CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONS

1.1 Functions and Their Graphs

Real Numbers - Most applications of mathematics use real

numbers. For purposes of such applications, it suffices to think of a
real number as a decimal. A rational number is one that may be
written as a finite or infinite repeating decimal, such as

-5/2 = -2.5, 1, 13/3 = 4.3333 (rational numbers).

An irrational number has an infinite decimal representation whose

digits from no repeating pattern, such as

-√ 2 = -1.414214… π = 3.14159… ( irrational

numbers )

The real numbers are described geometrically by a number line, as

in Fig.1. Each number corresponds to one point on the line, and
each point determines one real numbers.

Fig 1: Number line

We use four types of inequalities to compare real numbers

x<y x is less than y

x≤y x is less that or equal to y
x>y x is greater than y
x≥y x is greater than or equal to y

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The double inequality a < b < c is shorthand for the pair of
inequality a <b and b < c.
Geometrically, the inequality x ≤ b means that either x equals to b
or x lies to the left of b on the number line. The set of real
numbers that satisfy the double inequality a ≤ x ≤ b corresponds to
the line segment between a and b, including the endpoints. This set
is sometimes denoted by [a, b] and is called the closed interval
from a to b. If a and b are removed from the set, the set is written
as(a, b) and is called the open interval from a to b. The notation for
various line segment is listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Intervals on the Number Line

Inequality Geometric Interval

Description Notation
a≤x≤b a b [a,b]
a<x<b a b (a,b)
a≤x<b a b [a,b)
a<x≤b a b (a,b]
a≤x a [a,∞)
a<x a (a,∞)
x≤b b ( -∞ , b ]
x<b b ( -∞ , b )

The symbol ∞ (“infinity”) and -∞(“minus infinity”) do not

represent actual real numbers. Rather, they indicate that the
corresponding line segment extends infinitely far to the right or
left. An inequality that describes such an infinite interval may be
written in two ways. For instance, a ≤ x is equivalent to x ≥ a.

Functions - A function of a variable x is a rule f that assigns to

each value of x a unique number f(x), called the value of the
function at x. [ We read “f(x)” as “f of x”] The variable x is called
the independent variable. The set of values that the independent

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variable is allowed to assume is called the domain of the function.
The domain of a function may be explicitly specified as part of the
definition of a function or it may be understood from context. The
range of a function is set of values that the function assumes.

More About the Domain of a Function – When defining a

function, it is necessary to specify the domain of the functions,
which is the set of acceptable values of the variable.

Graph of Functions – Often it is helpful to describe a function f

geometrically , using a rectangular xy-coordinate system. Given
any x in the domain of f , we can plot the point (x, f(x)). This is the
point in the xy-plane whose y- coordinate is the value of the
function at x. The set of all such points (x, f(x)) usually forms a
curve in the xy-plane and is called the graph of the function f(x).

The Vertical Line Test – A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of

the function if and only if each vertical line cuts or touches the
curve at no more than one point.

Three Views of a Function

1. Giving a formula for the functions along with any
limitation on the values of the independent variable. A
function specified in terms of a formula is said to be
defined analytically.
2. By drawing a graph. Such a function is said to be
defined graphically.
3. By giving a table of function values. A function
described in this way is said to be defined numerically.

Graph of Equations – The equations arising in connection with

functions are all of the form y = [an expression in x]. However, not
all equations connecting the variables x and y are of this sort. For
eg. 2x + 3y = 5, x2 + y2 = 1 and etc.

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1.2 Some Important Functions

Linear Functions – Every straight line is the graph of a linear

equation of the form
cx + dy = e,

where c, d and e are given constants. If d ≠ 0, then we may solve

the equation for y to obtain an equation of the form

y = mx + c, (1)

for an appropriate numbers m and b. If d = 0, then we may solve

the equation x to obtain an equation of the form

x = a, (2)

for an appropriate number a. The graph of an equation of form (1)

is a nonvertical line, whereas the graph of (2) is a vertical line. The
straight line of (1) is the graph of a function f(x)=mx + b. Such a
function, which is defined for all x, is called a linear function. The
straight line of (2) is not the graph of a function, since the vertical
line test is violated.

An important special case of a linear function occurs if the

value of m is zero, that is, f(x) = b for some number b. In this case,
f(x) is called a constant function, since it assigns the same number
b to every value of x. It is graph horizontal line whose equation is
y = b.

Quadratic Functions - A quadratic function is a function of the

form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constant and a ≠ 0.
The domain of such a function consist of all numbers. The graph of
a quadratic function is called a parabola. Two typical parabolas
are drawn in Figure 2.

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 Figure 2: Quadratic function

Polynomial and Rational Functions – A polynomial function f(x)

is one of the form
f(x) = anxn + a n-1 x n-1 + …+ ao

where n is a nonnegative integer and ao, a1,…,an are given

numbers. A function expressed as the quotient of two polynomials
is called a rational function.
Eg. k(x) = x + 3
x-4

The domain of a rational function excludes all values of x for

which the denominator is zero.

Power Functions - Functions of the form f(x) = xr are called

power functions.

The Absolute Value Function – The absolute value of a number x

is denoted by |x| and is defined by

x if x is positive or zero
|x| = -x if x is negative

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The function defined for all numbers x by

f(x) = |x|

is called the absolute value function. Its graph coincides with the
graph of the equation y = x for x ≥ 0 and with the graph of the
equation y = -x for x < 0. (See Fig. 3)

Figure 3: Absolute value function

1.3 The Algebra of Functions

Its all can be viewed as combinations of other functions. The

algebraic technique needed to combine functions by addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.

Composition of Functions – Another important way of combining

two functions f(x) and g(x) is to substitute the functions g(x) for
every occurrence of the variable x in f(x). The resulting function is
called the composition ( or composite) of f(x) and g(x) and is
denoted by f(g(x)).

Measuring Change in a Variable – Consider a variable x whose

value is changing. Suppose that it starts from the value x = a and
moves to the value x = b. We say that x = a is the initial value and
that x = b is the terminal value of x. The change that x undergoes
is just the terminal value minus the initial value and is denoted △x(
read delta x). That is we have

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 △x = [ terminal value ] – [initial value] = b – a
△ – Greek letter means “change”

1.4 Zeros of Functions – The Quadratic Formula and

Factoring

A zero of function f(x) is a value of x for which f(x) = 0.

The Quadratic Formula – Consider the quadratic function f(x) =

ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0. The zeros of this function are precisely the
solutions of the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0,
One way of solving such an equation is via the quadratic formula.

The solutions of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

The ± sign tells us to form two expressions, one with + and one
with -. The quadratic formula implies that the quadratic equation
has at most two roots. It will have none if the expression b2 – 4ac
is negative and one if b2 – 4ac equals 0.

Factoring – If f(x) is a polynomial, we can often write f(x) as a

product of linear factors(i.e., factors of the form ax + b). If this can
be done, then the zeros of f(x) can be determined by setting each of
the linear factors equal to zero and solving for x.

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1.5 Exponents and Power Functions

We begin with the definition of br for various types of number b

and r.
For any nonzero number b and any positive integer n, we
have by definition that
bn = b.b.b…b
n times

n 1
b –n = b= bn

and b0 = 1

Finally, let us consider numbers of the form b m/n where m and n

are positive integers. We may assume that the fraction m/n is in
lowest terms ( so that m and n have no common factor). Then we
define
b m/n = (b1/n)m

Law of Exponents

1. b rb s = b r+s 4. (b r)s = b r s

2. b –r = 1/br 5. (a b) r = a r b r

3. b r = b r . b –s = b r - s 6. a r
= ar
bs b br