NOISE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES IN ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS SECOND EDmON Henry W. Ott Distinguished Memter |AWILEV:NTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION SOHN WILEY a SONS iNew York * Chichester Qriebane # Toronto * Singapore‘rea ht ada ‘Soe fed ty ten See ee the apiece sss een ey ef or Clg en a veiing should be made simple a psi, ano sls, FC es emit,PREFACE Much ha ose 0 alet the Fld of elesromagnetic compat (EMC) ate 1 yeas sine the fac eatin fhe ok tos poblaked. The {re mont angrtnt devchpeent ae he portion of a lectrons ihe commer marketplace andthe estbishnen of Tles 08 emission oni from sia tems by the Federal Communlations Commission (CC), Ae reat oer inte sabe of EMC hes ieeased dame fal "The fis eon covered baie theory and empbasied reducing the scp of eeewoie tens. Thee now 3 need for information om neon the cms from seciorc seems, capil i! tem, nd on Joost techniques for proving EMC forename pedo ls in" compentive sic, In adn there is inereaed concen boat te Sscspubliy of ecole sytem to scsoraie dacharge Tit eon ‘Vass the aerial contained in theft eton i il appa nd ns beta rine Tce Re capers have been aed on the abject ft aese aed ration fom dill eecsonc an electorate Scare Cheer | ma cute and now icudee mei on the FCC” ees lstone Chapter 2 to? wet updated and contin new mate; Chapters § ‘nd 9 age wochnged; Chapter 1,1, apd are new Chapter 0 over ‘ptt cet nose and ajeut, Chap 1 80 dg cet Fdiation, and (Ghat 1 sais ith lest dca In aon new appendit bar bon ined on FCC EC test procures (Append F). woul ike fo oxpes my praitede and sppretion Yo al tose who {hint Stott Roksan, Bob German, and Br. ‘Clayton Peal for the many {rufa dizussons we had on the sober of EMC owe spel deb of appreciation to Era Cane for er super cing ofthe mane. A spec thane slo pesto Dan Jobson who worked SoU pt th ie dpsed at ra. ay Ionut snd make usu comments snd sos. asa W OrPREFACE TO FIRST EDITION ‘This bok covers the pretial aspects of aoe surpeton and cael in ‘Setrons cit It inca primary fre pacing engine who ltvouod inthe design of lero equipment or sytem, sd aoa at fortcaching the patil spt of ee appciana. The concepts of aoe ‘eduction presented nthe Fook canbe apd to Sete opeating rom do fequences trough VHE. More emphasis i pace on Tow 10 tid-teqeeny noe pros, however, sine hse ate the len dca ‘Some of the most diet! an trusatiag potems faced by dese npner concen ciation of ot om he create OF sens, Meat Sats ot el equ o und ote cms et et Solos to ose proto are ul found by lan eer with ie ‘or no underdanding ofthe mechanism volved Such flr ar ny tine ‘ronuming aod the sltons aay prove omarion the equipment the pricier involved ae tingle and can be expnined by eimentary Poss "htt bean aca et of tte ate for an ext fours couse given Bel Latoatrce an tr presented at pr fhe hou contin ovate roam she nv. Te apache he st ‘Sig evista withthe amount anole of matt ep to = hisimum In Some cise, mode feremning psa! phenome base ‘ren sipliied to provide wore stl tern By making eae sip ing stompin, ret ving ler pl waning ae obained "ihe srpanaon ofthe mail 2 flows Chae? ia to usin tote ube of oe eduction, Chars 2864 cove the to Primary means of soe conto sbilig and round. espe Enapie cover ctor soe redaction techies ch st Caecig Scvupling, a fering Caper 5, pasive component, covets the ‘haters tat alle! the omponet” ne psfomane a thle in nowe reduction at. Chap @ procs detaled analy ofthe ‘Hiding flecencts of metalle sees Chapter 7 ewer flys and ficher aad dies methods of feoung be gererted by these viens Chapter cavers ins aie Stes tat est 3 tortnim lel of oie prcet ino cet. Chapter 9 discuss nose io "Atte end ot cAch chapter a sammy ofthe mst importa pois saunas For thse desing tina inlormstion 2 Boge fe a80 facade. te seton, Appendix A dace the deel sd ae fn me Imearements on wice‘reueR alg communicate sem. App {Sx B (presented nthe form of @ deo st) am overal Sommay f the ime commonly sed nie reduction ecnigus.Retiew problems for ech ‘Shaper can be found Append D wth showers Append E Ts to express my atte to Ne. D. Wilans J, who colbo- ‘ated wih me onan onal 2 of oot for a ase cool ena. That ‘ork provided the soo tom whic hs ook grew Lmao atta 2 the ‘many ‘students whose ens provins the cee fo conc his sor, Special tank oh F Sliven and Mise A L- Water for thet ‘Schnicaledting of the manus, and to tL, Mon aod ME D- 8 Tein for tei many hep suggestion. Uh aden T woul Ike to ‘hank a my eoleagues who revi fhe manus, for ter seu emments. Pally. woul ke fo express yattde fo Bl Laborato for thet cooperation snd supper. CONTENTS svmpois mw 1. wrmopucrion 4 Designing for Boromagnete Compa, EMC Regulation, 6 Typeal Nice Path, 16 Use a Hatnrk Theory, 19 anode of Noise Complng, 22 Mscalaneous Nee Sources, 22 Nothods of Elminsteg ereence, 2 Sonmary, 26 Buiognty, 27 2 caaune = ‘capacive Coping. 30 Efe of Sold on Capaco Govpng, 33 Inauctve Coating, 7 sual ndutanes Calustons, 40 Ect of hielo Magnet Coupling, 42 Magnet Cousing between Stes and Inner Conduct, «2 ‘Shang to Preven! Magnate Raison, ‘Shing @ Recor agaist Magnet Fels, 52 ‘Shel TronaerImpecance, 55 Expermenal Dat, 56 arpa of Selective Shiling, 60 Comal Cabo vereus Shielded Twaled Pa, Ot Baise Shite, 62 oat af Pitts, 69 Foon Cables, 67 Becreay Long Cables, 69 Summary 70 Borer. 703. GROUNDING n Seley Geunds, 73 Slral Grounds, 75 ‘Sioie-Pein Ground Syetoms, 77 ulipoi Ground Syst, 79 yd Grounds, Bt Fnctona\ Grove Layo, 82 Practial Low Fequorey Grurdng, 62 ‘Srglo-Ground Rtexence fora Creu, 86 ‘mpfr Shes, 8 Greunng of Cable Sls, 69 Ground Loops, 3 LowFroquoncy Analysis of Conon ode Choke, 96 Higeremuaney Analyse of Common ode Choke, 100, Dierens Arie, 102 ‘Shiels Grounding at High Froquondos, 105 ‘Guee shiots, 106 Guns Motor, 110 ibleysy, 114 4 BALANCING AND FILTERING 16 Balancing, 116 Powersupply Decouning, 122 Docouping Fite, 126 Amper Decovping, 129 Diving Capactve Loads, 190 Ht-Frequency Firing, 139 Systm Banda, 134 ocaton sna Casing, 194 Sonar 157 Bhieraphy, 137 5 PASSIVE COMPONENTS. 1 Capactors, 137 Indictors Pesitars 146 Noise Resets, 147 Conder, 8 Fete Boats, 152 ‘Summary, 157 Biography, 158 6 sHHELONG 150 Near Fis and Fe Fits, 159 CCareconste end wave impedances, 162 ‘Shing Efectreness, 168 ‘Asopon Los, 166 Fefocton Loss. 169 Compost Aterpon and Rstston Lose, 178 Summary f Suotang Equslos, 160 Siting wit Magne Mate, 122 Expormania Oat 105 Aoories, 187 \Wovegude Blow Cust, 192 Conde Gaskets, 103 Conaatie Windows, 196 Condstve Coates, 196 ‘Cavity Rosonarce, 198 CGrounss ot Shiels, 100 Summary, 189, Bsomapny, 202 7. contact PROTECTION 203 Gow oscars, 203, Nsateor or Are Discharges, 204 ‘AC vorsis OC Cie, 206. (Cont sarn, 207 Contact Ring, 207, Loads wen High ish Curent, 208 Inducive Leads, 209 Contact Protection Funan, 219 Transert Suppeescon for ince Loede, 216 Contact Proocton newark fr Inu Loads, 219 Inde Loads Conroe by a Tanase Switch, 222 Fess Load Cnet Proton, 22310 ‘Contact Petecton Selection Gude, 224 saree, 224 ‘Summa, 225 Bbogranny, 226 snTRsic NOISE SouRcES 228 ‘Thetnal Noise, 228 (charactors of Thermal Noise, 252 Equant Noise Banawth, 234 ‘Shot Weise, 238 Popcor Noise, 238 ‘Adon of Nase Vonage, 240 Messing Rendom Noes, 241 Summary, 242 Boogaphy, 285 ACTIVE DEVICE NOISE au Measurement of lee Factor, 246 Calelting S/N Rat and Int Noise tage om Noe Factor, 280 Nose \olage ard Curent Mode 250 ‘Caoulating Noise Factor and SIN Rati from Vins 258 (Optimum Source Resitance, 255 Nowe Factor of Csceded Stages, 257 Noe Temper, 260 Bipolar Transit Noise, 261 Nowe in IC Operational Amps, 267 Summary, 272 Bbicgapny, 272 DIGITAL CIRCUIT NOISE ANO LAYOUT mm ‘Araig versus Oita Grcuts, 278 Dita Laie Nowe, 276, Digtal Creu Ground Noise, 280 Pone Dirnuion, 28 Nate Voge Objecties, 20 Measuring Nice Vanes, 234 ‘Unused Inputs, 25 Lage Famiies, 205 Summary, 296 Bbiorechy, 200 41 DIGITAL CIRCUIT RADIATION 200 DiereisiMode Rasaton, 238 Cntting Dieraa Mode Radiator, 908 CCommenlede Rasaton, 313 Conrling Commorode Radon, S18 Engineering Documentation and EMC, 318 Senay. 318 Bisoyapry, 320 12. ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE o State Generation, 222 Human Body Mode, 327 Stabe Daye, 530 ESD Protacion n Equipment Design, 892 Sofware aed ESD Preecon, 348 Bibioreohy, 48 APPENOKK A. The Decibel a Laing he Doce fr Ome Thal: Power Ras, 351 Powe Los o Negative Power Gan. 359, [belle Power ve 359 Noise Measurements, 954 Crostak Us, 356 Summing Powers Expressed in Docket, 856 APPENDIX 8 Summary of Noise Reduction Techniques 359,APPENDIX C APPENDIX E APPENDIX F noe. Mutple Retections of Magnetic Fields in Thin ‘Shields ee Probioms 08 [Anewers to Probleme 5 Electromagnetic Compatibity Testing Procedures 00 FCC Methods of Measurement of Rac Noise Emiscone From Computing Devices, 500 SYMBOLS z seen ——— lected os ae apais cen Gate teatage cxrent Load cuten Diterentl nde caren Commerce caret Current mt annie Euialent np noise caret Corrente Shot nie eaten Unit vctor alone imapnary ax Abiay integer Constant Coffe! of marnetic coupling ‘Serie inductance of capstor ‘Stil inductance Dist ndctince of raaminion Kine enath Ieteger Network fenton Node Age Power Noite power output came Oral tate Refection los (28) Sey enn of caps se resitance Grand resistance Load restance Sh setae Sone resists for minimum aon ator Desi estas of tsnsson le ise settance ip Teguvalenttator model Calor resstance in Paquet wansisor mol nie estaes in Teqalen ansitor mods Shlding etfotvenes (6B) Sgtahtonase power rao Tenperare Egan is tents Poe ie ime Glow dag breakdown voige Come okage ppl voage ‘Ground stage Glow decease otage Diesel (etal) noe voltage ‘Aiay oie vlge uivalen inp oe voage put wise voteTeal eguialeainpatnoke ote Source voage With of condor Cobeor impedance Ener impedance Load impedance CChancterstie impedance of tramimision tne CChanctersi impetance of median: Tale impedance Wate impedance Common tase crest at Contin cetcent Skin doth Relate dlc constant ‘Angie Weveengt Permesbty Relative permeability Resitiviy Relative resiivy Decay tine Radian festeney (2) ah NOISE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES IN ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS SECOND EDITION1 intropuction “The widespread we of election cic oF comuniction,cmputtion, etomaion and other purposes makes neces) for dere cet 10 pert one proxi. All oo often these ces et each ter Eicon Becmsgnt evn (EMI) ts com 2 a re {arwe "the lrge umber af lette devices in common sa patty fesponible forthe end, In aston the ae of integrated crite larger intgration has feed the tae of ledrone equpment. As Sou has bese amar nd mor sophirsts, more cet beng “ro to ese space thus nresng the probably finertrence "Today's equipment designers neo oo more than jut make hse systems optic under asa tondtnne inthe Isborstoy Boudes that ‘Snowe ih they mat albo ke sre the equipment wil scaly workin the Seal worl” with other eqaipmentneary. Tak means tat he gulpmen stout ot be fected ty extemal nose ures nd soul pot {ei tea source of mie tthe envionment Electromagnetic compesiy (ENC) shouldbe 2 major desig objective In Fig the block apr ofa retro i wed as a example to epic the vans types of itrerence that can occur io equipment The Tone: In ation ground caret rm the varus ger Row trough & {Ron snd npc in roie 3 a vaso te pun nce tat mist saved! before the ado wil operate the bs. Woy thei etd he ea non tes fre comtuced in the recent oo 2 power ln. sd he ado receiver it ctpoed to lstromagneticracation fm vaio sours, Tn thet tl be designed Yo operate ths eniromen "Tire 1 depicts the ctber side of the on problem, The roan be a sour a ny re ith ar que Fu of sat "Nose current owing inthe power lead causes the lead t radiate addtional fro. Denny cyupment to sinanze none esernion i equal at Impecane dosing equipment tbat not sueeptle to ineferees13, ao ee ch i can or ey ro ih the ‘Sr Gata of mar Sta pp oa cn Nols any electrical signal preset in cic other than the desired sa hon does apy he oon rots roe in 1 Sout dee to noniacaies-Akhogh hese toron product may be indetsblesthey ave not snared ote alse they fet coped ito tote pre the cect flows hat dese gol none pat of 2 ‘el sonsdeted to be nae only cape Yo Some other pat of he Robe sources can be grouped into thee eaepres: (1) aise noite oarestat se fom abdom atustions wat psc pte, Such 5 ‘Germal and tot noe, (2) man-made noe sources, such 2 Mol, Sickel learns, and ratifies, apd (3) mae de 10 ‘rl sures, Sch Iahoig and som. Toverecnce hc andentaie eft of pose Ia ace voltage cases improper operation of iva interference. Noke sana be elim ted Gu only sedan mgnte, vt n oper carer nefereace. DESIGNING FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY Hecomagnsti somptity (EMC) i th sity ofa leone system | {0 U) funtion propery a i olen Sectomsynetc eoveonmen, 92 (2) not tea souree of potion to that environment. The clecuomunpetic “igoameat composed of ba railed nd conducted energy. EMC therefore tas to aspects, emon and suscepti. Steep isthe capsbity of dew cc 10 respond to soaated eect! energy (ue ne) The ncepbisy level f= set (devise poe cronies fie equipment can ote Susctory, itbotdeqrattion, sod ih dened marin fsa The ppasie of seep immunity One ie in determining ir ers) es ig wt canst pot ep Esision peraas othe nterterene-csing pote ts prc. The purpose of contig emstons i to lt the sleteomagnciceoerey Entted, ad thereby cont ihe skcomgetc enviroment ix ich ‘ther predate mst operate. Contin the emion Im one prodoct ma clinnnte ap ilererence problem for man) aber potas There I'S "Serabe to contol cmision In an atempfprodue an ce teomagnetlly compat ensonncat “To some extent sucepty fe euling fa product susceptible ‘entiave to purchase it, Emon, onthe other hand tend not to Be feltreplating, A product the thc sure of mison may mt be ated by tht cmition’ Ar t ral vuout regulon bodes hve imposed Stanuads coll emsons rom eatin elses of prods "EMC design canbe approached incr of two ws: on sheers ‘pproothy and te other the syste approach. In he ee spon he Sane poceats witha toa aweped of EMC unl the Stans ihe {nd tesig r—vorse ytd epic sgt that a probe exist. Solutions, implemented at dis ate Sage ace weal expenve and const ‘of undesible “aaron,” fen eered to othe “Band Ad" “nyeoach TAs eiuipment development ropes frm design to tein and 0 odction the variety of node mugaion tecsgcs ave tothe signer decease seal. Conetent cost gos wp. These etd re ‘Shown io Fig. Early solos to inference problows, hettore re ‘hl beat ad least expense “Tesco approndconsere EMC tkroghout the dein: the de signer anges EMC prosiame ste betlanng of he proce, Bad he Temaining problems he beadbord and cay prt sages dts the inal prototypes for EMC ar thorughly a posible. This way ERC brodsct Art erat EMC is designed itoand not aed onto he ‘Frode nd thr a moe coeteflecve apron okeesupreton i comer Krone sage Or besten at + time ‘when the egetpmeat bey signed, the Roe maton technics te “ple and Seightoneard Expercct ha shown tht oon oe spp Hone hacled ths wey, the designer shold be able to produce equipmenteee 4 oe de a Wf el mon ith S056 or more of the potent noise problems eliminated prior to ‘On the other handy 2 sytem dened with compote Seed to mie upreson wil apo vay have noise probes when ising bob ‘Amaya at tht time, {0 find which of the many pile nee path embinstons ae vorsbuing 10 the ptobem, ay ot te simple oe ‘vous Soluons a ths Ite stage usa Inte the ation of ears ‘Smarts thy are no iotprl pro the Gre. Pena pa ince the nied enpering cost andthe cst ofthe sition components aod th iaten Tsao maybe se, mn et anton [EHC REGULATIONS ‘Some aed wight ito the role of intererence andthe bpations of ‘rupert eign can te gained fom review of ome of the more {para government aod military EMC epson: ad specatone jerome Commision (FCC) ‘egulathe se of ao and wire commonitons. Fao te esponsb) fener the coro nerfrence Tne secon ofthe $CC Res nd [Reolaon” have requremens that ae appleable to onxsee ce tunic equipment These ae Part 15 (or radteqoeey eves, Pt 18 (Goris, emf and mesial equips), and Par 6 (or ei fen eooneted othe telephone netwo) Part Isa the FCC Rule ane Regulations st fot teil standards snd operational egrets for rad-tequeny dense. A iio eqn. dence say dec that nis operation in cpt of ein, itn. ‘Tonal or unimeatonny,rdi-froeney energy 2 ration, contin, frome other mes. Rao egueny energy dtd y the FCC as any Eleewomaghetie energy ithe fequraey rage of 04H to 3GHE- The das have «tal purpose: o prove the Operation of ow power mers wihow rai station fray a to cone ertere 0 uthoraed rao sommmitons sere that ay be aed by equipment thatemie radio requeny energy or oe 4 byproduct a operation Digit scrofa note ar ete ar 8c the FCC Res and lato ee forthe anda and persion! endo for Inds, seen, and ede equipment {sar egupnen), ISM exuipcnt dened as ay device tat wer rho ‘tives or nds ste elo anyother parpose (casing te {aero erg by aa) 286th ctr wed mer ntended tobe wd {or rao computation laced are medi therm equip, Industral eating equipment, RF clon, RF ipting deren, dees wed {produce phy ehanges in alter A ther related oncom at 6 of he FCC Raes an Regulations provides union anda for te proesion sf he tlephone network fom arm cated the cone ti terminal euipent inlcing PBX sss) and ing, fo the corpty of Rearing sce ane telephone otra ha pesos sing ads ive resonate scam tthe tlepbone network arm to the ‘lophone network inlases elec! har 0 telephone company wok ‘Sar damge to tlpbone company egupnen, manson of tpn Sagan bing eapment and grain of service to persons oer thane wero the terminal equipment, i lling or ele pry FCC Part 15, Subpart J "The FCC rae of general ners Part 15, Sabpart J Because applies 0 sno algal leone. In September 199) the BOC adopted se ons to onl the imererence poten of gta electrons (led comping deve bythe FOC). Thee relations, "Tech Staats {or Comparing Equipment” (Docket 20780, amended Part 15 ofthe FOC ‘les reling forested radation deve, an8 they ae now coined Pace 15, Siar) of Tie #7 of The Cose of Federal Repulsson. Under‘Thats replatons wore the oul of lnestng complains tothe FCC stout meen tod and ilevison ecopon where ig carones ‘ioe Henin the ures ofthe interfering he PCC sad Computers ve ben pn to cts interes 16 sat al aio Seok" tne es aw SOM nig SERS al eqgen tbc mre pe upon curse Sa ie eet ed Sai tate feqeny ancestors Ines (EMD olen ‘lis ice) nee ren ‘Sion hp acts wh ror le mo sce ‘Tee FCC dts computing device a Any crs: Sve ope ht ener abd west pe ae {nara 100 pa (es) pr sued and es il tess SR teat eapes tes ety es tenets ci on scone ‘Tis deinion was ntemonatly mage boast include a any produ 2s posite Tis Ifa produt uses tga eeuley and has ook equ) restr shan Rei fe somputing dvi uote the FCC detton Tis ‘ition covers mos dtl tyne manufacture today ‘Comping Sevces covers yt dlnton are ded io two ca: Chas A: A computing device tht is macted fr we i commer, indus, oF business envionmet ‘Cas B: A competing device that marred for we io reside rsiroment, ntwittnding ase Somme, td ‘al or burps enone Singe Clat B dees ave more Hkly to be lesen loner print 19 ‘ao an lesson eee the onto forthe device ae shot TO more rennctve than thowe for Clas A deve Mecting hese ec sands the baton fhe manaactare of importer ot pode To gunrante compliance, the FCC regres the ‘Banuactaer tes the proc for comple before the pod an ‘aed in the United tres The FCC dies marketing 2s ship, {Shing aeing fore, impoing ad 50 on. Therefore, wl pd comps it theses, it amot legal be aberised size tis could be comedy en nn pone po bjt FC rr and wl comply wah the rasp deine. ‘or pesona compte and tee pecpheral (a stbetory of Cas B), te anafctarer must sami the test Gta fo the FEC and Olin cr [eso fromthe FCC foe fsan make the pode, The Commision {on a dts, a for pl roi at Ble pong he For all other products (Cats A. and Chet Bother than pero computes sod th periph) the manuactet St very compance renin he proc before marking. Neiaon i a secetiention Posada where nothing submited to te FOC uns spect re ‘etd’ Compliance by tndom sampling of routs by the FCC “he ime require 19 the complance Tes (end redo thm the product fn nd the fine reget fo ota cera from the cmmisin i reqied), should be shel to the prose’ develop: ren ete Tesing must be ove on sample sat resentative of production unde Tews voles» prodcon of preproduction mel, Com Plane tosis therfore one of the tems in he developmen Fimebe Ths tote for wcxpscied rps the pat fee tes changer at ie psa ave tical and espns, Teesire ie ‘Sseableto approach "the fal compliance tt wih a gk Gece ot ‘ndcnce tha he prodat wil pT can be done (1) proper EM ‘Sion princes ae decd ft Bok have been wd thong the ‘ese id) clay etn sn ts ety mol “he tn yah ec (at rds nd the metering mated that mabe edt Setenine span, T ‘Hou te aod thar the line and the messrementproedares ae Interested" dreds were bised on speed mesurment Procelors, Therefor: complance mesures mist be made following {he procure outned by he FCC In FOCIOSE AtP-t "FC Methods of VMosurement of Radio Noe Enisuont oom Computing Devices ee ‘Appense#). "fests mat be made ona complte stem, with leat connected and senate ina temonble ay that ens to asin the emion Formsatel emsin the easement procedure spies open eld (or equate ensrement made over pound pane with» ened dipole (ce ther coreatati, nest poled) etena. Ths bows i ip. 15 “Tale per the rade emiion limi for Cl A rod ben mean a3 tance of 30m, Tble 12 le ene fora han B ‘ct wher eased a stance aSe 7 P ammatitiatatn of fore 15, ofr i en fo Pan Ep (ET requeey "Dain tenth ali oN oa ‘A compan beeen he Class A ad Clas its mst done a the hme metssing dance: ‘Thetefor, ithe Clas lite ar etoplted tne om messing tae (ig Ur exapoaton, fe Wo sso ca then be compared as shown ie Fp Msc be ee te Class Bini sre more reste by abou ar of 3 GED) nce I re paid th as ea the FE ‘sews tat treats below 30 tthe primary enn of inefrecs ‘tte communities y condeting ef emery Sao the 8 owes ne SM sutsequentiy ating om the over te “Table hsbows th he Clas A and B vodacedemisin Init, These switager sre meatredconmonmade (ho to ound, an ae To {ound} onthe ne powerline sing 4 802180 pine impedance state ation remove (LION) a specie in the menstement procedure bee ‘Appendc F). Fre 1 soma typel FCC sondeted emiton test ep ‘Not only sts dence be texted for comple with the ete stand Ht itm so eal compl. a iformatin mst be Provided tothe wer on interference por. Ta addon othe tec seston metione eer, the rls ako ‘ont tonintftence regret whe tts hat ae of ee pent fuses bem interference, the wer canbe feud cease operation of the device" Notes he iference io exponsby btwoen the esa ic 7 C 3 =a | £ | 7 tase (ese eee eee gee 1 FC in Sp ried niin id it fm‘om “Gav a spestcaton: and the aointefeence requirement. Although th etn ‘Bechcaon istheseponsty of the marutoctrer or porter of the roduc te nnicerercna eguicnem te responsi fhe we fhe produc, Hao othe tl enifeton or veieation of prod the aes ao spy tt the matufactrer responsible for the cniied com Pane of sobyeuenty manicured equipment it's cng uae tov comptant pod, the mantactreror poner bs he rsp to etermene nee at change san effet on the Compliant of the produc. The FCC hus eawoned manufactures (Pub [Note 8, apa, 298) to moe tha ony shnge, ih om thir fee sem ini, en a veny Mth ane eee eat board onthe sino ie Teg FEC ne min meme sopra mtg wor ee cag ni i teen nets enough ow the proc ota omplance ct AC the time of this weting (ly 187), the FCC as temporeiy cxampted fve miner of dhl device fom Mew the tlc Sete of he rqurements. Thee sie Dig lenis bul lato tansporaon whi, such a a ee, pon, or bout Indi cnt tes din an ini lt cay, os pai Indus, commer, sed meal text eaupmen. Mioprocesor controled spplianes, uch 8 9 dsbwater, othe Ayer oF power ta 5. Specie matical dees, generally ose at he dreton or under Ie superision of sre ath cue petite toh ofthese devises subject to the noiterfrence regiment ofthe fut. Secs the exemptions mentioned are empathy san bee out ‘ot ny nom making procedure intinta y toe FCC. Thi woul tae oe fea of pablisting a Notke of Proposed Rele-Making, which ask for ‘onmeet itm iasy, ser the sommens ae revved, + alg ished there scunly interferons fom any ofthese exeaneed re Sc Rew tle might be made Therefore I prden for the manus {ere to design ll efpment to et te tech fegulemens of the "A generl overview of thee reunions & conttined in FCCIOST ‘alt 2 (198) ‘Since te FCG has purview over many tapes of eletonie products, ‘acon gal electron, esp tt development organisations shold ve complete and cen sto the FCC rls spe to the tp roc they produce. Tote rls shoul be freed during he dosan {2 avo sebequent emorussmemt When and is compan demon 1 would be desable 9 have 096 inteestional standard for a ‘son fom eleronie products nse af any diferent aol tn ‘ind Then a manuacrcr could desen snd tu produto one EMC Sten that woald be seepatle wri “The mot Lely vehi for axompihing hs objective js he Ines sonal Spool Commitee op Rad Iterernce (CISPR, Kom is i aTrench). CISPR was formed in 19 to determine mesturemeat meade En linsfor adotequocy erence mae to fact ration {Shie CIsPh hat bo resusery suthony, bo stant, whe adopted [ppovemnente bee national stancrde fo TORS CISPR adopted nw ‘et of emsoe Standards (Publeaton 22) for Information Testeogy Egipmers (sal lero). Many Earopsnn counties ave adopted tine mquaments tcl standard and me ate exposed 0 ‘pinthe fore The Und States, az voting member of CISPR, voted {vor of the new wanda This pt conser pemure onthe FCC ‘Mop te sume andar Tetelore he mts of CISPR Publ 22a Fie 8 compre the tem CISPR rated eon standard with the reten! FOC stants The FCC hints have eon exraolted to's 10m ‘suring dtncs for tha compan. As ean be seen, the CISPR it ‘esmore ostctve athe equene range fom 8 to 200 MH. From 38 0 ‘Hontte the CISPR Claw Ant Ie 3dB more restive, abd on 216 {oDOMIe the CISPR Che A limi 65SD more renecive than the gure 19 compres the few CISPR urronbund conte emsion stand tothe preont PEC standard. A oj fencer that CISPR impos iin the reuncy range o 150002 whee no FOC iit [ese cee For Ci A produc the CISPR stidatd 8 9-5dB move Fesnctie Hom 16Mir io SOWe For Cis Bproguas the CISPR Standrd 6 2B more reitiefrm 0.3 SA & am 14 FP 5, tr Jo oy 2% aed min nt — 8 i ! ose : =| eee APC Set J CPR, an 2, rod ob ‘Suscepity In Aupst 198 the U.S. Congres amended the Comumanitiont Act of 1934 ious Bit #5235) gine te FCC autonty to eg the step sity of hone clerics eqepnet and sytems, Exp of ose ete equipment are ato id television ts ome burr ond Stroy sym, atom garage door opener, clecoic Sega, resend Tarbes, and tre high fy amplifies systems. Alough ths bee "oi aimed pinay t home equipment tnd ser, Kept tne to ‘rovee te FOC from adoping sanders for dees Thal ye so wd tte the home. To date, however, the FOC hie ot ated on the StheryAlhough it published” an tnguiy wo the Problen ef Radio Frequency Tntretence to Elecwon Equpaent (General Docket No, TBakBy the FCC recs om slevgasion by indy Sho Indy recone la inthis reap, the FCC may move to exces is urbton ‘Sire of he elecromspneticevroen (Heian 1976; Jane 1977) haveshown thts felé strength grester han 2Vim ours abou of the tine. Smee there trnolepa scepibiy requement for comers Spots eons tye ojene wold 8 Von sy Asin Bolin (EMCAB wih dene tie lh re1. Products that mest GRADE 1 (1 Vin) se ely to experience perfomance degradation. 22 Prados that meet GRADE 2 (3 Vin) ae uly so experince eerisuon 5. Prods that mest GRADE 5 (J0Vin) shoud experience pesfonm nce degraaton ony unde very args casas itary Standards Anoier importn: group of EMC pein are the hued by the 5" Deparment of Deans. MILSTD-O1B species the nas at mst be et and MILSSTD 42 spain the tet sds amt grees for ‘aking the tests conned in RL S72-18. Thee sandorde a more lnget than the FCC youltion bees they covey aepttyo well -Bremution, andthe foqney ange om SOF: to “0GH “The te rowedres Sec i MIL STD-A2 are gute ern tha tone secded by the FOC, aod this makes des Smparion of the ‘eauireent dil For rdised envaon the my dad species ‘closed chamber (Sele room test. wetes the FCC res fae Shes fed testing. For condi een fosing he ary memues (iteat andthe FCC meses yolage “The catezois of tts speaed by MILSTD-401D are rgaied as shown inthe lock gram i ig. 1-10" Tee at ogre fotheadatd Sed conducted eminone at wel as radested ant condocted sve, ‘Toye isa oto the ontson and smceplty rumen eatin) ‘y'Ni-srd-s0kb. The bitary Speinon te» comprehen do rey and cam abo be W3e0 ty ndaty at > gle Tor designe Interferences norm equmest ‘TYPICAL NOISE PATH A Bick diagram of «pi oe path is sown in Fg, AB ca be ‘en, hee eames are necsnyW poder te problem Fr ers fot! bes mate sour. Ssson, thee mst be trap C&C Th sept te sae. Thi tee mt bes cup ae 0 eit “ie et map in soalising +n protien to ie th poole. This 1s done by cecamiaing what the note sore i what the reetor aN Sow the sours an reepo fe coupled topter I Slo hat tet te ttc ways Desk the noe pt (1) the as ean be suppres at he ‘ouic, (2) the Tereplor can Ue made Intense othe ae, or (3) the tension trop he coupling chanel canbe mined In some cases, se sporesion techniques mist be apple 0 tug or fo ee pal ihe nase pat & ] Ls siSusapty Regents of LTOIE Regirenen essipon = Saal a owen p15 La ese) ceo Cote ene, poet so inecomcing ge EB be ro, i mt ee et me pr tots Sone pte mee os py had a cose hai tg, ann tins 0 266, ‘co {Conde seep, power led, Uist Se cot eft ined il So 26M, Sp Condo cermin, auctor (cmon de) ott ‘ane cept, mage et 4 Oe nou ‘duo cpt, map neon fl pes ted power teaendar ore 12. ni cmp emai ma mr ah pi 8 be as xine ay, el, lo Oe 2 ie el fot me a [As an cxample, consider the sit shown in Fg. 12. shows 3 shied de’ moto? conected to tr motor seit. Motor me incrfering with 2 lowlevel seit inthe same oqpnent, Commsstor tote fom the motor candace ou of he shed onthe eng othe {ve crout From the leds nie i ase the lowed eet. Tn sis example the nie rare oma ofthe net he Sates andthe commutator. The coupling une! hs two prs conduction on the imror lade and ration from the lends The wep the To leve ‘Sout, nth cae not uh can be done stout he sure ore receptor. ‘Therefore the ltererence most be ented by breaking the Soupling ‘Shane! Noe condhton out ofthe si oration fo he eet Be sped, o bth steps may be ness. Tis cxample baseused more fay im chapter 3 USE OF NETWORK THEORY Mavwel's equations most be sed. Thee quate ae fons of thee spice variables (4, rz) and of time (0) Soltis for an but the amples Problens are analy xy compen. aond tis comple avsppron, Ftc anal teshnigue ced elec cs ana” sed dig at ‘Saignprovedoree, Gc analy limits the spat varabes and provides approximate solutions a3 fans tne only. Cra ashe umes the wa 1. All eae lds aeconfined 1 the inetions of eapcitons, 2. AL magnot for ae confined tothe norte of indore 5, Dimemlon of tbe ccs are sal compared 0 the waveengh tinder sonsdeation, - oe What realty implied ie that exter elds evn thou scaly present canbe nected the malon of he network Yet these ete Fetes my mot nosssanly be neleted nha ees cher creFor example,» 10-W pover amplifier may radste 100 mW of pow. ‘Teese LW re compel weil fr the an of he pee ones sed op on hap of ene ar, may pode = ‘Weaver posible, noise couping chanel ae represented a quale lumped componest sctworke For insane #timevarying eectie Bld ‘iting bermcen fro concur an be fepesentad bys capactor come Ing the two conduc ee Fig 1-13). Atine-arying mapetic Held that Couple two conductors cn be represent by a mua inditance between ‘erwo ees (ee Fig. 11D, Fo this pach to be ad, the phys limeasons of he ccs must be sal eompared tot waving af the sgnals noled, Tas sp- tion made troughout mow ft bok, amd it normaly Teasonb For cumple, the wavelength of tt al approximately 800. Foe {SMe sia mF ost electron cus, the daensons fe Ese ae his ago ly ate mp compet 1. The slut of Manel equation sot practi for most “el ‘rid none prolome ect of the compated boundary cond 2 Lampod componcet represention, although It doesnot nessa ‘ve te eaect numeri unser, dos ea shaw bow Woe ne 8, Won conn op l,h ning n p Dt erro phy mi cg ed spends on be stom paraetrs.Oa the oer Nand, te staton of avwets equations, een i psible, dos at show sch dependence Seay ‘er One can cncade, however tht there components cua at wlMETHODS OF NOISE COUPLING CCondctvely Coupled Noise ‘ne of he mst bis, but often overtook, mays 1 supe nis into 3 Stel on condor wie an troveh# hoy emeorment may pick ‘pote and hen const to snthe sea Thete Wexner terfeence “The solton to prevent he wr frm pskng pth aoe, or fo remove the noe tom i by decoupling before interferer with the macepale siete The major example nth eatepory woe condita cet on the power sup ets Ifthe desig ofthe cut has ocontol ve the wer sup o if ther equment scone tothe power spl, 1 ocomes necro decouple the nose fom the Wie eft they eet ‘Coupling trough Common impedance Conon impedence coupling cess when currents fom wo diferent ‘eute fow troughs common impedznce. The vatage op cos He ‘rimplr oft type of coupling tsbown nig 115 Ths ound ene] Sc Zoot Sow oops the oman proud space As fa sce 1 ‘Bconcrnd, te grourd polenta! today ground crea? Bovine {the conmon pound impedance, Some noe Seal, heer, Is ouped {fom set 20 cet I ou the common grou pean “Rooter example of tis tle lst in the power dbtion circuit shown it Fp 116. Any change in the sappy cent rq by 1 cman | conga ¥ econ eee aan samo ' ssreance, ‘ Fr 5, Wn aca ste cm pan ean og of th Treat pl mo eo som 3 careees a es 2 wil fect he vag the mis ofc 1, ute Sepetance ofthe power sopiy Some improvement vag be babe) nmecing the lade fron cst 2 cle to Me power suply tpt ‘erminai, thas decreasing the magnitie of the common le pedanee ‘Teese tough te per sp ina pte ems, lect end Magnetic Fete ‘ouping. All cet element inling cnducors radiate learomagnete feide whenever charge moved In aan tos untentonl ran, there the poten of ntentonal rain from sources sich 8 broads “atone td radar transmits, When the reece roe to he sore (pete fed), clei and age el are consieed sepals. Whee the vec i tom the source (lat id), the radation const ‘combined loc and pet o elcromagnete rdaon + MISCELLANEOUS NOISE SOURCES Cavanie Avion 1 Gs mete ae se inthe sgl pth in owlevel deny, amie Preseoe of more or water rapor in conjnetin withthe two meta Produc: chemical wet sl. The stage developed depends on the too Se Chef on gn fed ealsca wd nd is related to thet positions in he ganic sere show {Table LS. The farther apart the mae are op hte the ge the Aslop witge Ht the metals are the came na potent diferente can Te tion to potacng note voltae, the we of dsm metals cm produces crtonon problem, Galvanic evo ese psi oe fmm ‘Semel tbe tare tothe nthe one rely ces te ode material tobe desroyed. The ate of coreson pend On the ‘Bstere conten of he enone ho far pattems eo he {vane sre The farther apr the meas aes the galvanised [ster the on tansfer An undelble, tl commen, onntin of et SS sluninum snd copper, With hs corto the suinun vet fates avay The eation sows dova emir, home the ope ented with lend solr ae sium dean wet teste ‘he gaan sres our eels ae nade beloe galvanic action cn Ur 1 Anode materi (higher rk in Tale 15) 2. Bley (usualy present os most) 3 Cathe material (ower rank i Table -5) 44, Conducting cles! coneeton Between anode and cathe (oully preset ats leskape Pal). (oes sep oa) Croup. saps 13. Nike ace 2. Sie 2 Sams She icone ower 2. Sher est ep ets) er 1 Gan an im dnd te et Gavaic ation can take pice even i maitre docs not get tween the Stode and extde'A tat needed ie some moisture an the mace ‘here the to metals eome loge, as shows ie Fig. 17. "As sean Table 1, he mot of the elvan Ses ae divided nto sve oops. When dir cals est be eomlane, ti exe owe tes tom the same poop Electrotte Action [second type of crtsion sda to eletrolyc ton, coed by a ‘eet creat towing btwoun wo tale wth an scrlyte (rich cold te sgl sce ambient moisture) between them. Te pe of corsa oes nt depen cn th to metal sed nd wl sa ct re he {he condcy ofthe lec ‘Tibostectre tect ‘A churge canbe prodused on the dict material within cable, ‘serie das no matin cate mth the able conductors Ts eae the wiboceetie ee I is usualy caused by mechanical bending oe fable The erg stat arose vege source wii the ele. iia ing sharp bends aod cable tmaon minimizes te ee A spe “ow tect sve in hh te eal shemale mnie the posit of chugs udp onthe sete Conductor Motion Hair moved through a mene fd, «voige i ince between hdr ofthe mie, Du to power sting and oer ces wih gh utent ftw, say magneve fe cnt In toe environment. Ha me th 3 Towel gal ten slowed co ove ough ins eld « noe voltae iInduced ia the wie. This probe can be eipeily troublesome in 2 ‘Sol cinco Tun sine: pee a wh METHODS OF ELIMINATING IVTERFERENCE The flowing chapters present technique by which itererence Between leetooi cheats sun fe liinted, or at lene reas The primary ‘mothe stable or combate ntefrene see a oll Selding Grounding Balscng Separation an ointtion iret inpedance eel conta (cable deen ‘Canaan tectnigace(Legueny o tne domi. Append B, pretend inthe form ofa checkls, s» summary ofthe nore comony ust ac seducon technique. Even, wah a thee Methods aval, sould be remembered tat nose wmualy camo be ‘inated ican oly be misao the px where ino longer uses Imtereene, Tal bot the singlet caer,» single nique soliton 1 the aise ‘edtion poem may not et. Compromie are general requed, 2nd ‘tic ofthe many aerate solstins I the ew an be the suet onsieratledgroement In ti book we wl present the techmiqs ‘tic are wea or deceningitereence, Deon on which echnics ‘ould be used in specie case however, ave things that mUSt Be ‘cermin by the sstem dag engines SUMMARY + Designing equipment that dot ot generate noite sa important at ‘signing equipment tha snot suse moe. 1 Nuon urns cam be oop int thes catego: (1) lise wie sora) sna os sores nd) ae doef a “+ Mos igi clacton: devises mst comply with the FCC ras on fompetng devs before thy can ie mteted it the Une Sts 4 The folowing ate tempore exeapt from the FCC rqscenents Dil elewtoncs m= wanportaon vehi Il contest Home appances Speciniaed media devs + Elcom cmp he hy oa eine ton 4 kcnmaete copay fs 0 a mon a cp ‘+ Bletromapeteconpsity shold be # major dion objective {Thee ies are acre to pce 4 oe proble. ‘A coupling chanet A sureptle recopor 4+ The tee primary means of moe couptng ae the long Conte coupine ‘Conon peda coupling ‘Coupling by ete elecvomagnte Bl ‘+ Metin conto wi each ther mut be galvanelly compa ‘There are omy techies by whch nase eam be reaueed in a0 Sleerone stem: # ug solo 6 mt nase eduction problems ‘rest est LIOGRAPHY Bea Lettre Phe Dani of fone Sm, Wo 2, Caper 5 (Eh ‘gd Ps rn Pos Eageoes ChB ‘Characters of Information Technolog Equipo” 196. of Fer Rep, Tie (RTH). Fo 5, Ss. Comping Cohen Fan My "RELA Ro Lak oO am” O57, MCAD “emi srs Equipe Ic Wo peo (Commaniatin Inve epee 17 ed tne 2, Auge OB06, “Commision Cautions si Cones Wiles Cnpuing Bonet i ect of eS rs! Rao Pao aon el HK “nemo Naon Rad ety ine Ree ee. Braz msn Cong, Wi 1 Beit ‘Wie, DR J. EecromagteIuefece ad Compa. V2 (EMI Test ‘Nino Posed) Don Woe Constantin, MA 4 2 caBLING This bape is devoted to cabling and able sling and Chapter 3 covers ooning. Since the subjects of eble sheng and groong esky {chtd, these two chapters shoud be sided together Chapter 2, fo ‘rampl, show tht ele ed 08 0 soppeet let ede sold be ‘Bounded, but Chapter 3 explains where that round should bende ‘Cables ar inprtancbocase they ae the ngs ar fa system and shortest ele sneaas tht pie up andlor Tadate mae. Thi tae a vec ier cota, Both wees and ee aes Th thi chapter we asame the flowing: 1, Stel are made of nonmgneicmateri ad have thisknest ch Tee tan skin depth a he oquney of mere 2. The ert ped ih fe ores a os down 5 Induced crn the eceporcieuit ste sal enough nt stor the orginal Hel. (This oct na ply to. shelé aroun the reepor reat) 4 Cables ae sort compared toa wavelength ‘Sine cables ate sss short compared to a wavelength, th coulng ‘etwen tals cap be represented by lumped capactance and oetance ‘etwece the cndoaon Tae est can then be aalyaed by notmal onowk hey ete af ining we cnr Te Gc oli “strate euping, an obvious mienomer ser the Hl te ot tae “The second induct, or magnetic coupling. wih esl om he interaction between the magaeti els ftw cei Thi peo euping i commonly desied ah clectrmagretc agai mislead ermin.gs Since ao eet fel ae imoleds Ibe hid combination of eee End magne feds and appopaatly called ckeomagrete coping OF hay nc ape ces aa Caperrutin. The techniques éerelope to cope wth ler coupling ae ho ‘pptonae forthe stetromagnet ce. For nay the fet el, we onal coasidr th tactic ad magnet Hl spay, whats the lecromagoee eld case considered when the problem i inthe lar {sia "The ret caning the intrernce i cal the sources sd the cuit being atlected bythe intercon ald the receptor ‘capacrtve couPLING Shown'a Fig, Caparane Cr tbe sey tuys beoren cone round, Cy, iste total capacitance between conductor? and ground, and R Fhe restnce of cit 2 10 grond. The testance reas tom he ‘eazy connate fo conductor? an not» sry componet tance Cy consis of oth the say eaputnce of eondutor 21 pound nd the Set of any cacy connect to sooo 2 “The egal ecto he coupling is do sbown in Fe, 21. Coser the vonage Vo condusor as he soars itetetene sb conductor eared cru or rept. Any apace connected ey ees the source sch 8 Cro Bi 2, cnn be need sce a oo eet on the nue coup. The moa vole Fy produced between conductor and ound can te expressed as folows jal uhCy + Gad) a je FRE, + Ea) i) uation 21 doesnot show cary how te pickup voltage depend om ‘pe vunows parameters. Eguton 21 cat be slaplie for he case when it Yomerimpeance tan he impedance ofthe stay capacitance Cy MS (Goin mont pata ict he wl be tue. Theor, for RSET 1g, 21 can by seed to the following “RCM ea) loti Held (apace) coping an be mode asa caren generator, conse betwee the tes eat snd pound, ith» apne of Jey. Ths shows in Ba 294 juan 22 i the mor portant equation describing te capctive coupling tetrece tno Gis, and Henly shows how the picks Seite epende onthe parameters. Equation 22 sows that the noe {oling i rect propoeuona tothe equeney (w= Sof) of te noe ‘our the resstance Mel the afeted rent to ound he apace Ch, ‘enccn conductor 1 and 2, andthe magia of the Yosge Y, "Asuming tha the voltage and Srqucney of te nie sore canot be change ths lav only wo reminng parameter for sedaig eapsive ‘eu. The octet cea can be peated at 3 ower resistance evel fspectane Cy can be detroned. Capaatance Cy ean be decreed 8) proper oneniion ofthe conductor, by shiling (Sere i the next Scone by aval searing the contre I the conductors se Imo frie spat, detec, has decreasing the induced voltage On fencutor 2 The cfs of eondinor apocng om epsctive coupling Showm ie ig 22 AS teen, Othe eaoping when the eoncactos espa y thes times the tng ameter. As a be Sear he gue sional atonation psned by sping the condctors 3 tne eter hae tines tht meter (in in he ese 2 ae we) be exstance from conductor 216 grand large, ch that IG, FG)" thea Eq 24 redes to ee Matto flay Penden Ce sel a eeeSEPARATION 8 FOR 22 GAUGE WIRE (RICHES) , é ae i : i : a i ; [gore 28. regency reponse of epee couple ae ol. a Under this condition the noise wigs produced Between conductor 2 and | See 7 ce sense va aes ao ct othe rane en a 4 u Ca Gad eo ay y | je ji [EFFECT OF SHIELO ON CAPACITIVE COUPLING bd ‘Fiest consider the cise where the receptor (conductor 2) has infinite ee eee (Gole=b/0 30 1m novae BNIANOD aie es)4 ‘ae 34. Cae cpg te pa ond pr cen ‘Size thre 6 50 ewavat flow hxough Cc the VORA picked py ve ee 1 the shi ic pounded, the wotge V; 0, and the Robe vote Vom Te pac, he cnt conducts nomaly dos extend teyond he shes dhe stustion ecomes tht of Fp? Thee Cy se apace Totwcen conductor 1 and te skededcoogictor 2, aid Cye the capt tance between condattor 2 and ground. Bot) of these eapotances ex ‘ene te end of conductor estnd feyond the dc Even the sald Sounded, here «alse voltage coupled o conductor 2s eet expressed a flows en ‘The val of Cy, and Renee Vy 0.1. 27 depends on the length of| anaictor 2 tha tends beyond te el or good cic fl sili Serer nectar (1) minimize the lngh of the ctr conductor tat eaten beyond th shld and (3) 0 provde a good ground on the sid. A single pound connection makes = shod poi he wnt ngs oe wth ot euping The sinpliled oquaent cent ane rcopied the sme ‘Sent nalyred in Fp 1 povided Cy, epoca bythe sumo C Gy Thee, SCTE" ‘hic x normal tue, the aoe volag coupled fo conductor 2 ¢ es) fens prima of he capacitance Between condetor 1 a the