. FEATURES: - Concept of matrix and its correlation - Plan as per the voice of the customer - Focus on Customers need and technicalities - WHAT the Customer wants and HOW to do it - It is base tool for quality planning managers WHAT - Customer requirement and priority HOW Technical description and priority Relationship with WHAT and HOW the main area Interrelationships Roof the cause of concern and importance

Step I List customer requirement WHAT Decide Primary and secondary needs of the customer Step II List technical descriptions HOW Again primary and secondary is decided Primary Material and Process Subdividing materials and process required Here current materials and process must be considered Step III Relation ship matrix between WHAT & HOW The crucial stage Relating WHAT & HOW Interlinking both primary and secondary No scope for variation Points and grading is done here Gives results of WHAT and HOW Key elements are discussed The Management decides the combination Costing and current process must be considered Step IV Interrelation matrix between HOWs The materials and manufacturing is analyzed Ratings are done Enables the decisions in the process Current process to be considered Technical knowledge is a must for the analyst Step V Our product with others Analyzing competitors products customer expectation Difficult to get data Mismatch in requirements is possible Helps in identifying customer trend Step VI Technical Competitive assessment Analyzing how the similar companies are handling To what they give importance. Impact on technical process to meet the customers request. Step VII Prioritize Technical Descriptors Degree of technical difficulty Most needed change is decided Target value Physical attributes to be considered Einstein College of Engineering

House of Quality Benefits Orderly way of obtaining information Shorter product development cycle Considerably reduced start up cost Fewer engineering changes Reduces design process Leads to teamwork Consensus decision Everything is preserved in writing Taguchi Quality Loss Function - L(y) = k(y-m)2 L(y) = Loss k = constant = cost to correct tolerance2 y = reported value m = mean value (average) (Taguchi On Robust Technology p. 22) Timing of FMEA The FMEA should be updated whenever: At the beginning of a cycle (new product/process) Changes are made to the operating conditions A change is made in the design New regulations are instituted Einstein College of Engineering

Customer feedback indicates a problem Uses of FMEA Development of system requirements that minimize the likelihood of failures. Development of methods to design and test systems to ensure that the failures have been eliminated. Evaluation of the requirements of the customer to ensure that those do not give rise to potential failures. Identification of certain design characteristics that contribute to failures, and minimize or eliminate those effects. Tracking and managing potential risks in the design. This helps avoid the same failures in future projects. Ensuring that any failure that could occur will not injure the customer or seriously impact a system. Advantages Improve the quality, reliability and safety of a product/process Improve company image and competitiveness Increase user satisfaction Reduce system development timing and cost Collect information to reduce future failures, capture engineering knowledge Reduce the potential for warranty concerns Early identification and elimination of potential failure modes Emphasis problem prevention Minimize late changes and associated cost Catalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between functions Disadvantages If used as a top-down tool, FMEA may only identify major failure modes in a system. Fault tree analysis (FTA) is better suited for "top-down" analysis. When used as a "bottom-up" tool FMEA can augment or complement FTA and identify many more causes and failure modes resulting in top-level symptoms. It is not able to discover complex failure modes involving multiple failures within a subsystem, or to report expected failure intervals of particular failure modes up to the upper level subsystem or system. Additionally, the multiplication of the severity, occurrence and detection rankings may result in rank reversals, where a less serious failure mode receives a higher RPN than a more serious failure mode. The reason for this is that the rankings are ordinal scale numbers, and multiplication is not a valid operation on them. The ordinal rankings only say that one ranking is better or worse than another, but not by how much. For instance, a ranking of "2" may not be twice as bad as a ranking of "1," or an "8" may not be twice as bad as a "4," but multiplication treats them as though they are. See Level of measurement for further discussion. Total Productive Maintenance Total = Overall features for production Productive = production of goods and services that meet expectation Maintenance = Keeping the equipments and plant as good as new and working condition Goals of TPM Maintaining and Improving equipment capacity Maintaining equipment for longer life Using support from all areas of operation Encouraging input from all employees Continuous improvement Improvement needs Machines expected to fail at one point or another minimise that risk Employees who use and work that machine give the first hand information Einstein College of Engineering

Six major loss areas in terms of time Downtime loss 1. Planned i) start ups ii) Shift change iii) tea / lunch breaks iv) planned maintenance 2. Unplanned i) Equipment breakdown ii) changeovers iii)lack of materials 3. Idling and minor stoppages 4. Slow downs 5. Process change 6. Scraps Calculating Equipment Effectiveness Downtime loss measured by equipment availability A = (T/P) X 100 A availability, T operating time (P D), P Planned operation time D- Downtime Performance efficiency E = (CXN/T) X 100 E Performance efficiency, C Theoretical cycle time, N Processed amount (qty) Rate of quality products R = (N-Q/N)X 100 R Rate of quality products, N = Processed amount Q nonconformities Equipment effectiveness EE = AXEXR

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UNIT V Need for ISO, 9000 and other quality systems, ISO 9000:2000 Quality systems Elements, Implementation of quality system, Documentation, Quality Auditing, TS 16949, ISO 14000 Concept, Requirement and Benefits Unit overview: This unit mainly focuses on external certification particularly ISO. Why and organisation needs to go for such certifications. What are the various types of certification and sector specific certification etc. Concept of QMS is discussed and its need for ISO 9000 series. The lateral part deals with EMS and ISO certification in regard to Environment that is ISO 14000 series. History of ISO International Organisation for Standardisation Post World War II BS 5750 ISO founded in 1946 Switzerland, Geneva. 1987 - ISO 9000: 1987 - Three models of quality ISO 9001: 1987 Design Development etc ISO 9002: 1987 Production, installation, service etc ISO 9003: 1987 Quality assurance, inspection, testing etc ISO 9000:1994 ISO 9001: 2000 combined the three to one standard. ISO 9000: 2008 latest with technical committee Similar certifications ANSI American National Standard Institute EC European Community ASQ 9000 American Society for Quality DOD Department of Defence FDA Food and Drug Administration ISI Indian Standards Institute BIS Hallmark Bureau of Indian Standards Basic Requirements of ISO 9001 1. Procedure to cover all processes in the business 2. Monitoring process to ensure effectiveness 3. Keeping adequate record 4. Defect verification and appropriate correction 5. Regular review of individual processes 6. Facilitating continual improvement Benefits of ISO Registration 1. Increase in internal quality reduction of scrap, rework etc 2. Production reliability measure of breakdowns, time and shift management etc 3. External quality acceptance by customers, less claims, return of goods 4. Time performance marketing, delivery, production time etc 5. Cost of poor quality scraps and rework ISO 9000 Family ISO 9000:2000 QMS Fundamental and Vocabulary - Basic QMS - Guidance document for certification - Revised in ISO 9000:2005 ISO 9001:2000 QMS Requirements - Design, development and installation Einstein College of Engineering

- Customer satisfaction through products and service ISO 9004:2000 QMS Guidelines for Performance - Continuous improvement - Enhance the mature system Sector Specific Standards Need One system may not cover all industry Sector specific standard work in hand with regular ISO Work in tandem with certifying bodies of such industry AS91000 1997 for Aerospace industry. Boeing was the brain behind it. NASA, DOD, FAA Common in USA, Europe and Japan ISO/TS 16949 March 2002 Technical Specification System for Automotive Suppliers In collaboration with US big 3 Ford, GM, Chrysler with German, French, Italy and Japan Accepted by Asian automakers they benefit a lot. Helps in Continuous improvement, defect prevention, variation reduction and supply chain Levels ISO 9000, sector specific and company requirement TL 9000 - 1998 QuEST Quality Excellence for Supplies of Telecommunications formed TL9000 Standards designed by Motorola, Lucent, Verizon, Southwest bell, AT&T. Along with ISO 9001 they have their own standard to deliver the need of customers Five Layers ISO 9001 Requirement Common TL9000 Requirement QSR Quality Standard Requirement HW Specific SW Specific Service Specific Common TL9000 Measurement QSM Quality Standard Measurement HW Specific SW Specific Service Specific ISO/TS 29001:2007 Petroleum, Petro chemical and Natural gas QMS for the above ISO 14001:2004 Environment Management System EMS Focus of Pollution, emission, recycling etc ISO IEC 9003:2004 International Electrotechnical Commission Software products and related service AS9100 Aerospace industry ISO/TS 16949 Technical Specification for Automotive Suppliers TL 9000 1998 Telecommunications ISO/TS 29001:2007 Petroleum, Petro chemical and Natural gas ISO 14001:2004 Environment Management System EMS ISO IEC 9003:2004 Electrotechnical Software products Implementation of QMS 2. Top management commitment flow of action starts from the top Einstein College of Engineering

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Appointment of management representative qualified, trained, eager, participative Awareness to all employees in the organisation Implementation team constitute a council from all departments Training when new things are implemented then training is must Time schedule process time, change time, implementation, parallel process Review present system how the new is different and better from current Write documents step by step process Install new system implementation, change and acceptance take time Internal audit inspection, check and review Management review report to the top management Registration apply for registration

Documentation 1. Policy 2. Procedure 3. Work instructions 4. Records 5. Document Development Internal Audits Objectives determine actual performance, initiate corrective action, follow up, provide continuous improvement through feedback, Auditor trained profs, ASQ updates training, written and oral comm., honesty, unbiased etc Techniques Examine, Observe and interviews. Procedure check list, documentation procedure, priority list etc Registration Selecting a Registrar - ASQ member, Registrar Accreditation Board RAB. 1. Qualification and Experience Track record, client list, industry specific 2. Certificate of Recognition authenticity of the registrar, reference, customer check 3. Registration process structured process, help quality and productivity, efficiency 4. Time and cost constraints period of the process, additional fees etc 5. Auditor qualifications know the industry standard, types of process, knowledge. Interest etc Registration process Application for Registration Basic process with the authorised registrar. With initial supporting docs, fees, time frame etc. Mutuality Document Review Scrutiny of docs and QMS, compare with latest ISO standards Preassessment overview of docs with the process, identify major flaws Assessment Actual doing, certifies audit is compared with internal audit. Less scope for variation Registration verbal summary, audit findings, minor non compliances and feedbacks are recorded. Follow up of surveillance periodicity of future visit. Random checks, registration valid for 3 years

ISO 14000

The success of ISO 9000 series made the ISO think further and concentrate more on environmental issues which is a threat to basic living of mankind. 1991 Formed SAGE Strategic Advisory Group on the Environment it lead to 1992 TC207 a Technical Committee Two different set of standards where formed Organisational Evaluation Standard Product Evaluation Standard Environmental Management System EMS Environmental Aspects in Product Standards EAPS 14001 Formal Basic document Guide 64 consequences, criteria, elements of standards Einstein College of Engineering

14004 Guidelines, Techniques Environmental Auditing EA 14010 Info of internal and external audit 14011 Audit plan, procedure, implements, reports 14012 auditor qualification, training, skills Environmental Performance Evaluation EPE 14031 guidelines, track performance, records, monitoring and measuring

Environment Labelling EL 14020 Basic principles, goals, benefits 14021 Self declaration, accurate, verifiable 14022 Basic symbols for use 14023 Test and verification. Genuineness 14024 Multiple criteria, third party labelling etc Life Cycle Assessment LCA 14040 Principles, framework. Long range effect 14041 Definition and scope, preparation guidelines 14042 Impact assessment, significance of results 14043 Improvement Assessment. Perfect system

Concept of ISO 14001

Environmental Policy

Periodic Management Review

Planning

Continuous process

Check and correct Action

Implementation and Operation

Key words Environment Surrounding not just local but global. As air, water, land and natural resources are universal. Environment Aspects In terms of organisations activities by its products, process and service. Discharge waste management, emission, energy conservation Environment impact How the above impacts the environment Environmental objective overall policy of the organisation and their plans for protection Environmental target Set goals towards protecting the environment Requirement of ISO 14001 General Requirement EMS policy and activities Environment Policy - Top management commitment and direction - Current activities and future plans - Policy must be made public Planning - Environmental Aspects - Legal and other Requirements Einstein College of Engineering

- Objectives and targets - Environment Management Program Implementation - Structure and responsibility and operation - Training, awareness, competency - Communication - EMS Documentation - Document control - Operational Control - Emergency preparedness and response Checking and - Monitoring and measuring Corrective action - Corrective and preventive action - Records - EMS Audit Management Review - Review objective and targets - Review performance against legal requirement Benefits of EMS Global trade and barrier removal, improve ems, earth a safe place to live. Organisational customers are aware, good image, reduce env hazards, energy conservation Health and safety employees knows ems is good for him, ems leads to safety security and longevity Not just employees but the society as a whole.

Quality is not an act. It is a habit Aristotle 384BC-322BC, Greek philosopher Quality is doing the things right every time Quality and education a never ending process

Einstein College of Engineering