Comparative Education Research: Who, what and why?

Prof Bob Adamson Dep't of International Education & Lifelong Learning Hong Kong Institute of Education badamson@ied.edu.hk

Comparative Education
A field constructed by: Intellectual traditions (courses, books, journals) Institutional traditions (departments, societies) Shaped by geopolitics, historical shifts, power plays
(Manzon, 2011)

A brief history
Travellers tales (early 19th Century) Borrowing good practices (mid 19th Century onwards) Encyclopaedic studies (late 19th Century) Understanding forces and factors (early 20th Century) Social sciences quantitative analysis (mid 20th Century) Intranational comparisons (1990s-) Multilevel & multidisciplinary analyses (21st Century)
Bereday(1964), Noah & Eckstein (1969), Crossley & Jarvis (2000), Bray (2007)

Focus
Traditionally, states as the unit of comparison Borrowing good practices Competitiveness Recently, more units of analysis have broadened (diluted?) the field

Units of analysis (1)

Content analysis of Alexander, R., Broadfoot, P. & Phillips, D. (Eds.) (1999). Learning from comparing: new directions in comparative educational research. Oxford, UK: Symposium Books. Bignold, W. & Gayton, E. (Eds.) (2009). Global issues and comparative education. Exeter, UK: Learning Matters. Bray, M., Adamson, B. & Mason, M. (Eds.) (2007). Comparative education research approaches and methods. Hong Kong & Dordrecht, Netherlands: Comparative Education Research Centre & Springer. Kubow, P.L. & Fossum, P.R. (2002). Comparative education: Exploring issues in international context. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Mundy, K., Bickmore, K., Hayhoe, R., Madden, M., & Madjidi, K. (Eds.) (2008). Comparative and international education : issues for teachers. Toronto, Ont.: Canadian Scholars' Press.

Thomas, R.M. (Ed.) 1990. International comparative education. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.

Units of analysis (2)

locations systems policies times cultures values, conflict resolution & citizenship educational achievements, international indicators & student performance curricula educational organisations, governance & accountability ways of knowing & learning ways of teaching economics of education assessment teacher education & professionalism ideologies, goals & purposes of education social equity and access to education language in education

Bray & Thomas (1995) Cube

Who compares? And why?

Students to select electives Parents to find institutions that will meet their childrens needs most effectively Principals and teachers to improve the operation of their institution Policy makers to find ways to achieve social, political and other objectives in their own settings International agencies to improve the advice they give to national governments Academics to improve understandings of educational processes and impacts of processes on social development
(Bray, 2007; Adamson & Morris, 2007)

Research approaches

There is no one method of study in the field: rather, the field increasingly is characterized by a number of different research orientations. No longer are there attempts to define a single methodology of comparative education
(Altbach & Kelly, 1986, p.1)

Major characteristic of research

Explicit comparison through different forms of juxtaposition Implicit comparisondescribing the characteristics of a single phenomenon implies the existence of an otherness

How can we compare?

Perspective

Methods Analytical frameworks

Unit of Analysis

Manifestation

How can we compare?

Research perspective: Investigative Evaluative Interpretative Critical Developmental / action-based

How can we compare?

Research methods: Qualitative Quantitative

Mixed methods

Manifestations
Area Ideology Typical manifestations books academic papers policy documents speeches & statements policy documents minutes of meetings notices syllabuses prospectuses learning materials schemes of work/ lesson plans assessment materials participant interaction (e.g. use of time and resources) roles of participants participant perceptions, interest and engagement interaction patterns outputs change in participants attitude and/or behaviour cognitive, interpersonal and affective processes Typical research methods discourse analysis interviews

Planned/ intended policy

discourse analysis interviews

Enacted practices

observations participants log interviews ethnography activity records

Experience

questionnaires interviews reflections psychometric tests

Beredays Model

Examples of comparative education research

OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)

Investigative perspective surveys of 15-year-olds in the principal industrialised countries every three years assesses how far students near the end of compulsory education have acquired some of the knowledge and skills essential for full participation in society Scientific literacy, reading literacy, mathematics literacy Influences policy and curricular decisions

PISA 2009
Mathematics
1. Shanghai 600 2. Singapore 562

Reading literacy
1.Hong Kong 533 2.Singapore 526

Science
1.Shanghai 575 2. Finland 554

3. Hong Kong 555

4. Korea 546 5. Finland 541 6.Switzerland 534

3.Canada 524
4.New Zealand 521 5.Japan 520 6. Australia 515

3.Hong Kong 549

4. Singapore 542 5. Japan 539 6. Korea 538

Culture & Pedagogy (Alexander, 2000)

Interpretive perspective Compares primary schools in France, Russia, India, USA and England Semi-systematic classroom observations, plus interviews, documentary analysis, photos and journal entries State provision of education, logistics, school-community relations, pedagogy Shows how schooling reflects cultures Derives implications for policy makers

Curriculum world systems theory Meyer, Kamens & Benavot (1992)

Interpretative perspective
Nation-states tend to conform to global notions of a nation-state Education systems tend to conform to global notions of an education system Consistent patterns in curriculum content (subject level) emerge across nation-states Common elementary curriculum

Task-based learning Tong, Adamson & Che (2000)

Interpretative perspective Document analysis and interviews Comparison of interpretations of TBL in Chinese and English at primary school level in Hong Kong

Comparison at four levels: policy intention, policy action, resourced curriculum & implemented curriculum
Found large degree of slippage between levels and differences across the two subjects

Textbook analysis Sleeter & Grant (1991)

Critical perspective
USA: portrayals of race, class, gender & disability 47 textbooks (social studies, reading & language arts, science, mathematics

analysis of pictures, anthology, people to study, language, storyline and miscellaneous

bias towards Whites & males; against colour, female, poor, disabled

Schooling of Indigenous Children in USA & Australia Hickling-Hudson & Ahlquist (2003)

Critical perspective Field visits, interviews, analysis of wall displays & curricular artefacts Some schools heavily dominated by White culture (lacking community support) Other schools celebrated indigenous cultural practices (with strong community support)

What are the pitfalls?

Terminology Defining the unit of analysis Ignoring the cultural contexts

Cherry-picking
Comparing for no obvious reason Comparing for the wrong reasons

Terminology
For example: Middle School in the PRC = secondary school Middle School in England = school bridging primary and junior secondary school

Defining the unit of analysis

Comparing the UK and the USA would need to recognize that both places have several education systems. USA has a state system with some federal influences. UK comprises four countries, with Scotland having a distinct education policy, and Wales & N. Ireland in the process of delinking from England. Therefore we should define the place carefully to ensure a clear unit of analysis.

Ignoring the cultural context

The contents and pedagogy of History curricula would be very different in different systems because of cultural factors: Hong Kong, for example, has two curricula, World History and Chinese History A comparison of maths scores would need to consider the number of hours allocated per grade; the scope of the syllabus; the nature of assessment; etc.

Cherry-picking
Care is needed in transferring ideas from overseas. Michael Sadler (1900) We cannot wander at pleasure among the educational systems of the world, like a child strolling through a garden, and pick off a flower from one bush and some leaves from another, and then expect that if we stick what we have gathered into the soil at home, we shall have a living plant. Self-strengthening Movement in China zhong xue wei ti, xi xue wei yong

Comparing for no obvious reason

Comparison is pointless, unless:
the act of comparing can add extra dimensions to the study units of comparison have sufficient in common to make comparison meaningful on the basis of similarities that are identified, a general explanation can be formulated there is a purpose that goes beyond comparing for its own sake

Comparing for the wrong reasons

Some government agencies use unprocessed comparisons to support or justify dubious policies International study results are turned into competitive league tables, rather than being used as indicators of educational development

Potential for comparative education

globalisation leads to greater interconnectivity & principled sharing/appropriation hi-tech can lead to low cost comparative research

Areas for comparative education

Current tensions in the appropriation of comparative education to support utilitarianism in neo-liberal discourses in education (social & economic efficiency) Globalisation and utilitarianism also create ethical and social equity issues Need to focus on more humanistic approaches (learnercentred, whole-person development, inter/cultural sensitivity, global futures orientation, etc.)?

Where can we start?

International consensus Millennium Development Goals Education for All

Millennium Development Goals

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality Goal 5: Improve maternal health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development

Education for All (EFA)

World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal (2000)
Expand early childhood care and education.

Free and compulsory education of good quality by 2015.

Promote the acquisition of life-skills by adolescents and youth. Expand adult literacy by 50 per cent by 2015. Eliminate gender disparities by 2005 and achieve gender equality in education by 2015. Enhance educational quality.

Spheres of action to support MDG & EFA

Cycles of appropriating, evaluating & disseminating 1. locally 2. regionally 3. internationally

Towards a new model of appropriation / dissemination

What tends to happen

Process:
Synthesis and adaptation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Reform in context A Generalisation & internationalisation Appropriation in context B1 (policy level) Appropriation in context B2 (resourced level) Appropriation in context B3 (adopted level) Appropriation in context B4 (implemented level)

A pragmatic model

Assess features of the policy / practice in context A

Align compatible features of the policy / practice in context A with salient features of:
appropriation sub-context B4 (implemented level) (priority)

appropriation sub-context B3 (adopted level)

appropriation sub-context B2 (resourced level) appropriation sub-context B1 (policy level)

Concluding comments

Comparative education embraces the spectrum of research purposes, approaches and methods We are all comparativists, explicitly or implicitly Globalisation opens up new opportunities and challenges Comparative education research can contribute deepened understandings, policy options, more effective modes of implementation and enhanced experiences for the betterment of society if used appropriately, and with sensitivity to context.

Diolch yn fawr! Thank you! !