142 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 3

C S A X

External

Figure 6.14

Cable cross-section

This method does include proximity effects and hence is generally more accurate; however the difference with respect to using one equivalent single conductor of appropriate GMR is very small when the phase spacing is much greater than the bundle spacing.

6.4.2

Earth wires

When earth wires are continuous and grounded at each tower then for frequencies below 250 kHz it is reasonable to assume that the earth wire potential is zero along its length. The reduction procedure for [Z ] and [P ] is the same. [P ] is reduced prior to inverting to give the capacitance matrix. The matrix reduction is next illustrated for the series impedance. Assuming a continuous earth wire grounded at each tower then dVe /dx = 0 and Ve = 0. Partitioning into conductors and earth wires gives: dVc dVc dx Zcc Zce (Ic ) dx = (6.62) dVe = (Ie ) Z Z ec ee (0) dx dVc dx = [ZReduced ](Ic )
1

where [ZReduced ] = Zcc Zce Zee Zec . When the earth wires are bundled the same technique used for bundled phase subconductors can be applied to them.

6.5

Underground cable parameters

A unied solution similar to that of overhead transmission is difcult for underground cables because of the great variety in their construction and layouts.

Transmission lines and cables 143 The cross-section of a coaxial cable, although extremely complex, can be simplied to that of Figure 6.14 and its series per unit length harmonic impedance is calculated by the following set of loop equations. dV1 dx Z Z12 0 I1 dV2 11 = Z Z Z I (6.63) 2 21 22 23 dx I 3 0 Z32 Z33 dV3 dx where Z11 = Zcore-outside = the core Zcore-insulation= Zsheath-inside = sheath. Similarly Z22 = Zsheath-outside + Zsheath/armour-insulation + Zarmour-inside Z33 = Zarmour-outside + Zarmour/earth-insulation + Zearth-inside (6.64) (6.65) the sum of the following three component impedances: internal impedance of the core with the return path outside impedance of the insulation surrounding the core internal impedance of the sheath with the return path inside the

The coupling impedances Z12 = Z21 and Z23 = Z32 are negative because of opposing current directions (I2 in negative direction in loop 1, and I3 in negative direction in loop 2), i.e. Z12 = Z21 = Zsheath-mutual Z23 = Z32 = Zarmour-mutual where Zsheath-mutual = mutual impedance (per unit length) of the tubular sheath between the inside loop 1 and the outside loop 2. Zarmour-mutual = mutual impedance (per unit length) of the tubular armour between the inside loop 2 and the outside loop 3. Finally, Z13 = Z31 = 0 because loop 1 and loop 3 have no common branch. The impedances of the insulation ( m1 ) are given by Zinsulation = j ln where routside = outside radius of insulation rinside = inside radius of insulation. routside rinside (6.68) (6.66) (6.67)

144 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation If there is no insulation between the armour and earth, then Zinsulation = 0. The internal impedances and the mutual impedance of a tubular conductor are a function of frequency, and can be derived from Bessel and Kelvin functions. j [I0 (mq)K1 (mr) + K0 (mq)I1 (mr)] 2D mq j [I0 (mr)K1 (mq) + K0 (mr)I1 (mq)] = 2D mr j = 2D mq mr

Ztube-inside = Ztube-outside Ztube-mutual

(6.69) (6.70) (6.71)

with = the permeability of insulation in H m1 D = I1 (mr)K1 (mq) I1 (mq)K1 (mr) mr = mq = K s q r Rdc K/(1 s 2 ) Ks 2 /(1 s 2 )

= j 8 104 f r /Rdc = q/r = inside radius = outside radius = d.c. resistance in km1 .

The only remaining term is Zearth-inside in equation 6.65 which is the earth return impedance for underground cables, or the sea return impedance for submarine cables. The earth return impedance can be calculated approximately with equation 6.69 by letting the outside radius go to innity. This approach, also used by Bianchi and Luoni [12] to nd the sea return impedance, is quite acceptable considering the fact that sea resistivity and other input parameters are not known accurately. Equation 6.63 is not in a form compatible with the solution used for overhead conductors, where the voltages with respect to local ground and the actual currents in the conductors are used as variables. Equation 6.63 can easily be brought into such a form by introducing the appropriate terminal conditions, i.e. V1 = Vcore Vsheath V2 = Vsheath Varmour V3 = Varmour I1 = Icore I2 = Icore + Isheath I3 = Icore + Isheath + Iarmour

Transmission lines and cables 145 Thus equation 6.63 can be rewritten as dVcore dx Zcc dVsheath = Z sc dx Zac dVarmour dx where Zcc = Z11 + 2Z12 + Z22 + 2Z23 + Z33 Zcs = Zsc = Z12 + Z22 + 2Z23 + Z33 Zca = Zac = Zsa = Zas = Z23 + Z33 Zss = Z22 + 2Z23 + Z33 Zaa = Z33 A good approximation for many cables with bonding between the sheath and the armour, and with the armour earthed to the sea, is Vsheath = Varmour = 0. Therefore the model can be reduced to dVcore = ZIcore dx where Z is a reduction of the impedance matrix of equation 6.72. Similarly, for each cable the per unit length harmonic admittance is: dI1 dx j C1 V1 0 0 dI2 = 0 V2 0 j C 2 dx V3 0 0 j C3 dI3 dx (6.73)

Zcs Zss Zas

Icore Zca Zsa Isheath Zaa Iarmour

(6.72)

(6.74)

where Ci = 2 0 r / ln(r/q). Therefore, when converted to core, sheath and armour quantities, dIcore dx Y1 Vcore Y1 0 dIsheath Y2 Vsheath (6.75) dx = Y1 Y1 + Y2 0 Y Y + Y V armour 2 2 3 dIarmour dx where Yi = j li . If, as before, Vsheath = Varmour = 0, equation 6.75 reduces to dIcore /dx = Y1 Vcore (6.76)

146 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation Therefore, for the frequencies of interest, the cable per unit length impedance, Z , and admittance, Y , are calculated with both the zero and positive sequence values being equal to the Z in equation 6.73, and the Y1 in equation 6.76, respectively. In the absence of rigorous computer models, such as described above, power companies often use approximations to the skin effect by means of correction factors.

6.6

Example

To illustrate various transmission line representations let us consider two simple lines with the parameters shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2. For the transmission line with the parameters shown in Table 6.1, = 0.500000E 08, Zc = 100 and the line travelling delay is 0.25 ms (or 5 time steps). This delay can clearly be seen in Figures 6.15 and 6.16. Note also the lack of reections when the line is terminated by the characteristic impedance (Figure 6.15). Reections cause a step change every 0.5 ms, or twice the travelling time. When the load impedance is larger than the characteristic impedance (Figure 6.16) a magnied voltage at the receiving end (of 33 per cent in this case) appears 0.25 ms after the step occurs at the sending end. This also results in a receiving end current beginning to ow at this time. The receiving end voltage and current then propagate back to the sending end, after a time delay of 0.25 ms, altering the sending end current. Table 6.1 Parameters for transmission line example
500 109 H m1 50 109 F m1 50 km 0 .1 50 s

L C L R (source) t

Table 6.2

Single phase test transmission line

Value 100.0 100.0 2.03454 30.0 10.0 0.03206

Description Ground resistivity ( m) Line length (km) Conductor radius (cm) Height at tower Y (m) Sag at mid-span (m) d.c. resistance ( km1 )

Transmission lines and cables 147

150 Voltage VSending VReceiving 100 Voltage

50

0 0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005 Current

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

2 1 Current 0 1 2 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008

ISending IReceiving

0.009

0.01

Figure 6.15

Step response of a lossless line terminated by its characteristic impedance

This change in sending end current propagates down the receiving end, inuencing its voltages and currents again. Hence in the case of a higher than characteristic impedance loading the initial receiving voltage and current magnitudes are larger than the steady-state value and each subsequent reection opposes the last, causing a decaying oscillation. With a smaller than characteristic impedance loading (Figure 6.17) the receiving voltage and current magnitudes are smaller than their steady-state values, and each subsequent reection reinforces the previous one, giving the damped response shown in Figure 6.17. The FORTRAN code for this example is given in Appendix H.4. Figures 6.186.20 show the same simulation except that the Bergeron model has been used instead. The FORTRAN code for this case is given in Appendix H.5. The line loss is assumed to be R = 1.0 104 m1 . With characteristic impedance loading there is now a slight transient (Figure 6.18) after the step change in receiving end voltage as the voltage and current waveforms settle, taking into account the line losses. The changes occur every 0.25 ms, which is twice the travelling time of a half-line section, due to reections from the middle of the line. The characteristics of Figures 6.186.20 are very similar to those of the lossless counterparts, with the main step changes occurring due to reections arriving in intervals of twice the travelling time of the complete line. However now there is also a small step change in between, due to reections from the middle of the line. The

148 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

150 Voltage VSending VReceiving 100 Voltage

50

0 0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005 Current

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

2 1 Current 0 1 2 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008

ISending IReceiving

0.009

0.01

Figure 6.16

Step response of a lossless line with a loading of double characteristic impedance

voltage drop can be clearly seen, the larger voltage drop occurring when the current is greater. To illustrate a frequency-dependent transmission line model a simple single wire transmission line with no earth wire is used next. The line parameters shown in Table 6.2 are used to obtain the electrical parameters of the line and then curve tting is performed. There are two main ways of calculating the time convolutions required to implement a frequency-dependent transmission line. These are either recursive convolutions, which require s -domain tting, or ARMA using z-domain tting [13]. Figures 6.21 and 6.23 show the match for the attentuation constant and characteristic impedance respectively, while the errors associated with the t are shown in Figures 6.22 and 6.24. The tted rational function for the characteristic impedance is shown in Table 6.3 and the partial fraction expansion of its inverse (characteristic admittance) in Table 6.4. The ratio of d.c. impedance (taken as the impedance at the lowest frequency, which is 614.41724 ) over the d.c. value of the tted function (670.1023) is 0.91690065830247, therefore this is multiplied with the residuals (k terms in equation 6.55). To ensure the transmission line exhibits the correct d.c. resistance the attenuation function must also be scaled. The surge impedance function evaluated at d.c. is ZC ( = 0) and Rdc is the line resistance per unit length. Then G is calcu2 ( = 0) and the constant term of the attenuation function lated from G = Rdc /ZC

Transmission lines and cables 149

150 Voltage VSending VReceiving 100 Voltage

50

0 0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005 Current

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

2 1 Current 0 1 2 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008

ISending IReceiving

0.009

0.01

Figure 6.17

Step response of a lossless line with a loading of half its characteristic impedance
Voltage VSending VReceiving

150

Voltage

100

50

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005 Current

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

2 1 Current 0 1 2 0

ISending IReceiving

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

Figure 6.18

Step response of Bergeron line model for characteristic impedance termination

150 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

150 Voltage VSending VReceiving 100 Voltage

50

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005 Current

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

2 1 Current 0 1 2 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008

ISending IReceiving

0.009

0.01

Figure 6.19

Step response of Bergeron line model for a loading of half its characteristic impedance
Voltage VSending VReceiving

150

100 Voltage

50

0 0 2 1 Current 0 1 2 0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005 Current

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

ISending IReceiving

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

Figure 6.20

Step response of Bergeron line model for a loading of double characteristic impedance

Transmission lines and cables 151

1 0.8 Magnitude 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 200 Phase angle (degs) 100 0 100 200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Propagation function Line constants Fitted function

4 log ( )

Figure 6.21

Comparison of attenuation (or propagation) constant

Error in propagation function 0.4 0.3 Real (error) 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.6 Imag (error) 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 6.22

Error in tted attenuation constant

152 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

650 600 Magnitude 550 500 450 0 Phase angle (degs) Characteristic impedance Line constants Fitted function

10

15 1

4 log ( )

Figure 6.23

Comparison of surge impedance

Error 2 Re (E ) (%) 0 2 4 15 Im (E ) (%) 10 5 0 5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

Frequency log (2 f )

Figure 6.24

Error in tted surge impedance

Transmission lines and cables 153 Table 6.3 s-domain tting of characteristic impedance
Constant s s2

Numerator 2.896074e+016.250320e+021.005140e+05 Denominator2.511680e+015.532123e+029.130399e+04 Constant 467.249168

Table 6.4
Quantity

Partial fraction expansion of characteristic admittance

Constant s s2

Residual 19.726058727721540.14043511946635 0.00657234249032 Denominator1.005140e+05 0.00625032e+05 0.0002896074e+05 k0 0.00214018572698

100 80 Voltage 60 40 20 0 0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.001 0.001

Frequency-dependent transmission line (s-domain) Vs Vr

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

Current (amperes)

Is Ir

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

Figure 6.25

Step response of frequency-dependent transmission line model (load = 100 )

is calculated from e Rdc G . The d.c. line resistance is sensitive to the constant term and the difference between using 0.99 and 0.999 is large. The response derived from the implementation of this model is given in Figures 6.25, 6.26 and 6.27 for loads of 100, 1000 and 50 ohms respectively.

154 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

150 100 50 0 0.2 Current (amps) 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01 Is Ir Frequency-dependent transmission line (s-domain) Vs Vr

Voltage

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

Figure 6.26

Step response of frequency-dependent transmission line model (load = 1000 )

Frequency-dependent transmission line (s-domain) Vs Vr

100 80 Voltage 60 40 20 0 0 0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01 Is Ir

2 Current (amps) 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01

Figure 6.27

Step response of frequency-dependent transmission line model (load = 50 )

Appendix H.6 contains the FORTRAN program used for the simulation of this example. The tted rational function for the attenuation function is shown in Table 6.5, and its partial fraction expansion in Table 6.6.

Transmission lines and cables 155 Table 6.5 Fitted attenuation function (s-domain)
Constant s s2 s3

Numerator 7.631562e+03 Denominator 6.485341e+03 4.761763e+04 5.469828e+05 5.582246e+05 Constant 0.9952270 term

Table 6.6
Quantity

Partial fraction expansion of tted attenuation function (s-domain)

Constant s s2 s3

Residual 2.137796e+06 2.1858274e+06 0.046883e+06 0.001149e+06 Denominator 5.582246e+05 5.469828e+05 4.761763e+04 6.485341e+03

Table 6.7

Pole/zero information from PSCAD V2 (characteristic impedance)

2.896074e+01 2.511680e+01 6.701023e+02 6.250320e+02 5.532123e+02 1.005140e+05 9.130399e+04

Zeros Poles H

PSCAD version 2 stores the negative of the poles (pk ) and zeros (zk ) as well as the constant term H , using the form: H (1 + s/z1 ) (1 + s/z2 ) (1 + s/zn ) (1 + s/p1 ) (1 + s/p2 ) (1 + s/pm )
n k =1 pk N k =1 z k

(6.77)

Relating this expression to equations 6.53 and 6.55 gives: k=H

The poles, zeros and constant term H for the characteristic impedance and attenuation are shown in Tables 6.7 and 6.8. Sequence components are used for data entry (PI model) and output, particularly in the line constants of EMTP. The transformation to sequence components is 1 1 1 Va V0 1 1 a a 2 . Vb V+ = (6.78) K1 V Vc 1 a2 a