Heat flow in welding

Subjects of Interest

Heat sources Heat source and melting efficiency Analysis of heat flow in welding Effects of welding parameter Weld thermal simulator

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Objectives

This chapter provides information of heat flow during welding, which can strongly affect phase transformation, microstructure, and properties of the welds. Students are required to indicate heat source and power density used in different welding methods, which affect the melting efficiency.

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Welding heat sources

Electrical sources Arc welding Resistance welding Electroslag Heat intensity ~ 106-108 Wm-2 Chemical sources Oxyfuel gas welding Thermit welding Heat intensity ~ 106-108 Wm-2 Other sources Diffusion welding Mechanical sources Friction (stir) welding Heat intensity ~ 104-106 Wm-2 Ultrasonic welding (15-75 KHz) Explosion welding (EXW)

High energy sources Laser beam welding Electron beam welding Heat intensity ~ 1010-1012 Wm-2
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Welding Arc
A welding arc consists of a sustained electrical discharge through a high temperature, conducting plasma, producing (ionic gas or plasma sufficient thermal energy as to be useful for the joining of metal by with electric current fusion. Gaseous conductor changes electrical energy into heat. Arc produces sources of heat + radiation (careful proper protection)
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Characteristics

passing through)

required

bell shaped arc

Welding arc
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Gas metal arc welding

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Emission of electron at cathode

Emission of electrons at cathode occurs when an amount of energy required to remove the electron from a material (liquid or solid). This amount of energy per electron is called work function. (analogous to ionization potential)
Material Al Cu Fe Mg W BaO, SrO Thoria CsO Al2O3 Work function, eV 3.8-4.3 1.1-1.7 3.5-4 3.1-3.7 4.3-5.3 0.95 2.5 0.75 <2.5

Emission occurs mainly by two processes; 1) Cold cathode At low pressure, high voltage conditions, positive ions are accelerated toward the cathode and bombard the cathode with relatively high energy. 2) Thermal emission At high temperature some electrons acquire enough thermal energy to overcome the work function and become free electrons.
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Plasma formation
States of matter Solid Melting Liquid Vaporization Gas Ionization Plasma (neutral atoms/molecules)

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Plasma consists of ionized state of a gas composed of nearly equal numbers of electrons and ions, which can react to electric or magnetic fields. Electrons, which support most of the current conduction, flow from cathode terminal (-) to anode terminal (+).

(negative charges Neutral plasma can be established and positive ions) by thermal means by collision process, which requires the attainment of equilibrium temperature according to ionization potential of the materials.
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Ionization potential

Element/Compound He Ar H2 N2 O2 CO2 CO C

Ionization Potential (Volts or eV) 24.6 15.8 15.4 15.6 12.1 13.8 14.1 11.3 8.2 7.9 7.6 5.1 4.3 3.9

Energy

Si Fe Ni Na K Cs

Ionization potential, Vi, required to strip an electron from an outer shell of and atom or M+.

Plasma temperature = Ionization potential x 1000 K

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Power in arc
The electrical power is dissipated in three regions of the arc: anode, cathode and plasma column. The area at cathode and anode has strong effects on arc configuration, the flow of the heat energy to the terminal affecting shape and depth of the fusion zone. Arc area is mainly divided into three zones;
Power (Parc)

Cathode -

Pc

Heat

1) Anode
Pa = IE a
Pa

Anode +
Energy dissipation in the arc

2) Cathode
Pc = IE c

3) Plasma arc column

Parc = I (dE arc / dl )l
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Note: Most heat goes to the anode/cathode and most is lost radially from the arc
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Temperature in the arc and heat loss

The arc temperature ~ 5000-30,000 K depending on the nature of plasma and current. The arc temperature is determined by measuring the spectral radiation emitted.
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Heat losses in the arc Energy losses by heat conduction and convection, radiation and diffusion. In Ar gas, radiation loss ~ 20% while in other welding gas, radiation loss <10%.

Plasma temperature contour in the arc

Temp

Radiation loss Heat loss

Note: The use of fluxing reduces radiation lost

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Polarity
There are three different types of current used in arc welding

1) Direct-Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) 2) Direct-Current Electrode Positive (DCEP) 3) Alternating current (AC)

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Direct-Current Electrode Negative (DCEN)

Also called straight polarity. Electrons are emitted from the negative tungsten electrode and accelerated while travelling through the arc. Most commonly used in GTAW. Relatively narrow and deep weld pool is produced due to high energy. DCEN in GMAW makes the arc unstable and causes excessive spatter, large droplet size of metal and the arcs forces the droplets away from the workpiece. This is due to a low rate of electron emission from the negative electrode.

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Direct-Current Electrode Positive (DCEP)

Also called reverse polarity. The electrode is connected to the positive terminal of the power source, therefore the heating affect is now at the tungsten electrode rather than the workpiece. shallow weld for welding thin sheets. At low current in Ar, the size of the droplet ~ the size of the electrode Globular transfer. The droplet size is inversely proportional to the current and the droplets are released at the rate of a few per second. At above the critical current the droplets are released at the rate of hundreds per second (spray mode). Positive irons clean off the oxide surface.

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Surface cleaning action

DCEP can be employed to clean the surface of the workpiece by knocking off oxide films by the positive ions of the shielding gas.

Ex: cleaning of Al2O3 oxide film (Tm ~2054oC) on aluminium to make melting of the metal underneath the oxide film easier.

Surface cleaning action in GTAW with DC electrode positive.

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Alternating Current (AC)

Reasonably good penetration and oxide cleaning action can be both obtained. Often used for welding aluminium alloys.

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Heat source efficiency

In the case of arc welding, having a constant voltage E and a constant current I, the arc efficiency can be expressed as;

=
Where

Qt weld Qt weld Q = = Qno min al t weld EIt weld EI

Eq.2

Q is the rate of heat transfer Qnominal is the heat input tweld is the welding time

In cases of electron beam and laser beam welding, Qnominal is the power heat source of the electron beam and laser beam respectively. The term, heat input per unit length of weld often refers to

Qno min al EI , or V V
Where Qnominal or EI V Qnominal / V is the heat input is the welding speed is heat input per unit length of weld

Eq.3

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Heat source efficiency measurement

Heat source efficiency can be measured using a calorimeter (by measuring the heat transfer from the heat source to the workpiece and then to the calorimeter). The temperature rise in the cooling water (Tout-Tin) can be measured using thermocouples or thermistors. Heat transfer from the workpiece to the calorimeter is given by
Eq.4

Qt weld = WC (Tout Tin )dt WC (Tout Tin )dt

0 0

Where

W C Tout Tin t

is the mass flow rate of water is the specific heat of water is the outlet water temperature is the inlet water temperature is time

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Note: This integral corresponds to the shaded area, and can be used to calculated the arc efficiency .

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Heat source efficiency measurement

The arc efficiency can also be measured using Seebeck envelope calorimeter. This technique utilises thermocouple junctions for sensing temperature difference. The heat transfer from the workpiece to the calorimeter can be determined by measuring the temperature different T and hence gradient across a gradient layer of material of known thermal conductivity k and thickness L.

Qt weld = A k
0

T dt L

Eq.5

Where

A T/L

is the area for heat flow is temperature gradient

Layer of temperature gradient for heat source efficiency measurement.

Note: this type of calorimeter is used to determine the arc efficiencies in PAW, GMAW, and SAW.
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Heat source efficiency measurement

In GMAW the arc, metal droplets, and the cathode heating contribute to the efficiency of the heat source. Lu and Kou used a combination of three calorimeters to estimate the amounts of heat transfer from the arc, filler metal droplets and the cathode heating to the workpiece in GMAW of aluminium.

(a) Measured results, (b) breakdown of power inputs.

(a) Heat transfer from metal droplets (b) Total heat inputs (c) Heat inputs from arc and metal droplets.

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Heat source efficiency in various welding processes

LBW Heat source efficiency is low because of the high reflectivity. Heat source efficiency is much higher than LBW (no reflectivity). Heat source efficiency is higher than GTAW or SMAW since the arc is covered with thermally insulating blanket of molten slag and granular flux. Heat source efficiency is high due to the keyhole acting like a black body trapping the energy from electron beam.
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PAW

SAW

EBW
Heat source efficiencies in several welding processes.
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Melting efficiency
Melting efficiency is the ability of the heat source to melt the base metal (as well as the filler metal).

Aweld = Afiller +Abase

Cross section of weld

The melting efficiency of the arc m can be defined as follows Where V Hbase Hfiller tweld

m =

( AbaseVt weld ) H base + ( A filler Vt weld ) H filler

EIt weld
Eq.7

V is the welding speed m is the energy required to raise a unit volume of tweld base metal to the melting point and melt it. is the energy required to raise a unit volume of filler metal to the melting point and melt it. is the welding time. Note: the quantity inside the parentheses represents the volume of material melted while the denominator represents the heat transfer from the heat source to the workpiece.
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Melting efficiency
(a) shallow welds of lower melting efficiency, (b) (b) deeper weld of higher melting efficiency.

Low heat input Low welding speed

High heat input High welding speed

Aweld = Afiller +Abase

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Power density distribution of heat source

Power density distribution is influenced by 1) Electrode tip angle 2) Electrode tip geometry Sharp electrode Arc diameter Power density distribution

Blunter electrode Arc diameter Power density distribution

Effect of electrode tip angle on shape and power density distribution of gas-tungsten arc.

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Effect of electrode tip angle on shape of gas tungsten arc and power density

Conical angle of electrode tip

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The arc becomes more constricted

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Analysis of heat flow in welding

Heat or temperature distribution occurring during welding greatly affect microstructure of the weld, hence, the weld properties

The temperature-distance profile shows that the heat source travels along the weld in the direction A-A at a constant speed. As the heat source moves on, the cooling rates around the weld are very high. A more intense heat source will give a steeper profile and the HAZ, which will be confined to a narrower region.

Temperature distribution round a typical weld

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Effect of temperature gradient on weld microstructure

The temperature gradients in the liquid weld material are substantially higher than in most casting processes. This leads to high solidification rates which produce a finer dendritic structure than that observed in most castings.

Microstructures occurring in a weld and its HAZ.

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Effect of welding parameters

Effect of heat input Q and welding speed V on the weld pool. Effect of heat input on cooling rate. Effect of the power density distribution of the heat source on the weld shape. Heat sink effect of workpiece.

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Effect of heat input and welding speed on the weld pool

The shape and size of the weld pool is significantly affected by heat input Q and the welding speed V. Heat input Welding speed The weld pool becomes more elongated.

Note: the cross indicates the position of the electrode.

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Effect of heat input on cooling rate

The cooling rate in ESW (high Q/V) is much smaller than that in arc welding. Heat input per unit length EI/V Cooling rate

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Effect of power density distribution on weld shape

Power density

Weld penetration

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Heat sink effect of the workpiece

The cooling rate increases with the thickness of the workpiece due to the heat sink effect. Thicker workpiece acts as a better heat sink to cool the weld down.

Brass with a higher melting point than that of aluminium is used as a heat sink to increase the cooling rate in aluminium welding.
Blass heat sink is clamped behind aluminium to be welded.
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References
Kou, S., Welding metallurgy, 2nd edition, 2003, John Willey and Sons, Inc., USA, ISBN 0-471-43491-4. Gourd, L.M., Principles of welding technology, 3rd edition, 1995, Edward Arnold, ISBN 0 340 61399 8.

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