SPM Chemistry Form 5 Terminology and Concepts: Oxidation and Reduction (Part 1)

Rusting of Iron Nails Redox reaction chemical reactions in which both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously. 1) Oxidation

gain of oxygen, O2 by a substance loss of hydrogen, H2 from a substance a loss of electrons occurs when there is an increase in oxidation number

2) Reduction

loss of oxygen, O2 by a substance gain of hydrogen, H2 from a substance a gain of electrons occurs when there is an decrease in oxidation number

Oxidation Number is the charge that the atom of the element would have if complete transfer of electron takes place. IUPAC nomenclature name inorganic compounds in order to avoid confusion due to elements have variable oxidation numbers. Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Gain and Loss of Oxygen 2CuO (s) + C (s) > 2Cu (s) + CO2 (g)

Reduction: CuO loses its oxygen to form copper. CuO (oxidising agent) is being reduced. Oxidation: Carbon gains oxygen to form CO2. Carbon (reducing agent) is said to be oxidised.

PbO (s) + CO (g) > Pb (s) + CO2 (g)

Reduction: PbO loses its oxygen to form lead. PbO (oxidising agent) is being reduced. Oxidation: Carbon monoxide (CO) gains oxygen to form CO2. Carbon monoxide (reducing agent) is said to be oxidised.

H2 (g) + CuO (s) > H2O (l) + Cu (s)

Reduction: CuO loses its oxygen to form copper. CuO (oxidising agent) is being reduced. Oxidation: Hydrogen (H2) gains oxygen to form H2O. Hydrogen (reducing agent) is said to be oxidised.

Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Gain and Loss of Hydrogen H2S (g) + Cl2 (g) > S (s) + 2HCl (g)

Reduction: Cl2 gains hydrogen to form hydrogen chloride. Cl2 (oxidising agent) is being reduced. Oxidation: Hydrogen sulphide loses hydrogen to form sulphur. Hydrogen sulphide (reducing agent) is said to be oxidised.

2NH3 (g) + 3Br2 (g) > N2 (g) + 6HBr (g)

Reduction: Bromine gains hydrogen to form hydrogen bromide. Br2 (oxidising agent) is being reduced. Oxidation: Ammonia loses hydrogen to form nitrogen. Ammonia (reducing agent) is said to be oxidised. Oxidation Number is the charge that the atom of the element would have if complete transfer of electron takes place. Oxidation number (i) Free elements have an oxidation number of zero. Na = 0 Mg = 0 C=0 H2 = 0 Br2 = 0

(ii) Oxidation number of a simple monoatomic ions is the same as its charge. Na+ ion = +1 Mg2+ ion = +2 O2- ion = -2 Cl- ion = -1 H+ ion = +1 (iii) Sum of the oxidation number for a neutral compound is zero. CaH2 (+2) + 2(-1) =0 Sum of oxidation number is 0 Al2O3 2(+3) + 3(-2) =0 Sum of oxidation number is 0 Iodine, Bromine, Chlorine, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine > Electronegativity increase Cl2O 2(+1) + (-2) =0 Sum of oxidation number is 0. (Chlorine, bromine and iodine usually have the oxidation number of -1 except when combine with a more electronegative element.) HClO (+1) + (+1) + (-2) =0 Sum of oxidation number is 0. (Chlorine, bromine and iodine usually have the oxidation number of -1 except when combine with a more electronegative element.) (iv) Polyatomic ion, the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms equals the charge on the ion. SO4 2(+6) + 4 (-2) = +6 + (-8) = -2 Sum of oxidation number is -2 Cr2O722(+6) + 7(-2) = -2 Sum of oxidation number is -2 (v) Calculating the oxidation numbers of elements in compounds or ions. K2Cr2O7 2 (+1) + 2x + 7 (-2) = 0 x = +6 Oxidation number of chromium in K2Cr2O7 is +6 NO3x + 3(-2) = -1 x = +5 Oxidation number of nitrogen in NO3- is +5

Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 2(+1) + 2x = 0 x = -1 Oxidation number of oxygen in H2O2 is -1 (and not -2) (Usually oxidation number for combined oxygen usually is -2 except in peroxides) F2O 2(-1) + x = 0 x = +2 Oxidation number of oxygen in F2O is +2 (and not -2) (Usually oxidation number for combined oxygen usually is -2 except in fluorine compounds) NaH (+1) + x = 0 x = -1 Oxidation number of hydrogen in NaH is -1 (and not +1) (Usually oxidation number for combined hydrogen usually is +1 except in metal hydrides) AlH3 (+3) + 3x = 0 x = -1 Oxidation number of hydrogen in AlH3 is -1 (and not +1) (Usually oxidation number for combined hydrogen usually is +1 except in metal hydrides) MgH2 (+2) + 2x = 0 x = -1 Oxidation number of hydrogen in MgH2 is -1 (and not +1) (Usually oxidation number for combined hydrogen usually is +1 except in metal hydrides) (vi) Some metals show different oxidation numbers. Oxidation number of manganese +2 +4 +6 +7 Oxidation number of chromium +6 +6

Compound MnSO4 MnO2 K2MnO4 KMnO4 Compound K2CrO4 K2Cr2O7

(vii) Usually non-metals have negative oxidation numbers but Cl, Br & I can have positive or negative oxidation number. Oxidation number of chlorine -1 +4 +7

Compound HCl ClO2 HClO4

Stay tune for the next installment in the Oxidation and Reduction series with focus on the difference between redox reaction and non-redox reactions.

Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Changes in Oxidation Numbers Redox reactions oxidation number of all elements change. Rusting of iron, combustion, displacement of metal from its salt solution, displacement of halogen from its halide solution and electrolysis are redox reaction. -10 . -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +10 <- Reduction || Oxidation ->

H2 (g) + CuO (s) > H2O (l) + Cu (s) Hydrogen: 0 > +1 (Oxidised to water & Hydrogen is a reducing agent) Copper oxide: +2 > 0 (Reduced to copper & Copper oxide is a oxidising agent) 2Zn (s) + O2 (g) > 2ZnO (s) Zinc: 0 > +2 (Oxidised to zinc ion & Zinc is a reducing agent) Oxygen: 0 > -2 (Reduced to oxide ion & Oxygen is an oxidising agent) 2Mg (s) + CO2 (g) > 2MgO (s) + C (s) Magnesium: 0 > +2 (Oxidised to magnesium ion & Magnesium is a reducing agent) Carbon dioxide: +4 > 0 (Reduced to carbon & Carbon dioxide is an oxidising agent) Br2 (l) + 2HI (aq) > 2HBr (aq) + I2 (s) Hydroiodic acid / Hydrogen iodide: -1 > 0 (Oxidised to iodine & Hydroiodic acid is a reducing agent) Bromine: 0 > -1 (Reduced to hydrobromic acid & Bromine is a oxidising agent)

Non-redox reactions oxidation number of all elements remain unchanged. Precipitation, decomposition and neutralisation are not redox reaction (non-redox reaction) Precipitation:

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) > AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq) +1 +5 3(-2) +1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +5 3(-2)

No change in the oxidation numbers. Decomposition:

ZnCO3 (s) > ZnO (s) + CO2 (g) +2 +4 3(-2) +2 -2 +4 2(-2)

No change in the oxidation numbers. Neutralisation:

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) > NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) +1 -2 +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 2(+1) -2

No change in the oxidation numbers. Revision time: Questions to ask yourself at this point: 1. 2. 3. 4. Do you understand what is a redox reaction? Can you write the two half reactions out of a redox reaction? Do you understand the concept of oxidation number? Give three examples of an oxidising agent and the example of the reaction involved. 5. Give three examples of a reducing agent and the example of the reaction involved. 6. Can you differentiate a redox reaction with a non-redox reaction? 7. What is the characteristics of a non-redox reaction? If you can answer all these questions, it shows that you understand the basics of oxidation and reduction. This is a valuable information share by our reader (a Chemistry Teacher Ray). Thanks a lot for sharing it. Sharing is Caring. Students do take notes with this and hope it will be a great help for you in this chapter.

Some decomposition reactions produce elements as one of the products. These are redox. If we see an element reacts to form a compound or, an element is formed as a product, it must be a redox reaction. Remember OIL RIG: Oxidation Is Loss of electrons and Reduction Is Gain of electrons. Also in electrochemistry, remember RED CAT (sure enough you have not seen one!): REDuction occurs at CAThode.

Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Electron Transfer 2I- (aq) > I2 (aq) + 2e Oxidation: Iodide ion, I- is a reducing agent because it donates/loses electrons to become I2. Br2 + 2e > 2Br- (aq) Reduction: Bromine water, Br2 is an oxidising agent because it receives/accepts electrons from I- to form bromide ions, Br-.

> Overall reaction: 2I- (aq) + Br2 > I2 (aq) + 2Br- (aq) Conversion of Fe2+ Ions to Fe3+ Ions and Vice Versa A) Common oxidising agent (change Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions):

bromine, Br2 chlorine, Cl2 hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 concentrated nitric acid, HNO3 acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 solution

Fe2+ (aq) > Fe3+ (aq) + e Oxidation: Iron(II) ion, Fe2+ is a reducing agent because it donates/loses one electron to become Fe3+. Br2 (aq) + 2e > 2Br- (aq) Reduction: Bromine water, Br2 is an oxidising agent because it receives/accepts electrons from Fe2+ to form bromide ions, Br-. > Observation: iron(II) sulphate solution changes colour from pale green to yellowish-brown. > Overall reaction: 2Fe2+ (aq) + Br2 (aq) > 2Fe3+ (aq) +2Br- (aq) B) Common reducing agent (change Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ions):

zinc powder, Zn aluminium, Al Magnesium, Mg Calcium, Ca Sulphur dioxide, SO2 Hydrogen sulphide, H2S Sodium sulphide solution, Na2SO3 Tin(II) chloride solution, SnCl2

Zn (s) > Zn2+ (aq) + 2e Oxidation: Zinc powder, Zn is a reducing agent because it donates/loses two electrons to form zinc ions, Zn2+. Fe3+ (aq) + e > Fe2+ (aq) Reduction: Iron(III) ion, Fe3+ is an oxidising agent because it receives/accepts one electron to become Fe2+. > Observation: iron(III) sulphate solution changes colour from yellowish-brown to pale green. > Overall reaction: 2Fe3+ (aq) + Zn (aq) > 2Fe2+ (aq) + Zn2+ (aq) C) Investigate the presence of iron(II) and iron(III) ions

Reagent NaOH solution / NH3 solution NaOH solution / NH3 solution Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution Potasium / Ammonium thiocyanate solution Potasium / Ammonium thiocyanate solution

Ions Fe2+ Fe3+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Fe2+ Fe3+

Observations Green precipitate,insoluble in excess alkali Brown precipitate,insoluble in excess alkali Light blue precipitate

Dark blue precipitate

Dark blue precipitate

Greenish-brown solution

Pale red colouration Blood-red colouration

SPM Chemistry Form 5 Terminology and Concepts: Oxidation and Reduction (Part 5 Correction) > Difference between electrochemical series and reactivity series

Rusting of Iron Nails Despite the confusion in some revision books, the electrochemical and reactivity series is not the same.

The reactivity series is about:

List of metals (sometimes with hydrogen and carbon added as baseline) arranged by the ability to reduce other chemicals in non-specific way. The reactivity is dependent on the conditions of the reactions and all are relative. So the order will be slightly different between various books and research. (However, generally it should be the same) Reactivity series K, *Na, *Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au <- increase in reactivity of metals. Do take notes with the *, the position of the calcium and sodium are different. In electrochemical series, calcium is more electropositive than sodium but not for the reactivity series.

This is in contract with the electrochemical series :

List of reducing agents arranged by the way of negative potential in an electrochemical cell The conditions are pressure of 1 atm, temperature of 298 K and molar concentration of 1.o M The electrochemical series / electropositivity of metal Equilibrium Li+ (aq) + e <> Li (s) K+ (aq) + e <> K (s) *Ca2+ (aq) + 2e <> Ca (s) *Na+ (aq) + e <> Na (s) Mg2+ (aq) + 2e <> Mg (s) Al3+ (aq) + 3e <> Al (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e <> Zn (s) Fe2+ (aq) + 2e <> Fe (s) Pb2+ (aq) + 2e <> Pb (s) 2H+ (aq) + 2e <> H2 (g) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e <> Cu (s) Ag+ (aq) + e <> Ag (s) Au3+ (aq) + 3e <> Au (s) E (volts) - 3.03 - 2.92 - 2.87 - 2.71 - 2.37 - 1.66 - 0.76 - 0.44 - 0.13 0 + 0.34 + 0.80 + 1.50

Displacement of Halogen (Group 17) from Its Halide Solution Halogen elements in Group 17 of the Periodic Table Example: chlorine, bromine and iodine. Halogen Identification Halogen Colour in (conc.) Colour in Colour in 1,1,1aq. solution (dilute) aq. trichloroethane

Iodine Bromine Chlorine

solution Reddish-brown Yellow Brown Yellow Pale yellow Colourless

Purple Brown Colourless

Strength of oxidising agent in halogen Cl2, Br2. I2 < Oxidising power increases Halide / Halogen Potassium chloride Potassium bromide Chlorine Bromine No changes Iodine No changes No changes

Potassium iodide

Chlorine displace bromine from KBr solution Chlorine Bromine displace iodine displace from KI solution iodine from KI solution

Redox Reactions by the Transfer of Electrons at a Distance Set I Reducing agent Oxidising agent Test on the solution in the reducing agent arm of U-tube Iron(II) Acidified Add a few drops of sulphate, potassium potassium thiocyanate, FeSO4 dichromate(VI), KSCN solution solution K2Cr2O7 solution Observation Inference The electrode in the iron(II) Electrons flow from sulphate, FeSO4 solution acts iron(II) sulphate, as the negative terminal, FeSO4 solution to whereas the electrode in the acidified potassium acidified potassium dichromate(VI), dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 K2Cr2O7 solution solution acts as the positive terminal. Iron(II) sulphate solution Iron(III) ions are changes from pale green to present. Iron(II) ions yellow/brown. It gives blood- are oxidised to

red colouration with potassium thiocyanate solution (KSCN) Acidified potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 solution changes colour from orange to green.

iron(III) ions. Dichromate(VI) ions are reduced to chromium(III) ions.

Oxidation half-equation: Fe2+(aq) > Fe3+(aq) + e Reduction half-equation: Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e > 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) Overall reaction: Cr2O72-(aq) + 6Fe2+(aq) 14H+(aq) > 2Cr3+(aq) + 6Fe3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)

Set II Reducing agent Oxidising agent Test on the solution in the reducing agent arm of U-tube Acidified Add sodium manganate(VII), hydroxide, NaOH KMnO4 solution solution Inference Electrons flow from iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution to acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution

Iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution Observation The electrode in the iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution acts as the negative terminal, whereas the electrode in the acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution acts as the positive terminal. Iron(II) sulphate solution changes from pale green to yellow/brown. It formed a brown precipitate when the brown solution is tested with sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) Purple acidified manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution turns colourless.

Iron(III) ions are present. Iron(II) ions are oxidised to iron(III) ions.

Manganate(VII) ions are reduced to manganese(II) ions.

Oxidation half-equation: Fe2+(aq) > Fe3+(aq) + e Reduction half-equation: MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e > Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) Overall reaction: MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) > Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

Set III Reducing Oxidising agent Test on the solution

agent Potassium Bromine water, iodide, KI Br2 solution Observation The electrode in the potassium iodide, KI solution acts as the negative terminal, whereas the electrode in the bromine water acts as the positive terminal. Colourless potassium iodide solution turns brown. It formed a dark blue colouration when the brown solution is tested with starch solution. Brown bromine water turns colourless.

in the reducing agent arm of U-tube Add a few drops of starch solution Inference Electrons flow from potassium iodide, KI solution to bromine water, Br2 (aq). Iodine is present.Iodide ions have oxidised to iodine. Bromines are reduced to bromide ion.

Oxidation half-equation: 2I-(aq) > I2(aq) + 2e Reduction half-equation: Br2(aq) + 2e > 2Br-(aq) Overall reaction: Br2(aq) + 2I-(aq) > 2Br-(aq) + I2(aq)

Other pairs of reducing agent and oxidising agent Reducing agent Potassium iodide,KI solution Potassium iodide,KI solution Potassium bromide,KBr solution Oxidising agent Iron(III) sulphate,Fe2(SO4)3 solution Acidified potassium dichromate(VI),K2Cr2O7 solution Chlorine, Cl2 water

Rusting as a Redox Reaction

Rust / hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3xH2O formed slowly at the surface of iron when it exposed to the damp air. Rusting a redox reaction that take places between iron and oxygen to form hydrated iron(III) oxide and this is a slow reaction. 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O(l) > Fe2O3xH2O(s)

Corrosion a redox reaction that take places between a metal and the gases in air. Metal is oxidised to form an oxide layer on the surface. Metal atoms lose electrons to form positive ions. 1. Group 1 metals are very reactive. 2. Metals are exposed to air will corrode rapidly and become tarnished.

3. Aluminium, lead and zinc corrode rapidly in the air and forms an oxide layer. The oxide layer is hard, non-porous, impermeable and difficult to crack. This protects the aluminium, lead and zinc below it from further corrosion. Example: Corrosion of metal. Zn(s) > Zn2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) > Cu2+(aq) + 2e K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au <Tendency of metal to corrode increases. Process of Rusting of Iron 1. Anode (negative terminal) concentration of oxygen is lower and iron rust (oxidation process) to form iron(II) ions: Fe(s) > Fe2+(aq) + 2e 2. Cathode (positive terminal) concentration of oxygen is higher and oxygen gains electrons that reduced to hydroxide ions: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e > 4OH-(aq) 3. Fe2+ ions and OH- ions combine to form iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2 4. Oxygen further oxidises iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2 to hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3xH2O. 2Fe(OH)2(s) > Fe2O3xH2O(s) The Effect of Other Metals on the Rusting of Iron Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), K3Fe(NO)6 is used to detect Fe2+ ions (produces dark blue colour in the presence of Fe2+). Phenolphthalein is used to detect OH- ions (produces pink colour in the presence of OH-). Test tube Observation Fe only Intensity of blue colour is low. Control Pink colour is not present. Reaction Oxidation:Fe(s) > Fe2+(aq) + 2e

Reduction:O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + e > 4OH-(aq)OH- ions react with Fe2+ ions to form Fe(OH)2. Inference Fe nail rusts a little. Test tube Observation Reaction Fe & Mg Blue colour is Oxidation:Mg(s) > Mg2+(aq) + 2e not present. Intensity of Reduction:O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + e > pink colour is 4OH-(aq) very high. Inference Mg is corroded and Fe nail does not rust.

i) Fe act as the (+) terminal (cathode) ii) Mg act as the (-) terminal (anode) Test tube Observation Fe & Zn Blue colour is not present. Intensity of pink colour is high. Inference Reaction Oxidation:Zn(s) > Zn2+(aq) + 2e Reduction:O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + e > 4OH-(aq) Zn is corroded and Fe nail does not rust.

i) Fe act as the (+) terminal (cathode) ii) Zn act as the (-) terminal (anode) Test tube Observation Fe & Sn Intensity of blue colour is high. Pink colour is not present. Inference Reaction Oxidation:Fe (s) > Fe2+(aq) + 2e Reduction:O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + e > 4OH-(aq)OH- ions react with Fe2+ ions to form Fe(OH)2. Fe nail rusts quickly (high rate).

i) Sn act as the (+) terminal (cathode) ii) Fe act as the (-) terminal (anode) Test tube Observation Fe & Cu Intensity of blue colour is very high. Pink colour is not present. Inference Reaction Oxidation:Fe (s) > Fe2+(aq) + 2e Reduction:O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + e > 4OH-(aq)OH- ions react with Fe2+ ions to form Fe(OH)2. Fe nail rusts very quickly (the highest rate).

i) Cu act as the (+) terminal (cathode) ii) Fe act as the (-) terminal (anode)

Iron nail does not rust if it has contacted with more electropositive metals (Mg and Zn). Iron nail rusts quickly if it has contacted with less electropositive metals (Sn and Cu).

Prevention of Rusting of Iron

The rate of rusting of iron decreases if the iron (Fe) in contact with any of these metals: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al and Zn. The rate of rusting of iron increases if the iron (Fe) in contact

with any of these metals: Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag and Au. a strong electrolyte (salt and acid) is present.

Ways Used for Prevention of Rusting Painting Protect iron surface (prevent from contacting with air and water) Coat with plastic Used in metal netting Apply oil and grease Protective coating for machine part Alloying the iron Alloying the iron with 18% chromium and 8% nickel that provide a protective oxide coating. 5. a) Tin plating (less electropositive metal) Cans of food (iron) is covered with a thin layer of tin to provide a protective oxide coating to the cans. b) Chrome plating 6. Cathodic protection / Electrical protection (more electropositive metal) a) Galvanising (coat with zinc metal) Zinc layer provides a protective oxide coating and zinc is oxidized instead of iron. Iron cannot form ions, so it will not rust. b) Sacrificial protection Blocks of magnesium are attached at the intervals of the water piping system & zinc bars are attached to the part of the ship submerged in sea water. 1. 2. 3. 4. The Reactivity Series of Metals and Its Application 1. Metal form metal oxides when burnt in air (excess). Metal + Oxygen > Metal oxide Example: 2Zn(s) + O2(g) > 2ZnO(s) 2. The more reactive a metal is, the more vigorously it burns in oxygen. Reactivity of Metals K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au < increase in reactivity of metals 3. Reactivity of Metals with Oxygen. Metal Observation Inference Equation Magnesium Burns The reactivity of 2Mg(s) + (Mg) Mg towards O2 O2(g)> vigorously with a very is very 2MgO(s) brilliant white high.Magnesium flame.The oxide is formed. residue is white when hot and cold. Zinc (Zn) The reactivity of 2Zn(s) + Burns quickly with a Zn towards O2 is O2(g)>

bright high.Zinc oxide 2ZnO(s) flame.The is formed. residue is yellow when hot and white when cold. Iron (Fe) Glows very The reactivity of 2Fe(s) + O2(g) brightly.The Fe towards O2 is > 2Fe2O3(s) residue is medium.Iron(III) reddish-brown oxide is formed. when hot and cold. Lead (Pb) The reactivity of 2Pb(s) + Glows brightly.The Pb towards O2 is O2(g)> residue is low.Lead(II) 2PbO(s) brown when oxide is formed. hot and yellow when cold. Copper (Cu) Glows The reactivity of 2Cu(s) + faintly.The Cu towards O2 is O2(g)> residue is very 2CuO(s) black when low.Copper(II) hot and cold. oxide is formed.

Glass wool prevents metal powder mixes with potassium manganate(VII) Solid potassium manganate(VII) liberates oxygen gas when it is heated / decomposed.

2KMnO4(s) -> K2MnO4(s) + MnO2(s) + O2(g) heat

Other than potassium manganate(VII),

- solid potassium chlorate(V) with manganese(IV) oxide as a catalyst. MnO2 2KClO3(s) -> KCl(s) + 3O2(g) heat - solid potassium nitrate 2KNO3(s) -> KNO2(s) + O2(g) heat 4. Position of Carbon in the Reactivity Series of Metals

Reactivity Series K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au < increase in reactivity a) Metal + Carbon dioxide > Metal oxide + Carbon Any metal above carbon in the reactivity series can displace oxygen from carbon dioxide. Example: 2Mg(s) + CO2(g) > 2MgO(s) + C(s) Mg: Reducing agent CO2: Oxidising agent MgO: White residue C: Black spots > Therefore, magnesium is more reactive than carbon. (If the metal is less reactive than carbon, the metal is unable to remove oxygen from carbon dioxide.) b) Carbon + Metal oxide > Carbon dioxide + Metal Any metal below carbon in the reactivity series can displace carbon from its oxide. Example: C(s) + 2ZnO(s) > 2Zn(s) + CO2(g) C: Reducing agent ZnO: Oxidising agent Zn: Grey residue > Therefore, zinc is less reactive than carbon. (If carbon is less reactive than the metal, the carbon is unable to remove oxygen from Position of Hydrogen in the Reactivity Series of Metals Reactivity Series K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, H, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au < increase in reactivity Metal oxide + Hydrogen > Metal + Water Any metal below hydrogen in the reactivity series, hydrogen will reduce the oxide of metal to metal. Example 1:

CuO(s) + H2(g) > Cu(s) + H2O(l) Observation: Burns quickly with a bright flame. The black solid turns brown solid. H2: Reducing agent CuO: Oxidising agent

Hydrogen is more reactive than copper.

Example 2:

PbO(s) + H2(g) > Pb(s) + H2O(l) Observation: Burns with a bright flame. The yellow solid turns grey solid. H2: Reducing agent PbO: Oxidising agent Hydrogen is more reactive than lead.

Example 3:

Fe2O3(s) + 3H2(g) > 2Fe(s) + 3H2O(l) Observation: Glows dimly. The reddish-brown solid turns grey solid. H2: Reducing agent Fe2O3: Oxidising agent Hydrogen is more reactive than iron.

Example 4:

ZnO(s) + H2(g) > no reaction Observation: No glow is observed. It turns yellow when hot and white when cold. Hydrogen is unable to reduce zinc oxide. Hydrogen is less reactive than zinc.

metal oxide.) Redox Reactions in Electrolytic Cell and Chemical Cell Similarities

redox reaction. Anode: oxidation Cathode: reduction Electrons flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit

Differences Differences Structure Electrodes Electrolytic Cell (Electrolysis) With electrical supply. Can be the same or difference metal (graphite or platinum). From anode to cathode through external circuit. Chemical Cell / Voltaic Cell No electrical supply. Must be two different metals.

Flows of electrons

From more electropositive metal to less

electropositive metal through external circuit. Transformation Electrical energy to Chemical energy to chemical energy. electrical energy. of energy Anode.Oxidation Cathode.Reduction At positive occurs. Anions occurs. terminal release electrons at the anode. Oxidising agent gain electrons. Cathode.Reduction Anode.Oxidation At negative occurs. occurs. terminal Cations gain Reducing agent electrons from the releases electrons. cathode. 1) Redox Reactions in Electrolytic Cell Example 1: Electrolysis of molten zinc chloride

Electrodes: Carbon Ions present: Cl- and Zn2+ Anode: Oxidation / 2Cl-(l) > Cl2(g) + 2e / Cl- ions act as reducing agent. Cathode: Reduction / Zn2+(l) + 2e > Zn(s) / Zn2+ ions act as oxidising agent.

Example 2: Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution.

Electrodes: Carbon Ions present: Cu2+, SO42-, H+, OHOH- ions are discharged because OH- ion is below SO42- ion in electrochemistry series. Anode: Oxidation / 4OH-(aq) > O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e / Oxygen gas is liberated. Cu2+ ions are discharged because Cu2+ ion is below H+ ion in electrochemistry series. Cathode: Reduction / Cu2+(aq) + 2e > Cu(s) / Cu2+ ions are reduced to copper metal (brown layer formed). > Overall equation: Cu2+(aq) + 4OH-(aq) > O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Cu(s)

Example 3: Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution.

Electrodes: Copper Ions present: Cu2+, SO42-, H+, OHOH- ions and SO42- ion are not discharged. Anode: Oxidation / Cu(s) > Cu2+(aq) + 2e / Copper anode (electrode) dissolves. Cu2+ ions are discharged because Cu2+ ion is below H+ ion in electrochemistry series.

Cathode: Reduction / Cu2+(aq) + 2e > Cu(s) / Cu2+ ions are reduced to copper metal. Example 4: Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution.

Electrodes: Carbon Ions present: Na+, Cl-, H+, OHCl- ions are discharged because of the higher concentration. (Concentration of Cl- ion is high, the ion is selectively discharged rather than the OH- ion, the one that is placed below the electrochemical series.) Anode: Oxidation / 2Cl-(aq) > Cl2(g) + 2e / Chlorine gas (green gas with choking smell) is liberated. H+ ions are discharged because Na+ ion is below H+ ion in electrochemistry series. (H+ ions and Na+ ion are placed very far apart in the electrochemical series, the concentration factor becomes unimportant.) Cathode: Reduction / 2H+(aq) + 2e > H2(g) / Hydrogen gas is liberated. > Overall equation: 2Cl-(aq) + 2H+(aq) > Cl2(g) + H2(g)

2) Redox Reactions in Chemical Cell Example 1: Daniel cell

Anode (negative terminal): Oxidation / Zinc strip immerses in zinc sulphate solution. Zn(s) > Zn2+(aq) + 2e / Zinc strip becomes thinner. Cathode (positive terminal): Reduction / Copper strip immerses in copper(II) sulphate solution. Cu2+(aq) + 2e > Cu(s) / A brown layer formed around copper strip. / Concentration Cu2+ ions decreases cause the intensity blue colour of solution decreases. Zinc is more electropositive than copper. Electrons are flowed from zinc strip to copper strip through the external circuit. (Note: Conventionally, electrons flow in the opposite direction of electrical current). > Overall equation: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) > Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

More Chemical Cells 1. Primary cells are not rechargeable and can be used only once. 2. Secondary cells are rechargeable when cells are exhausted and can be reused again. A. Dry Cell

Anode (-): Zinc / Zn(s) > Zn2+(aq) + 2e / reducing agent Cathode (+): Graphite (carbon) rod / 2NH4+(aq) + 2e > 2NH3(g) + H2(g) / oxidising agent Electrolyte: Moist paste of ammonium chloride, zinc chloride and a little water. Overall reaction: Zn(s) + 2NH4+(aq) > Zn2+(aq) + 2NH3(g) + H2(g)

Uses: touchlight, toys, clock, remote control and radio.

B. Alkaline Cell

Anode (-): Zinc / Zn(s) > Zn2+(aq) + 2e / reducing agent Cathode (+): Manganese(IV) oxide / 2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) +2e > Mn2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) / oxidising agent Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide paste. Overall reaction: Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) > Zn2+(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) Heavy use and longer shelf life. Zinc corrodes more slowly. Higher power. More stable current and voltage.

C. Mercury Cell

Anode (-): Zinc / Zn(s) > Zn2+(aq) + 2e / reducing agent Cathode (+): Mercury(II) oxide / Hg2+(aq) + 2e > Hg(l) / oxidising agent Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide paste. Overall reaction: Zn(s) + Hg2+(aq) > Zn2+(aq) + Hg(l) Danger to the environment and mercury need to recycle. Uses: Watches, camera and small devices.

D. Lead-acid Accumulator

Anode (-): Lead / Pb(s) + SO42-(aq) > PbSO4(s) + 2e / reducing agent Cathode (+): Lead(IV) oxide / PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e > PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) / oxidising agent Electrolyte: Sulphuric acid. Overall reaction: / Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2 SO42-(aq) > 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) Uses: Automobiles.

E. Nickel-Cadmium Cell

Anode (-): Cadmium / Cd(s) + 2OH-(aq) > Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e / reducing agent Cathode (+): Nickel(IV) oxide / NiO2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2e > Ni(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) / oxidising agent Electrolyte: Porous separator soaked in potassium hydroxide solution. Overall reaction: Cd(s) + NiO2(s) + 2H2O(l) > Cd(OH)2(s) + Ni(OH)2(s) Suffer from memory effect hold less charge. Toxic heavy metal. Expensive. Uses: Toys, laptops, and mobile phones.

F. Rechargeable Chemical Cell i) Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)

Anode (-): hydrogen-absorbing alloy. Cathode (+): Nickel(IV) oxide. Contains rare earth elements such as titanium, vanadium, zirconium, cobalt, manganese and aluminium that are more environmentally friendly. Higher capacity than NiCd. Higher self-discharge rate. Uses: digital cameras and mobile phones.

ii) Lithium-ion (Li-Ion)

Smaller and lighter. Anode (-): Carbon. Cathode (+): Metal oxide (cobalt oxide / manganese oxide). Electrolyte: Lithium salt in an organic solvent (ether). Inflammable and can easily explode when exposed to high temperature. Uses: Portable electronic.

iii) Lithium-polymer (Li-Poly)

Very small, thin and light. Anode (-): Carbon. Cathode (+): Metal oxide. Electrolyte: Lithium salt in a solid polymer composite (polyacrylonitrile). Not flammable. Uses: MP3, PDAs and laptops.

G. Other Chemical Cells i) Fuel Cells

Anode (-): Fuel (hydrogen / hydrocarbon / alcohol). Cathode (+): Oxygen. Non-polluting product. Uses: space vehicles and military applications.

ii) Solar Cells

Made of semiconductor materials (crystalline silicon). Solar energy converted to electric energy. Non-polluting product. High cost. Uses: space satellites, irrigation pumps, calculator and telecommunications.