AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

distance by timing the propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals by sending and receiving pulse pairs two pulses of fixed duration and separation invented by Edward George "Taffy" Bowen ground stations are typically collocated with VORs

DME system is composed of a UHF transmitter/receiver (interrogator) in the aircraft and a UHF receiver/transmitter (transponder) on the ground.

A radio pulse takes around 12.36 microseconds to travel one nautical mile to and from, this is also referred to as a radar-mile.

The time difference between interrogation and reply minus the 50 microsecond ground transponder delay is measured by the interrogator's timing circuitry and translated into a distance measurement in nautical miles which is then displayed in the cockpit.

DME interrogator uses frequencies from 1025 to 1150 MHz DME transponders transmit on a channel in the 962 to 1150 MHz range and receive on a corresponding channel between 962 to 1213 MHz

The band is divided into 126 channels for interrogation and 126 channels for transponder replies The interrogation and reply frequencies always differ by 63 MHz DME facilities identify themselves with a 1350 Hz morse code three letter identity

the physical distance from the aircraft to the DME transponder depends trigonometrically upon both the altitude above the transponder and the ground distance from it

TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN)

Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)

provides the user with a distance and bearing from a ground station provides the following pieces of information:
Bearing - provides magnetic bearing to the station you are tuned to Distance - slant range to the station up to 390 nautical miles

To/From - flying away or towards your station. Beacon Identifier Tone (BIT) - audio information consists of a morse code trail for identification of the station you are tuned to Reliability - warning flag information lets you know if the system is reliable

TACAN station with no aircraft initially modulates squitter onto the carrier, which is basically random noise generated so that the waveform is the proper length. So basically, you end up with a signal which is simply noise:

When an aircraft flies into range which is transmitting distance interrogations, the station will pick these interrogations up and generate an appropriate response by pulse modulating DME data into the waveform.

every 30 seconds, the station modulates station identification in the form of BIT data onto the carrier:

 RF energy from the TACAN transmitter is fed to the antenna Parasitic elements positioned around it are electronically rotated at 15 revolutions per minute

The distance of the parasitic element are chosen to obtain a radiation pattern that looks like this:

as the reflector moves, the outward lobe of the cardioid-like radiation pattern moves around this creates a physically amplitude modulated signal, which each aircraft sees differently. Because of the rotating radiation pattern, the waveform is variable for aircraft at different radials, but all aircraft receive the reference signal at the same time

the aircraft determines its bearing from the station by looking at the waveform of the signal and where the main reference burst is pulse encoded.

To provide more accurate bearing information, TACAN uses the same principle again to calculate fine bearing. Yet another rotating element with 9 reflectors produces even more amplitude variations. Again, there is a reference point for the variable amplitude variations. This comes in the form of 9 auxillary reference bursts:

And, of course, you still have your main reference burst:

DME responses:

And BIT, at 30 second intervals:

composite signal (listed below in order of priority): 1. MRB - Main Reference Burst 2. ARB - Auxillary Reference Bursts 3. BIT - 1350Hz Beacon Identification Tone 4. DME - Distance Measurement Equipment 5. 2700Hz Squitter/Filler

TRAFFIC COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)

Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

an aircraft collision avoidance system designed to reduce the incidence of mid-air collisions between aircraft monitors the airspace around an aircraft for other aircraft equipped with a corresponding active transponder, independent of air traffic control, and warns pilots of the presence of other transponderequipped aircraft which may present a threat of mid-air collision It is an implementation mandated by International Civil Aviation Organization to be fitted to all aircraft with maximum take-off mass over 5700 kg or authorised to carry more than 19 passengers.

TCAS involves communication between all aircraft equipped with an appropriate transponder Each TCAS-equipped aircraft "interrogates" all other aircraft in a determined range about their, and all other craft reply to other it determines if a potential collision threat exists

automatically negotiating a mutual avoidance maneuver between the conflicting aircraft avoidance maneuvers are communicated to the flight crew by a cockpit display and by synthesized voice instructions

Versions of TCAS

A. Passive
Collision Avoidance systems which rely on transponder replies triggered by ground and airborne systems generally have a range of less than 7 nautical miles

B. TCAS I
monitor the traffic situation around a plane (to a range of about 40 miles) and offer information on the approximate bearing and altitude of other aircraft It can also generate collision warnings in the form of a "Traffic Advisory does not offer any suggested remedy

Versions of TCAS

C. TCAS II
offers all the benefits of TCAS I offer the pilot direct, vocalized instructions to avoid danger, known as a "Resolution Advisory TCAS II systems coordinate their resolution advisories before issuing commands to the pilots vertical separation advisories

D. TCAS III
"next generation" of collision avoidance technology had the capability to offer traffic advisories and resolve traffic conflicts using horizontal as well as vertical manouevring directives currently suspended and there are no plans for its implementation

TCAS Limitations
limited to supporting only vertical separation advisories ATC isn't automatically informed about resolution advisories TCAS lacks automated facilities, increases pilot workload Lack of terrain/ground awareness information TCAS is not fitted to many smaller aircraft mainly due to the high costs

Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

displays aircraft heading and bearing to selected radio navigation aids. Most RMI incorporate two direction needles. Typically, the thin, single-barred needle is connected to an ADF/TACAN and the other thicker and/or double-barred is connected to a VOR. Heading indicator direction of the aircraft in relation to magnetic north Bearing indicator the actual bearing to the station

Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) / Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS)

Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

Invention of Don Bateman alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground. Ground-Collision Warning System (GCWS) the system is purely reactive and can not look ahead at terrain can not always give pilots sufficient time to predict and plan avoidance maneuvers

A computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and will warn the captain with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined flying configurations ("modes").

Mode 1 - Excessive Decent Rate

Has two (2) boundaries and is independent of vehicle configuration.

Mode 4 - Unsafe Terrain Clearance Mode 4a - Clean Configuration

terrain clearance mode with the gear retracted and is armed after take off upon climbing through 215 meters AGL

Mode 2 - Excessive Terrain Closure Rate

Monitors airspeed, AGL altitude and AGL rate-of-change, MSL altitude and vehicle configuration.

Mode 4b - Landing Configuration

provides an alert when the gear is down and the flaps are not in landing position

Mode 5 - Below Glideslope Deviation Alert

alerts you of a descent of more than 1.3 dots below an ILS glideslope

Mode 3 - Altitude Loss After Takeoff Or Rejected Landing

Provides an alert if a decent is made during initial climb or climb after rejected landing

Mode 6 - Excessive Bank Angle For Altitude

alerts when descending through selected decision height with gear down

Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System

the EGPWS displays the surrounding terrain (up to 320 NM) on an EFIS screen or weather radar CRT, and provides alerts about a minute's flight time or more away from terrain On-board computers can compare its current location with a database of the Earth's terrain. Pilots will receive much more timely cautions and warnings of any obstructions to the aircraft's path.

The Black Box

The Black Box

Although they are called "black boxes," aviation recorders are actually painted bright orange. Data from both the CVR and FDR is stored on stacked memory boards inside the crash-survivable memory unit (CSMU) The black box is powered by one of two power generators that draw their power from the plane's engines. One generator is a 28-volt DC power source, and the other is a 115-volt, 400-hertz (Hz) AC power source

A. Flight Data Recorder

first prototype FDR was produced in 1957 by Dr David Warren typically double wrapped, in strong corrosionresistant stainless steel or titanium, with hightemperature insulation inside

Crash - Survivable Memory Unit

a cylindrical compartment on the recorde device is engineered to withstand extreme heat, violent crashes and tons of pressure. In older magnetic-tape recorders, the CSMU is inside a rectangular box. Using three layers of materials, the CSMU in a solid-state black box insulates and protects the stack of memory boards that store the digitized information

Three Layers of Crash - Survivable Memory Unit

1. Aluminum housing - There is a thin layer of aluminum around the stack of memory cards. 2. High-temperature insulation - This dry-silica material is 1 inch (2.54 cm) thick and provides high-temperature thermal protection. This is what keeps the memory boards safe during post-accident fires. 3. Stainless-steel shell - The high-temperature insulation material is contained within a stainless-steel cast shell that is about 0.25 inches (0.64 cm) thick. Titanium can be used to create this outer armor as well.

There are several tests that make up the crash-survival sequence:

1.

Crash impact

- Researchers shoot the CSMU down an air cannon to create an impact of 3,400 Gs (1 G is the force of Earth's gravity, which determines how much something weighs). At 3,400 Gs, the CSMU hits an aluminum, honeycomb target at a force equal to 3,400 times its weight. This impact force is equal to or in excess of what a recorder might experience in an actual crash. - To test the unit's penetration resistance, researchers drop a 500-pound (227-kg) weight with a 0.25-inch steel pin protruding from the bottom onto the CSMU from a height of 10 feet (3 m). This pin, with 500-pounds behind it, impacts the CSMU cylinder's most vulnerable axis. - For five minutes, researchers apply 5,000 pounds per square-inch (psi) of crush force to each of the unit's six major axis points. - Researchers place the unit into a propane-source fireball, cooking it using three burners. The unit sits inside the fire at 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,100 C) for one hour. The FAA requires that all solid-state recorders be able to survive at least one hour at this temperature. - The CSMU is placed into a pressurized tank of salt water for 24 hours.

2.

Pin drop

3. 4.

Static crush Fire test

5. 6.

Deep-sea submersion

Salt-water submersion - The CSMU must survive in a salt water tank for 30 days. 7. Fluid immersion - Various CSMU components are placed into a variety of aviation fluids,
including jet fuel, lubricants and fire-extinguisher chemicals.

FDR Record Parameters

prior to September 30, 1969, record six flight parameters: altitude; airspeed; heading; vertical acceleration; time of day; and the relative time of radio transmissions to and from air traffic controllers. Airplanes certificated after that date were required to record a total of 11 parameters, adding to the list: pitch attitude, roll attitude, longitudinal acceleration, controlcolumn position, and engine thrust indications. Then, it had to record 17 parameters on any flight after May 25, 1994. The six additional parameters included: pitch trim position; control wheel position; rudder pedal position; position of each thrust reverser; trailing-edge flap position; and leading-edge flap position.

FDR Record Parameters Currently, there are 88 parameters required as a minimum a few of the parameters recorded by most FDRs:
- Time - Pressure altitude - Airspeed - Vertical acceleration - Magnetic heading -Control-column position - Rudder-pedal position - Control-wheel position - Horizontal stabilizer - Fuel flow - Control and actuator positions, - Engine information

FDR Location

Black boxes are usually sold directly to and installed by the airplane manufacturers. Black boxes are installed in the tail of the plane. The entire front of the aircraft acts as a "crush zone" to reduce the shock that reaches the recorder. The precise location of the recorders depends on the individual plane. Sometimes they are located in the ceiling of the galley, in the aft cargo hold or in the tail cone that covers the rear of the aircraft.

Retrieving Data

With the data retrieved from the FDR, the Safety Board can generate a computer animated video reconstruction of the flight. The investigator can then visualize the airplane's attitude, instrument readings, power settings and other characteristics of the flight. This animation enables the investigating team to visualize the last moments of the flight before the accident. Black boxes are also equipped with an Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB). If a plane crashes into the water, this beacon sends out an ultrasonic pulse at 37.5 kilohertz (kHz) that cannot be heard by human ears but is readily detectable by sonar and acoustical locating equipment. There is a submergence sensor on the side of the beacon that looks like a bull's-eye. When water touches this sensor, it activates the beacon. computer animated video reconstruction of the flight.

B. COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER

There may be up to four microphones in the plane's cockpit, each connected to the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) Any sounds in the cockpit are picked up by these microphones and sent to the CVR, where the recordings are digitized and stored. There is also another device in the cockpit, called the associated control unit that provides pre-amplification for audio going to the CVR. The positions of the four microphones are: 1. Pilot's headset 2. Co-pilot's headset 3. Headset of a third crew member (if there is a third crew member) 4. Near the center of the cockpit, where it can pick up audio alerts and other sounds

Most magnetic-tape CVRs store the last 30 minutes of sound. They use a continuous loop of tape that completes a cycle every 30 minutes. As new material is recorded, the oldest material is replaced. CVRs that used solid-state storage can record two hours of audio. Similar to the magnetic-tape recorders, solid-state recorders also record over old material

Retrieving Data

A CVR committee usually consisting of members from the NTSB, FAA, operator of the aircraft, manufacturer of the airplane, manufacturer of the engines, and the pilots union, is formed to listen to the recording. This committee creates a written transcript of the CVR audio to be used during the investigation. The CVR records the flight crew's voices, as well as other sounds inside the cockpit. From the sounds, parameters such as engine rpm, system failures, speed, and the time at which certain events occur can often be determined. Communications with Air Traffic Control, automated radio weather briefings, and conversation between the pilots and ground or cabin crew are also recorded