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    Todd A. Gooch The Numinous and Modernity An Interpretation of Rudolf Ottos Philosophy of Religion 2000

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    Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die Todd A. Gooch alttestamentliche Wissenschaft The Numinous and Modernity Herausgegeben von Aa Interpretation of Otto Kaiser Rudolf Otto’s Philosophy of Religion Band 293 Ww Ww DEY DE Gi Walter de Gruyter + Berlin » New York Walter de Gruyter - Berlin - New York 2000 2000 @ Friowed oo acid fice pape which fas within e puielices of the ANSE to engure permanence and durtbiiy Dit Dace Bisbee — CIP-Einbuaabme Gooch, Tod A “The mamincus and soderciy : an imerpretaon of Radel Ono's philocophy of ceigion / Todd A. Gooch. ~ Berlin ; New York ‘be Gruyter, 2000, (Geihete aur Zaitchsif Ric die skuesamentche Wisserashaft 5 Ba 299) Zu}: Claremont, Uni, Dis, 2000 ISBN 311-0107599 © Copysight 2000 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Ca. KG, D-10785 Retin, AM ghsseeserved, inculing thove of tandlaion int forsign languages. No pact ofthis book tay be reproduced or wanemiced in any form or by any racan, eecsanle oc enechanial Including photocopy, ecotding ofan information storage and eesieval system, without permis on in wring foe che publisher Painted in Germany Cover design: Chisopher Schneider, Bein Peinting. Werner Hidebeand, Bettin Binding: Lodesier& Bauee-Grn, Bedi Preface: Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of hosts ‘The reader of the present volume might be surprised to find a study of Ru- dol Otto and his book Das Feiigein a series dedicated to the Old Testament. ‘The current book might indeed have appeared in a variety of other contexts, bur its publication within this particular series is by no means accidental, ther, As such, a study of Rudolf Otto needs no justification. In light of its im- portance and ambivalence, Das Helge has been dramatically understudied! probably the best-selling theological work of the 20 Century, it was often Aisparaged by the theologians; a woeld event whea it appeared, it was tidi- culed by the fashionable students at Otto's own university only ten years later, a book whose success is usually explained by its context, it continues to sell copies every day even today, and it was translated during the past dec- ade into several additional languages. Yet, while there have been a few secent studies of Otto and his work, none has really dealt sufficiendly with the full scholarly and socio-political context, Otto's intellectua! heritage, and especially with the reception of Das Heilge when the book was first pub- lished ‘Todd Gooch’s very readable account does just that. It unites highly sophis- ticated methodology with very sound documentation, The unpublished ma- terial he uses is quite superior to the basis of any-previous Orto study (the book dons 2 too modest cloak and does not make this explicit enough), and the author’ impressive competence, not only in the German language as such, but also in the specific idiom and world of thought of Otto's time and place, make the present volume particulasly important. Bat why, again, the Old ‘Testament series? Dr. Gooch’s theological ~ rather than philosophical or religious stadies — association with those with an Old Testament background during his two years at Marburg, where the study was written, has something to do with that, More importantly, how- ever, the ttle of this preface, from Isaiah 6.3, forms for good reasons the inscription on Rudolf Otto’ grave in the Marburg Cemetery on Ockers- hhiuser Allee. For those of us who oceasionally walk by the simple tombstone inthis beautiful last garden, it serves as a constant reminder of the nactative of the call of the Prophet Isaiah as the key text for Das Heide as a whole, Preface We trust that Todd Gooch’s book on Rudolf Otto and Das Heilige will be interesting for almost anyone concerned with theology, religion, philosophy, and the modern history of ideas. We hope, however, hati willbe particularly rewarding for those with an Old Testament focus, the general audience of this series, lest they Forget one of the most important aspects of their study. Marburg, August 2000 Oto Kaiser Walang Drehsler Contents conTENTs. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. INTRODUCTION 1, THE IMPACT OF DAS HeIL1G# AND THE PECULIARITY OF ITS RECEPTION... I, A REVIEW oF SELECTED LITERATURE ON OFTO. I, PURPOSE AND SCORE OF THE PRESENT STUDY. IV. HERMENBUTICAL REMARKS. CHAPTER ONE OTTO AS HEIR AND INTERPRETER (OF SCHLEIERMACHER’S SPEECHES ON RELIGION LD Historical Contixt oF O770’S RECEPTION OF SCHLEHERMACHER....28 TL “How Scutemmacitim REDISCOVERED RELIGION”. 1, Tue ESSENCE (WSEHY) OF RELIGION IN THE SPEBCHES. IV, BLUEPRINT FOR 4 THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE OF RELIGIO CHAPTER TWO ‘THE KANTIAN-FRIESIAN PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION 1. OTTO, TROELTSCH AND THE SEARCH FOR THE RELIGIOUS A PRIORI reconn52 IL: RELIGIOUS FECLING AND THE CRITICAL PHILOSOPHY. IIL, AFSTHETIC JUDGMENT, AHKDUNG AND “THE ConMUNICABILITY OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE. AV, THE THREAT OF HISTORICISM AND ‘THE “ESTIMONIUM SPIRITUS SANCTI INTERMLM". (CHAPTER THREE ‘THE PSYCHOLOGY AND HISTORY OF RELIGION IN OTTO'S THOUGHT 1. Orro’s Caius oF WUNDT'S THEORY OF ANIBISN UL. OTTO AS PRACTITIONER OF VERSTEHENDE PSYCHOLOGY. LI, OTTO AND THE SEARCH FOR THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION... Contents IV, Tie BisTORY OF RELIGION FROM Wert, CHAPTER FOUR OTTO'S INVESTIGATION OF THE HOLY 1. THE NUMINOUS AS AN INDEPENDENT CATEGORY OF RELIGIOUS VALUE wuua104 AM UL, THE VARIOUS MomENTS OF THE NUMINOUS, false IL, ABSTHENC ANALOGIES AND THE SUBLIMATION OF THE NUMINOUS IV. THE RELIGIOUS A PRIORI AND THE HISTORY OF RELIGION CHAPTER FIVE DAS HEILIGE AND GERMAN “IRRATIONALISM” AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1. O110'S ENIGMATIC RELATION TO THE "MOOD OF THE TIMES” seecssnnneel32 1, THE NUMINOUS, EALERWIS AND LEBENSPHILOSOPHIE 138 JL, “THE DIONYSUAN EFFECT OF THE NUMEN assur 14d TV, OTT0's RESPONSE TO NICTZSCHE AND KLAGES INTHE LECTURES ON Eniucs, CHAPTER SIX ‘THE CONCEPT OF VALUE IN OTTO’S LATER THOUGHT. 1. THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL ETHICS OF VALUE 160 UW. OrT0's Ertics oF VALUE. ae 165 UL. EnHICS AND RELIGION IN OTT0"s LATER THOUGHT... 174 IV. IMPLICATIONS FoR THE ASSESSMENT OF OTTO"S POSITION. 178 CHAPTER SEVEN DSS HEILIGE AND THE RELIGIOUS AMBIVALENCE OF MODERNITY 1. OTTO's DIAGNOSIS OF THE MODERN RELIGIOUS SITUATION seared I THe MARGINALIZATION OF THE NUMINOUS IN THE RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST. 9 UL, How OTTO REDISCOVERED “RELIGION”... 202 IV. THEOLOGY IV THE IRON CAGE. 211 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 219 INDEX OF NAMES. 232 Acknowledgements ‘The following study is a revised version of my PRD. dissertation, Rudolf Otto, Holiness. and the Disenchanfiment of the World, wich was presented to the faculty ofthe Department of Religion at Claremont Graduate University in August, 1999. T would like to extend my sincere thanks to the members of my dissertation committee, Jack Verheyden, Ann Taves and D.Z. Phillips, for their helpful comments on several earlier drafts, and for theit support throughout the writing process. T would also like to express my appreciation’to Professor Dr. Dres. h.c. Otto Kaiser for reading and com menting on my dissertation, and for allowing the revised version to be Published in the Beikefte zur Zeitschrift far die alttestamentliche Wissen- schaft.. Special thanks are due to Professor Dr. Wolfgang Drechsler, my Fulbright advisor in Germany, without whose imitial encouragement and constant input this project could not have been completed, and to the Ger- ‘mn-American Fulbright Commission for supporting my research in Marburg fortwo years. T am very grateful t Dr. Martin Kraatz, the former director of the Religionskundliche Sammlung, and to Mrs. Kraatz, for their generous hospitality and their years of dedication to the Saromlung and to the study of | religion. Parlier versions of material contained in this hook were presented in papers delivered to the Schleiermacher Group and the History of the Study of Religion Group of the American Academy of Religion. Thanks are due to Professors Dr. Gregory Alles, Dr. he, mult. Kurt Rudolf and Dr. Rainer Flasche for their comments on material from various chapters. I am grateful to Professor Dr. Walther Ch. Zimmerli for allowing me to participate in his graduate student colloguim in the Philosophy Department at Marburg, and to his students, Dorothea Wildenburg, Christian Lotz, Joachim Landkammer, Thomas Wolf, and Rainer Kattel for their feedback and friendship. Finally, 1 would like to thank my parents for their years of support, and, above all, ny wife Kathy for bearing with me through a long period of labor. The follow ‘ng pages are dedieated to her. AWT CPR Go MR OR PN Ram sa su oR wa, wwe List of Abbreviations (Sce Bibliography for complete references.) Otto, “Autonomie det Werte und Theonamie,” Aufeaize zur Ethik Kant, Critigue of Pure Reason Kant, Critigue of Judgment Otto, Das Heilige (Munich: Beck, 191) Otto, Zur Emewerung und Ausgestaltung des Gottesdienstes Otto, “Ethik I” (OA 2282) Otto, “Fortsetzung {zur Glaubenslehte]” (OA 2292) ‘Otto, “Glaubenslehse I” (OA 2295) Otto, Das Gefithl des Uberweltlichen (sensus numinis) Otto, Kantisch-Fries’sche Religionsphilosophie Otto, “Mytbus und Religion in Wundis Vélkerpsychologie” ‘Schleiermacher, Speeches on Religion ‘Ono, “Pilicht und Neigung,” Aufsdtze zur Ethik Otto, Reich Gowtes und Menschensohn Oto, “Sittengesetz und Gotteswille” (OA 2288) Otto, Siinde und Urschuld Otto, Remarks appended to Otto's edition the Speeches Otto, “Wertgesetz und Autonomie,” Aufsatze zur Ethik Otto, “Wert, Wilrde und Recht,” Aufsiivze aur Evhike Introduction 1, The Impact of Das Heilige and the Peculiarity of its Reception ‘The following study of Rudolf Otto's philosophy of religion is intended both 84 coateibation to the history of tweatieth-century religious thought, and as 4 case study in religion and modernity. ‘The ambiguity of the phrase “relig- fous thought” reflects the unusual circumstances surrounding the history of the impact (Wirkungsgeschichte) of the book for which Oto is primarily ‘own, Otto's cassie study ofthe holy, Das Heilige: Uber das Irrational in der Idee des Gottlichen und sein Verkiienis zum Rationalen (1917), is probably the most widely read German theological work of the twentieth ‘entuy.' Since its initial publication, it has been translated into many ilferent languages and gone through mumerous editions. It has enjoyed a degree of popularity that has rarely been accorded to any academic work in theology or religious studies. In his acclaimed history of comparative religion, Eric Shape observes that Das Heilige “aroused an immediate and lasting response in the mind of the twentieth century, and now holds near-canonical tatu as one of the books which every stdent of comparative religion imagines himself or hersef to have read."* Moreover, as Mircea Eliade noted in 1969, the influence of Otto’s ideas has been at least as enduring among the “culti vated” reading public as it has among professional academics.’ Over the years, countless readers have responded to Oito’s evocative descriptions of the encounter withthe holy as Paul Tillich once reported having done ~ with “an astonishment, an inner sense of enthrallment, a passionate agreement, Such as one was no longer accustomed to with theological books.”* ‘Terms Wilied Wisle and Harald Wagner, eds, Theologenleriton, 2nd od, (Munich: Beck, 1994), p,211, The most literal English uansation of he tle of Oxo"s book ie The Holy (On he irrational n the Idea ofthe Divine and is Relation to the Rational. ‘The book is ‘ore commonly known to English-speaking readers as The Idea ofthe Holy, trans. by John W. Harvey (London/Oxford/New Yor: ford University Pres, 1958). Eric Sbupe, Comparative Religion: A History, 2nd ed. (LaSalle, Unois: Open Covst 1986). p16 “Mireea Hinde, The Quest (ChicagoiLondon: Unversity of Chicago Press, 1969), 9.23. Paul Tile, “Der Religionsphilosoph Rudolf Otto" (1923), Gesanmelte Werke, Vol, XIL (Stugar: Evangelisches Veslagsrer, 1971), p. 179, All trenlations from German texts Ubroughout this study are my own unless otherwise noted. [a eases where 8 particular 2 Invrodustion like “the numinous" and the “Wholly Other,” frst introduced by Otto on the pages of Das Heilige, have made their way into a vocabulary that extends beyond academic circles in theology and religious studies, and continue to be employed by many who are probably unaware of their origin, Otto"s famous characterization of the holy as mysterlum tremenduo et fascinans — a mystery ‘hat inspires dread and fascination simultaneously ~ seems to strike a chord in the imagination of each new generation of students who are exposed to it as ‘undergraduates. ‘Among academics, the spectrum of responses to Das Heilige has been widely divergent. These responses have arisen primarily within three diss tinct, though often overlapping, disciplines: theology, Religionswissenschaft or the history of religions, and philosophy.? Otto was trained as a systematic theologian in the Lutheran tradition, the two university chairs that fe held in his lifetime were both in systematic theology, and although it has not always been recognized as such, Das Heilige was clearly intended by Otto as a contribution to Christian theology. Nevertheless, the most enduring impact ‘of Otto's ideas has not been felt among academic theologians, aad in relation to the schools that have dominated the history of twentieth-century theology. Otto has remained for the most part an outsider. Where, in a survey of that hisory, one is almost certain to encounter chapters devoted to the work of ‘Troeltsch, Barth, Bultmann and Tillich, Otto's name is more likely to be mentioned only in passing, In terms of the history of theology, Otto is perhaps best thought of as a ttansitional figure. While his designation of the divine as “Wholly Other" is terminologically consistent with the emphasis upon the absolute transcen- dence of God among dialeutical theologians, and his rejection of a strictly moral interpretation of Christianity marks an important point of departure fiom the Ritschlian theology predominant in Germany at the end of the nineteenth century, in terms of his underlying conception of the nature and task of the theological enterprise, Otto remains within the tradition of liberal theology that came under heavy attack during the years following the First ‘word or phrase may be translated ia more than one Way, Ihave included the italicized ‘original word or phrase in normal parentheses. Wherever {have added or altered a word ‘or phrase for the purpose of clarity syntax, Ihave placed those editions in square bracheis. Ina few cases where a pascage has proven tobe especialy resistant to tans tion, he entre passage appears in German in a footnote Throughout this study. the terns "Reigionewiseenschaf? and “History of Religions" sed more or less iterchangably. Generally, because Ota conceived of religion as pos sessing an esseaval uney, 1 use “history of religion” (singular) when refering to his views and “history of religions” (plural) wher referting tothe contemporary discipline, A discussion of the reception of Das Heiige in theology and “the humanistic sclnce of feligio” is contained in Gregory Alles inwoduction 19 Rudolf Ott Autobiographice! ‘ai Socal says, ed. nd trans, by Alles (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1996), pp. 1-38. ~ ee eel The Impec of Das Helge 3 World War. Bultmans, Otio’s colleague at Marburg and « leading figure in the new theological developments of this period, spoke of Das Heilige as a reaction against the stagnation of liberal theology that nonetheless failed to break with its fundamental presuppositions.® Even as the incredible success of Das Heilige quickly thrast Oto into the international spotlight, at home he ‘was severely criticized for his liberal theological views, and in Marburg he began to lose students in increasing numbers to Bultmann and Heidegger ~ a fact that probably contributed to his decision to take an early retirement. ‘While the impact of Otto’s ideas within academic theology has been relatively marginal, their influence within the field of Religionswissenschafe is widely acknowledged, if not always celebrated. In Das Heilige Otio attempted to identify a universal category of religious value that could be ‘used to intepret phenomena from all different religious traditions. Like ‘many of his contemporaries, he was interested in discovering the “origin of| religion,” and in identifying or isolating that which distinguishes religion as such from other regions of human experience. At the same time, Otto sought, ‘0 draw attention to the distinctiveness of religion as a class of historical phenomena, 10 its ubiquity, and to the multiplicity and variability of its Listorical forms. On the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of Otto's birthday, Emst Benz referred to Oto as “the most significant pioneer of an unexpected blossoming of research in the history of religion is the German universities at the beginning of the twentieth century, the researcher and teacher who creaied the fundamental eategories for this relatively young, discipline, and stamped it with a definite orientation (Fragesiellung) and method” Among German scholars, signs of Otto's influence caa be de- tected most readily in the work of such figures as Friedrich Heiler, Gustav Monsching, Kurt Goldammer and Joachim Wach ‘While Otto's role asa pioneer in the history of religions is indisputable, it s not long before his views came to be strongly criticized by scholars imerested in developing the study of religion as an empirical discipline free of theological and philosophical presuppositions® Among the most vocal of Oto's carly critics was Walter Bactke, who accused him of having led Religionswissenschaft into a cul-de-sac by emphasizing religious experience and the imational tthe expense of the socio-historical dimension of religion, Die liperae Theologie und die jongste theologische Bewegung” in Glouben “und Verse, Sth ed, Vol. (Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1993), p. 22. mst Benz, “Rudolf Oto als Theologe und PersSnichkei,” Rudolf Ouo's Bedeuung far die Religionswissenschaft und dle Theotogie heute, e4. by Benz (Leigen: EJ. Bel, 197%), p30. ‘The debate surrounding “the holy” as a general category for interpreting religious phenomena is chronicled in Carsten Colpe, ed, Die Diskussion wm dar "Heilige” (Darn Stat: Wissenschaiche Buctgesllscha, 1977), in which several ofthe most important contributions tthe discussion are reproduced be Inteoduetion and by abandoning empirical research in favor of the speculative pursuit of essences and origins.” More recently, Baetke’s student, Kurt Radolph, assessed Otto's legacy in the following words: “Otto's influence, which was for a while very great, was certainly detrimental, and has been more harmful than beneficial to the independence of our discipline." Today Otto's ideas have been largely abandoned by representatives of the discipline that he helped to create (Otto's influence upon the academic study of religion in English-speaking Countries has been no less significant than it was in Germany, At least indirectly, in the United States, Oto’s discussion of the holy played a role in underwriting the legitimacy of religious studies as an independent discipline in public universities. “As a paradigmatic statement of the view thet religion onstitutes a unique and “irreducible” dimension of human cult, incapable of being explained entirely in nonreligious (e.g. psychological or sociological). terms, Otto’s discussion of the holy has functioned to define the parameters of religious studies in relation to other disciplines. In the field of comparative religion, the influence of Otto in the United States was mediated largely by Wach, who taught at the University of Chicago in the 1940's and 50°s, when the identity of this discipline within the American university system was beginning to take shape. In more recent decades, as methodological discussions have come to receive increasing attention among scholars in religious studies, Otto das been criticized with increasing frequency for having contributed to the tacit incorporation into the discipline of theological presuppositions thought to be incompatible with the unbiased investigation of the history of religions." To the extent that Otto's ideas continue to be discussed, itis often in the context of such debates, Unfortunately, references to Otto are frequently limited to the citation of the sams two or three controversial passages from Das Heilige, taken out of context and used to illustrate the absurdity of Otto’s position and its allegedly perni- cious influence. Certainly, Otto's ambitious claim to have discovered (or rediscovered) the historical origin of religion in the experience of the nurminous seems highly untenable in light of the cumulative evidence of a large body of careful research conducted by historians of religions since Otto's time. fo Cf Walter Baetke, Das Melige ie Germanischen(Tibingen: MobriSicheck, 1942), Kurt Rudoiph, Geschichte und Probleme der Relgionswissenschaft (LeideniNew York/Cologne: E, J Brill, 1992), p. 24 CE. J, Samuel Preus, Explaining Religion: Critettm foom Bodin to Freud (New Haven: Yale Unversity Press, 1987), p. 200. Hans Penner, impasse and Resolution: Cetigne of the Seudy of Religion (ew York: Pett Lang, 1989), pp. 20-21. Wayae Procdfoot, Religious Experience (Detkeley: University of California Press, 1985), exp. gp. BB LT. 118. Essays comaining both positive and negative astessments of the value of Otto's ideas for religious studies are included in Thomas A, Idinopulos and Béward &, Yonon, (s, The Sacred and its Scholars (Leider €.J Bil 1996). ignore the spec = er “The Impact of Das Helige 5 Furthermore, it,would e-pointless to deny that there is much in Otto's thought that is simply remote to carly twenty-first century intellectual sensi- bilitics. Nevertheless, as Gregory Alles. has observed, “criticism of Otto is cogent only if it addresses Otto, not some caricature, and only if it does not ic project in which Otto was engaged.”"? As I hope to show {nthe following pages, there is. certain danger of failing to appreciate the nature of Otto's argument by adopting a facile disregard for its own historic- in " aitiongh Das Helge (or raher, The Idea ofthe Ho) han eerie 4 significant influence within religious studies among English-speaking scholars, it is a work that remained for many years understudied and frequently misunderstood. Many readers of Das Heilige have been unaware of the extent towhich Ovo’ axgument in that book draws upon, and is really only intelligible in light of, ideas developed in his earlier writings. ‘This preliminary difficulty is compounded by the fact that Otto’s own views were shaped to a large extent by currents of thought with which many contemporary readers are not likely to be familisr. "Thus, ejghty years after its first publication, Das Heilige presents something of a hermeneutical challenge both to those attempting to understand (Otio's ideas in their own right, and to those interested in assessing whatever relevance they may continue o possess. Alles as recently contended that the assessment of Otto’s legacy stands at a crucial juncture." Insofar a8 this isthe case, there is arguably a need for an investigntion that will attempt fo illuminate aspects of his thought which have hitherto been neglected or entirely ignored. As Sharpe has observed, “The ‘Hea of the Holy has by its very success obscured the personality of its author, and has thoroughly eclipsed his other works.""* By interpreting Das Heilige ‘within the context of the development of Oito’s thought prior to and after the Publication of Das Feilige,” by incorporating unpublished and previously "2 Alles, Introduction to Otto's Awobiographical and. ‘Social Essays, p. 27. 8 Bre Sharpe, Comparative Religion, p. 161. "The following study does not offer an exhaustive treatment of all of O1to's writings, but {cess primary on haz works which are ost iporat or andesaning te eh dologial and epstemologieal comin tat infocm his ntrpcton of lg. in Das Haig or which ret he uber develope of dns asocited wih at Wor “Sigil ea ch as Nouraiche and religine Wels. Cibagen MohuSioek, 1908; Eng, Noualion end Rego) Os cay wok o Jesus Die Horch riache Aufasung vor Leber ud Wirken Jesu (Ggen,Wandenece & ‘Rupes, 190; Bog The Life and Minty of Jesu), an his indies hc bate, ste Di Cater on Inn na das Cristea (Ge ke 1030, ag, India's Religion of Grace and Chri Compared and Coaster), Cot sd Gothen der Aver Giese Topsimann, 195), and Rech Ges tn Menschen, sobs: Ein rliginseccihlicher Versuch Meni: eck, 1934; Eng. The Kingdom of God and he Som of Man, ae considered a enh 6 Inszodetion unexamined archival sources, and by considering Otto's ideas in relation to ‘he intellectual context in which they were developed, the following study aims to provide « more complete picture of Otto than has previously been available to English-speaking readers. ‘The aim of this study is not to offer # defense of Oto’s views ~ except in those cases where I feel they have been ‘misrepresented. I have sought rather to contribute something to their clarification, in the hope that such a clatfication might facilitate the responsible assessment of Otto’s legacy to the philosophy of religion and to the stady of religion generally One of the most interesting and least appreciated chapters in the history of the reception of Das Heilige is the response to that work among philosophers, particularly in Germany during the tumultuous and fecund period followi the First World War. Because discussions of Otto in recent years have beei carried out among scholars of religion primarily concerned with methodo- logical issues in their own field of study, the philosophical response to Otto's ideas among his contemporaries bas not been widely discassed, Neverthe- less, that response was quite remarkable. During the years following its initial appearance, Otto's book attracted the attention of some of the most significant German thinkers of the last century. ‘The philosophical reception of Otto’s ideas is somewhat enigmatic in its own right. Prior to the publication of Das Heilige, Otto had been identified With a relatively obscure splinter group within the broadly Neo-Kantian philosophical milieu predominant in Germany around the tura of the century. While Otto employs a number of standard Kantian terms in Das Heilige, those who have attempted to make sense of his views in relation to Kani's ‘own philosophical position have often been styinied. One accomplished Kant scholar, H. J. Paton, who remained appreciative of Oxto’s penetrating analy- 08 of religious experience, suggested that Kant, bad he read Otto's book, would have “shuddered in his grave.”"* Nevertheless, a number of influential Philosophical figures of various stripes clearly felt that Das Heilige warranted serious consideration. ‘That so many prominent intellectuals felt compelled to acknowledge Otto's accomplishment in Das Heilige is a fact that has not been sufficiently appreciated, and is an indication of the significance of the influence of Das Heilige as an event in the intelectual history of the twenti- eth century. Heinrich Rickert, whose philosophy of value, by virtue of its influence on Max Weber, has played a role in methodological discussions within the social sciences, referred to Das Heilige in his own magnum opus 4s an “outstanding contribution to the philosophy of religion as science of value (Wertwissenschaft).""" Several of Otio’s contemporaries, including 15H -Paon, rhe oder Pretamen (New York: Colles Boks, 162, p 10 Heinvicn Ricker, Die Grenzen der naturwissenschafichen Begrifibldang, 3d ed (Pabingen: MobeSiebeck, 1921), p. 557. es ‘The Impact of Das Helge 7 such notable figures as Edmund Husserl and Max Scheler, regarded Das Heilige as 2 pioneering contribution to the phenomenology of religion, even though there is no evidence of Otto's having been directly influenced by the Phenomenological movement before the appearance of Das Heilige. Hians- Georg Gadamer reports that, several years prior to the publication of Being and Time (1927), Heidegger had “read Rudolf Otto for a period of time with the greatest interest." Recently, an. incomplete draft of a review of Das Hellige penned by Heidegger has been published in the collected edition of his works.” Riidiger Safranski has even suggested that traces of ‘Otto's analysis of the auminous ate recognizable in Heidegger's discussion of Dasein.”* Its a litle-known fact that one of Leo Strauss’ earliest publica- tions was a review of Das Heilige writen for a Jewish periodical in 1923" ‘Somewhat less surprisingly, the influence of Otto's ideas is also reflected in ‘the work of such distinguished philosophers of religion as Heinrich Scholz, Johannes Hessen and Romano Guardini In addition to these philosophers, the list of those who expressed appreciation of Oito’s accomplishiment in Das Heilige includes figures as diverse as Carl Jung, Romain Rolland, C. S. Lewis and Ghandi In light of the disdain with which Otto has come to be regarded by many scholars of religion in recent years, the fact that Das Heilige was able to capture the attention of such prominent figures as these is somewhat surpris. ing. At the very leat, it raises a number of intriguing questions. What was it about Otto's discussion of the holy that his contemporaries found so striking? ‘Were they simply deceived about the significance of Das Heilige, ot pethaps taken in by its alluring rhetorical power? Is their response to be regarded a8 a riere historical curiosity? Or is it possible that they recognized something in Das Heilige that subsequent critics have failed to notice? ‘These questions can only be answered after the attempt has been made to understand Das Heilige in relation both 10 the development of Otto’s thought prior to its Publication, and to the broader historical context in which it was able to elicit "Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hermencutil mt Ruckblic, Vol. X of Gesammele Werke (Tobin- jg B20: MohriSicheck, 1995), p. 249, “Marti Heideggr, “Das Helge,” Phdnomenologie des religiosen Lebers, Vol. LX ofthe Gesamtausgabe, ed. by Claudiss Stube (Frankfurt a, M: Klostermann, 1995), pp. 332 34 * Rilger Safranss, Ein Meister aus Deutschland: Heidegger und seine Zeit (Freon ay Me Fischer, 1997), pp, 22625, Stas! review appears in Der Jude (April 1923) 241 % Cl. Heinvich Scholtz, Religtonshilosophic (Destin: Reuter & Reichard, 1921), p. 459; Johannes Hessen, Die Werte des Heilgen, 2nd ed. (Regensburg: Friedrich Puset 1951), slso Johannes Hessen, Religionsphilasophie, Vol , 2nd ed. (Manich/Base: Ezast Rein. ‘hurt, 1958), p. 269f3 and Romano Gardin, "Die teligiose Sprache,” Die Sprache, ed by Bavarian Academy of Fine Arts (Darmstad: Wissenschatliche Buchgevellscha, 1959), pp. 13 8 Inuoduetion Such a profound response. Each of these tasks is pursued on the following pages. In order to be able to suggest how the approach adopted here differs from previous discussions of Otto it will be helpful to conduct a brief review (of some of the recent Ott literature. IL A Review of Selected Literature on Otto ‘The following review of literature on Otto is by no means exhaustive, and is, mercly intended to indicate those avenues of interpretation that have been ‘most influential in sbaping the approach I have adopted in the following study. For many years, the only book-length study of Otto's thought in English remained Robert F, Davidson’s Rudolf Otto's Interpretation of Religion, published ia 1947." Davidson’s book offers a careful attempt to understand Das Heilige in light of the Kantian-Friesian philosophical frame- work developed by Otto in his carlicr publication, Kantisch-Fries'sche Religionsphilosophie und ihre Anwendung auf die Theologie (1909). Otto's uuse of traditional Kantian terms Jike “category,” “schematism,” and “a priori.” has been a source of bewilderment for many commentators over the years. One might have thought that Paton’s discussion of Otto ia his Gifford Lectures of 1950-51 would have put to rest once and for all the attempt t0 Feconcile Otto's use of these terms with the meaning that is given to them in Kant’s own writings. Paton observed that “Otto's language, however suited to the description of religious emotion, is logically too imprecise and imeta- Phorical for the purpose of philosophy.” Perhaps it would be more gener- us fo suggest that Oltu's language is too imprecise for the kind of rigorous. Kantianism practiced by Paton. In any case, given the fact that Paton’s remarks were published over forty years ago, itis curious that Thomas Ryba should conclude a discussion of Otto’s ideas in 1991 with the claim that “committed ‘orthodox’ Kantians would have difficulty with [Otto's] willing- tess to dismiss the transcendental deduction of the categories,” and that this fact “spells death for his certainty that the Sacred is an a priori category along Kantian lines” ~as though he were reporting something new. ‘The primary contribution of Adina Davidovich's chapter on Otto in het book, Keligion as a Province of Meaning (1993) consists in the attention that she draws to the importance of Kant’s Critique of Judgment for understand- ing Otto’s argument in Das Heilige, The failure on the part of earlier Kantian © Robe F Davidson, Rudolf Oto's Interpretation of Religion (Princeton: Princeton ay Universicy Press, 1947). 3 Paton, The Modern Predicament, p. 182. * Thomas Ryba, “The Philosophical Loadings of Rudolf Oto's Ides of the Sacced” Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 3(1991), 38, Review of Selected Litratare 9 criti to recognize the exteatt0 which Otto's discussion of religious expe nce is informed by Kans theory of aesthetic judgment and aesthetic ideas is one of the reasons why Otto's argument has appeated fo many 0 be unntel gible. As Davidovich points ou, kis failure is party attributable to the fact that prior to the work of Kant scbolars like Paul Guyer and Ted Celen, the reception of Kant mong Baplish-speaking academies was limited primaily the fst 0 Critiques, and, among theologians, Regan Within the Limite of Reason Alone. Davidovich is certainly correct in her observation that (to's cisstisfacton with Kane's ethical interpretation of religion led han to exploit oer resources within the body of Kant's philosophy in his effort to develop che ouminous as aditinet category of teligius vale While Davidovich’ interpretation of Otto in light of Kans Third Critique shees light on what Oto was tying to accomplish with his theory of the religions a prior, in the end, hor identification of Oito (logether with Tilichy as the representative of a “modem Kantian school of theology” tht is “tnt at home in the contemporary intellectual scene” proves to be to0 ambitious The “surprising message” ofthis Kantian school, secording to Davidovich s that “once religion confines sett the limits of reason, ican establish elt as the supreme rational principle trough whic all the constructions of reason ate brought into unity" However, Davidovich'satompl to portay t's theory of religious experience as being consistent with Ken's omy Views overlooks the fact that Oto'sentize discussion of the “aoeicity” of ‘clgious feeling (ie. its cognitive status i predicated upon a fandanretal deviation from the Kantian understanding of cognition (Evkennins). Kost, Bimself once refered tothe theory of Afindung (aesthetco religious peso, ition) pou which Ouo’s theory is founded 85 "the death of ll paleo: phy." Probably the most wel informed geaeral study of Otto's thought to date is Philip C, Almood’s Rudolf Oto: An Introduction to His Philosophical Theology (1984). Almond's study rellects his extensive familiaity wit primary and secondary German soutess, and also incorporates unpublished tnateras from the Rudolf Otto Nachlass, part of whieh is comlained inthe Rudolf Otto Archive, and part ia the University Library, atthe University of Marburg. Ia addition to proving a succinct interpretation of Das Helge ‘lation tthe entre development of O's thought, Almonds book ie alse ® i, Paul Gaye, Kant and the Clans of Taste (Cambridge, Mask Hareacd Univesity 1979), ‘Ted Cohen and Paul Gayer, eds, Essays in Kan's Aesthetics (Chicago ay University of Chicago Press, 1985). Adina Davidovichs Religion as a Province of Meaning: The Kanon Foundations of Modern Theology (Minneapolis: ortzess Pres, 1993), px, Ibid, p avi {emmanuel Kaot, ‘Von eloem navetdings exhoben vornehmen Ton in der Philosophie,” amis gesammelie Schifter, Prussian Academy of SelencesBaiion, Vol Vl p. 398, re) 10 Invcodaction ‘an important source of information about various aspects of Otto's life and work. While my own research bas been facilitated by Almond’s study, the following discussion of Otto differs from Almond’s in several important respects. One difference is purely ciscumstantial, resulting from the avi ability of certain unpublished documents. Although Almond’s book incotpo- rates material from the Otto Nachlass, { have had the opportunity to consult a ‘umber of sources, including Otto’s lecture notes on Glauberslehre (dog- matics) and ethics from the 1920's and 30’s, as well as several incomplete swanuscripts, that were unavailable to Almond, due to the fact that they had been separated from the rest of Otio’s Nachlass at the time when Almond ‘was conducting his research in Marburg.” I have relied heavily upon these sources at several points, especially in the final section of Chapter Three, and in Chapters Five, Six and Seven. ‘These unpublished writings, as well as several of Otto's publications which remain untranslated, are helpful both for the light that they shed on hitherto neglected aspects of his thought, as well as {or clarifying his relationship to certain trends in German intellectual life to which he responded either disectly or indirectly. Perhaps the most important difference between the following study of Otto ‘and Almond’s study concerns the emphasis that I have placed upon relating (Onto’s ideas to theic historical context. Previous discussions of Otto, includ ing Almond’s book, have emphasized the importance of Schleiermacher and Fries for understanding Outo’s argument in Das Heilige. These sources certainly play an important cole in Otto’s approach to religion, and I have attempted to interpret his use of them in relation to broader concerns that defined the theological situation in Germany around the turn of the century. ‘AL the saiwe ‘inne, a important as these Sources are for understandmg Oxt0"s own development prior to Das Heilige, they are not particularly helpful for ‘making sense of either the tremendous appeal of Otto’s book, both in Ger- ‘many and abroad, or the relationship of Otto’s ideas to other intellectual trends that defined this period. These are concerns that I have attempted to address in Chapters Five, Six and Seven. The history of the Oto Nachiass was relayed to me by Dr. Maia Krest, the former iecior the Religionshundliche Sammlung, where the Rudolf Otto Archive is housed ‘The materials to which I refer were separated fom the zest of the Nachlss in 1966 and ‘etwined in 1988. Although none of these matarils ave been published either in English ‘oF German, a summary of the contents of Otto's unpublished writings on ethics was peo ‘duced by Oto's colleague at Marburg, Georg Wansch, shorly after Otto's death. CE Georg Wensch, “Grundriss und Grundlagen der theologischen Ethie Rudolé Ontos,” Zeitschrift flr Theologie und Kirche 19 (1938), 46-70. The contents of OM's leetures on Gloubenslehre ae discussed in two aces by Reinhard Sehinaer, “Das Reighdse Apr- fom in Rutoll Otios Werk,” Neue Zetschifi fr systematiche Theologie und Religien Philosophie 11 (1969), 189-207; and "Wert und Sein in Rudolf Citas Gotteslere; Kerygmo und Dogma to Januaey/Mazch 1970), 131. Review of Selected Literatare u One aspect of Otto's thought which, until recently, remained almost emtrely ignoced in previous discussions of his work are the idees contained in his later essays on ethics and the relationship between ethics and religion, which were intended to be delivered as-the Gifford Lectures. in. 1933. Otto's published essays on ethics were collected, edited and reissued in German ‘with an introduction written by Jack Stewart Boozer in 1981. ‘These essays, together with Otto's unpublished lecture notes on theological sthics, constitute a distinet stage inthe development of his thought. ‘They are important because of the light they shed both on his earlier, more familiar views, and on his zelationship to other philosophical developments daring {his period.. Above all, they are helpful for recognizing the centrality of the concept of value (Wert) in Das Heilige and in Otto’s later though, as well as Ouo's relationship to the phenomenological ethics of value (Wertethik) developed by Max Scheler and Nicolai Hartnann, ‘The influence of Scheler and Hartmana on Otto's later thought was observed long ago by Joachim ‘Wacit,but the clue that Wach's observation offered for the clarification of Otto's relationship to phenomenology was never taken up? Until a few yeus ago, Otto's ethical writings remained inaccessible to non-German readers, Alles? collection of Otto's Social and Autobiographical Essays includes translations of two of the later essays on ethics, different transla. tion of one of these essays appears as an appendix to Melissa Raphael's book, Rudolf Otto and the Concept of Holiness (1997). Aside from Boozer’s intoduetion to the Aufsitee zur Ethik, and an essay writen by Otto's Mar- burg colleague, Georg Wansch, shortly after his death, the only sustained discussion of Otto's attempt to develop his own ethics of value (Wertechik) is 'w be found in the chapter devoted to Otto in Hartmut Kress’ study, Eehische Werte und der Gottesgedanke (1990)? Melissa Raphael's book certainly presents a new perspective on Das Heilige. Raphael's primary concern is to eppropriate Otto’s discussion of the holy for the project of developing an emancipatory, feminist theology at the * Ono was forced to forego this invitation dicta Ulness. CE. Oto, Aufdize sur Et, 0 1 bY Jack Stewart Boozer (Munich: Beek, 1981), . 11 i. * oachim Wach, Types of Religious Experience Chistian and Non-Chrstan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), p. 222 “Freedom and Necessity,” ans. by Thorsten Moritz in Metisea Raphael, Rudolf Oto and ‘the Concept of Holiness (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), pp. 240-21. Tete, “Freel snd Notwendigkeit” is uot Oto’ but was given to the essay by Theos Siewied, who ist published it after Ono's death in 1840, Oto orignal tie is “Auionomie dex Wert sand Thconomic™ "Autonomy of Values and Taeonomy"). Cf, Otto, Adtee sur Ek 1p. 215-26, Rephael appears to have been wnfamilia with Boozer’ collection of Oto"s ag {S098 on this atte time of the publication of her ook on Otto, Hutt Kres, thiscke Werte und der Gouesgedante: Probleme und Perspoktiven des ‘uactichen Werdbegrf (StutgatwBeniyCologne: Kobltammer, 1990), pp. 113-38 aoe 2 Iatroduetion ‘end of the twentieth century. It is to this end that she makes use of Otta’s very last essay, “Autonomie der Werte und Theonomie,” in which Otto conceives of God as the primordial value (Urwert) underlying the universe.”* Raphael identifies Ouo"s discussion of theonomy as a possible point of departure for a prophetic religious discourse that would be capable of re- sponding to today's pressing ecological and political concerns. In contrast to other feminist thinkers who have ciiticized the ideological implications of the sacred-profane dichotomy,” Raphael seeks to reclaim this distinction as a mark of prophetic opposition to oppressive social structures, The holiness of God, and by extension ll tat he bas created wih the intention thet it Should be holy as be is holy, means thet far fom devaluing creation, an Ottonian ‘mode! ofthe toy can (r)sacralize creation as having a value that ¢ “wholly ober’ to those mercantile values which the profane "wore atibuesf it Raphael's book contains the only sustained discussion of Otto’s ethical ideas {in English to date, and it suggests how those ideas might be of continuing interest to theologians. However, Raphael considers only one of Otto's essays on ethics ai length, and overlooks the other five, first published in the 1930's, which are crucial for understanding how the concept of value is developed in Otto’s later thought. Raphael also appeats to be unaware of the Telationship between Otto's ethics of value (Wertethik) and other discussions entered around the concept of value taking place among his contemporaries. Because Raphaet’s purpose is not simply to interpret Otto, but rather 10 discover in his discussion of the holy resources for the development of het own constructive theological proposals, it would be missing the point to suggest that she has taken Otto’s views out of context or failed to examine some of the philosophical difficulties surrounding his claims for the existence of “objective values.” Furthermore, this is not the place to comment on Raphael's own theological project, except to say thal it represents one way in which Otto's mature theological position might continue 10 be relevant to contemporary discussions in that field. However, other aspects of Raphael's discussion do bear directly upon to the scope of the present study, Aside from drawing attention to Otto’s later work in ethics, Raphael's book also succeeds in raising a number of issues with regard to Otto that have received too little attention in the past. Raphael locates Das Heilige within the context of the “efflorescence of modernism” dusing the years leading up 'o the First World War, and she emphasizes the aifinity that Otto's book ‘The concept of value (Her) In Oito's later thought ie diccussed in Chapter Six ofthe | present study CL. Vitoria Lee Exckson, Where Silence Speaks: Fennism, Socal Theory and Religion (Minneapolis: Fortess, 1993), esp. pp 11-28, 165: Rophacl, Rudlf Oto and the Concept of Holiness, p. 190 Review of Selecta Literatere 3 shares. with other characteristic developments of this period, including the modernist movement in literature and music, the rise of psychoanalysis and the emphasis upon the irrational in avant-garde movements like Dadaism and Surrealism. She argues that “in many ways The Idea of the Holy ~ an intro- verted, fragmentary text, dislocated from the continuities of a single tradition and permeated by a sense of crisis — exemplifies and contributed to what is sometimes called the romantic period of modemism.””” In fac, the continu- ing theological relevance that Raphael sees in Das Heilige is directly related to the ambivalence she finds expressed in that work toward the de-sacralizing impetus of modemity. But this ambivalence is not only pertinent to the concerns of theologians whose work is informed by postmodemist lines of Uhought.: Raphael's observation is also of fundamental importance for those interested in determining the significance of Das Heilige’s widespread appeal a5 an event in the religious history of the twentieth century, And itis pre- cisely in relation to this task that the limitation of the strategy, employed by previous commentators, of approaching Das Heilige strictly in terms of the internal development of Otto’s thinking is most clearly evident. Previous discussions of Otto have failed to take sutficient notice of a puzzling disjunction between the theological agenda developed in Otto's eatlier writings and the remarkable impact of Das Heilige among Otto's contemporaries. Read in relation to his earlier work, Das Heilige appears as the culmination of Otto's attempt to re-conceive modem theology as a ‘ommative science of religion grounded in a Kantian-Friesian philosophical critique of religious experience. However one may finally choose to make sense of the widespread popular appeal of Das Heilige, one thing is certain: the success of Otto"s Luvk does rior Indicate an endorsement of his Neo- Friesian theological agenda (described in the following chapters), which generally did oot impress Otto’s contemporaries any mote than it bas his more recent critics. In fact, the more one comes t6 appreciate the manner in which Otto's argument in Das Heilige builds upon his earlier work, the more ifficut it becomes to avoid the impression tbat the tremendous success of Das Heilige was a fortuitous accident. Otto: himself is said to have been Surprised by having been catapulted overnight into international notoriety. ‘And yet, the fact remains that for some reason Das Heilige struck a chord among iwentieth-century readers as few works in academic theology before or since have succeeded in doing, There are not many works written in that ‘century that can justifiably be called religious classics; but this is certainly fone of thems. In order to account for the widespread appeal of Otto's evoca- tion of the muminous, one must look beyond the theological argument devel- oped in Das Hellige in order to recognize how Otto succeeded in articulating religious impulses far more widespread and compelling than his proposal for Did, pa erin 14 Introduction 4 theological science of religion has proven to be. To the extent that the following study seeks to relate Otio’s ideas to broader tends in twentieth century culture, Das Heilige’s status as a modern religious classic figures more prominently in the following pages than it has in previous discussions of Otto's work. In the final chapter of this study, the popularity of Das Heilige itself becomes an occasion for asking what Otto's book may have 10 teach us about the nature of religious subjectivity in the age of Freud, Weber, Kafka and Expressionist, Since the publication of Almond’s study in 1984, continuing interest in Otio among English-speaking scholars has been reflected in a consistent stream of articles in which Otto's ideas have been discussed from a variety of perspectives.” Foremost among these are the concerns of analytical philoso- phers interested in the epistemological status of religious experience. Since Stevon Katz made his “plea for the recognition of differences” in the aca demic study of mysticism, increasing emphasis has been placed upon the role of language and inherited conceptual frameworks in the mediation of relig- ious experience." Katz’s basic contention is that “There are no pure (ie. unmediated) experiences. Neithet mystical experience nor more ordinary fonms of experience give any indication, or any grounds for believing, that they are unmediated.”” Katz’ argument is directed primarily against earlier discussions of mysticism that sought to identify an “ineffable,” pre-linguistic cote of mystical experience, which was assumed to be the same in all relig- ions, although it is subject to various forms of theological (or, as in the case of Buddhism, a-theological) interpretation. Otto is identified by Katz and ‘thers as a representative of this earlier approach. As such, he is accused of having posited, cither naively o clsc fur apologetic seasons, the existence or presence of an underlying, incffable “X” allegedly spprehended by the religious subject prior to the application of the interpretive framework of religious concepts transmitted by the specific tradition in which that snbject, stands, “ ‘These include Lome Dawsoa, “Otto and Freud on the Uncanny and Beyond” Journal of ‘he American Academy of Religion 57 (1989), 282-311; Robin Minney, “The Develop iment of Oxo's Thought 1898-1917: From Luther's View ofthe Holy Spirit to The Holy. Religious Studies 26 (1890), 505-24; Gregory D. Ailes, "Rudolf Oto and the Politics of Utopia,” Religion 71 (1991), 235-56; Leon Schlamm, “Rudolf Otto aud Mystical Expesi- nee," Relsions Suuies 27 (1991), 389-98; alsa Schlamm, “Numinous Expetience and Religious Language," Religious Studies 28 (1962), 33-51; Lynn Poland, "The ldea ob = Holy and the History of the Sublime," The Journal of Religion 72:2 (Aptit 199), 97 and L- Philip Barnes, “Rudolf Ovo and the Limits of Religious Description? Religious Sudies 30 (1994), 219-30 Steven T. Kat, "Langoage, Epistemology, and Mysticism,” Mysticism and Philosophical z, Anaipsis, ed by Katz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 25. © Wid, p27 Review of Soloced Literate 1s ‘There is some justification to this line of exticism as it applies to Otto. It seems pointless to deny, for example, that Otto's discussion of non-Christian religions, both in Das Heilige and in other works, tends to be biased: by his ‘own theological orientation, It is also true that Otto sometimes imposes interpretive categories. with historically. specific theological connotations ‘upon religious phenomena to which they do not properly apply. At the same time, the criticisms of Otto that are expressed in these debates occasionally distor the mature of the claims that Onto actually makes. Consider the following example. In his discussion ofthe fascinans-moment of the-numi ‘ows in Das Helge, Otto suggests that experiences analogous to the Chris- tian experience of grace and rebirth can be found in all the major religions of the world. ‘And bere to0 the completely irational and totally unique natare of the experience of Hiss is immediately nulceabe. Cerny, it in is specie natare very mullfarious and completely different from what is experienced in Christianity. However, in terms Df the intensity ofthe experience, its everywhere rather similar, is everywhere an ab- Soletefoscinans, is everywhere “salvation” which, in contas to all hat is ‘neti sally’ sayable or comparable, i or clay exhibits traces of, “exalt,” Clearly, the term “salvation” (Heil), which Otto applies (in quotation marks) indiscriminately to all major religions, has a specific meaning in Christian thoological discourse, and is likely to be misleading when used to designate the religious aspirations of Buddhists, Muslims or Hindus. Furthermore, itis ‘questionable whether the Christian idea of salvation itself is capable of being understood exclusively or even primarily as a kind of heightened state of feligious awareness, since, in the history of Christianity, it has often been lunderstood otherwise, Be that as it may, the point of Otto's remark is not that the same unmnediated experience of the divine is to be found in all major religious traditions, In fact, Otto explicitly acknowledges that non-Christian forms of religious experience are “completely different” from Christian ones. His claim is that, despite important differences in the character of the relig, fous experiences that may be observed in’ particular historical traditions, ccttain experiences from different traditions exhibit a similarity that is Sufficient for grouping them together and distinguishing them from other kinds of experience that are not religious (i.e. do not exhibit any numinous quality). “* “Und ime ist auch hier das ganz rationale und as ganz Ar-besondere der Beseligung, sunmitelbar bemerhbar. sist 2var in seinem Wie sebt mannigfach und durchaus ver schieden von dem im Chrisentun erlebtea, ist aber hinsichilich der Intensiat des Ex Jebens aberallziemlich eleic, ist bel cin fascinaneschlectthi, ist Abra ein “Heil™ vhs, gegen alles ‘natulich’ Saghare und Vergleicnbaregchalen, et “Uberschwenglics" [st oder starke Spuren davon i sich bat” (DH SI). ee 16 Introduction Furthermore, in distinguishing the manner in which religious experience is expressed from “all that is ‘naturally’ sayable,” Otto's point is not, as some commentators have suggested, 10 consign religious experience to an ineffa- ble, private sphere that is inaccessible to description and analysis, and there- fore immune from criticism. ‘To the degree that the remarks cited above do bbear upon recent philosophical discussions of the nature of religious lan uage, it might be more helpful to think of the point of them as being that the Tonguage used to describe a state of religious exaltation is rather different from the language used to describe more ordinary occurrences, If one were interested in relating Otto’s views to the discussions of contemporary Anglo: Axmerican religious epistemotogists, one would perhaps do better to suggest that Otlo was aware that talk about religious experience makes use of a which the bistrio! material i sees et alone azanged (REL Otto's remarks reflect the rapid accumulation of information about the vast diversity of religious phenomena as a result of the bieth of ethnography, anthropology and sociology during the second half of the nineteenth century is proliferation of data, and the variety of methodological approaches brousht to bear upon it, seemed to Otto to call for a philosophical clarifica. tion ofthe nature and scope of the science of religion. A similar concern had been expressed by Troeltsch in his essay, “Religion and the Science of Religion” in 1906, ‘Ma new ection by Otio's Friesian colleague, Leonard Nelson in 1905, Oto recom ends 2 Serious examination uf Fries’ philosophy especially 1 those ilosophes ot seilin and thelogins engaged in the efor o identity the rlgios« pio "Pernaps one wll fie in more than one respect [in Fries thought] what i today go eagerly seunte™ (column 819), fates Nygren Die Oiighl der religrorenErfohrung(Gitersoh: Bexelsmann, 1922), ps. 56 ‘The Kantian-Fiesian Philosophy of Religion The huge collection of fats which has now been brought togetier in our per spective only the source materials forthe eal enquiry to come. The question is what iS the religions quality among all these varied and manifold phenomena which are sencrally referred to as religion? How can one Seize hold of the cligious factor in ‘them, and what meaning, what depth of development and what implications does this. religious facoe Have in is emergence through history For both Troelisch and Otto, the psychological investigation of religion, exemplified mos strikingly by William James’ Varieties of Religious Experi ence (1902), had clearly demonstrated that religion constitutes a distin! region of experience which is not capable of being furluer reduced into component pans. Furthermore, both of them seem to have regarded the history of religion as the psychology of religion writ large.’ In other words, the history of religion offers kind of panoramic view of the spectrum of expressions of religious consciousness. If the totality ofthese expressions is to be regarded as anything more than a haphazard collection of loasely related facts, then it must be possible to identify some principle that lends them an underlying unity, an autonomous potential or capacity of the human ‘mind that fas expressed itself in a wide range of forms in various times and places. Both Otto and Trocltsch thought that the discovery of an a priori feligious principe within the siracture of human reason would provide reans for identifying and classifying the diversity of psychological and historical data confronting the science of religion. ‘This assumption, however is relaed to a further claim, which goes beyond the need to classify empirical ata, Ttis the assumption, Familiar in one form or another since Lessing, that the history of religion is “a history of the development, unfolding and effects ‘of aptitudes and faculties ofthe rational human spirit” (KER vii). ‘The second issue that the notion of the religious a priori is meant o address is related to the fact tha, for both Otto and Traelisch, the science of religion is to be a normative science. In the Kurze Darstellung des theo- logischen Suudiums, Schleiermacher had regarded dogmatics as a branch of Practical theology, the sim of which is to foster the religious life of a pac- ticular community of faith. As practical theology, the task of dogmatics is to determine norms for the guidance of religious practice. If these norms are not to be based on an appeal to supernatural revelation (and both Otto and Ennst Trolisch, "Religion and the Science of Religion,” Ernst Troelsch: Writings ot Theology and Religion, p82. CE KER 84, where Oto refers to history as “enlarged experince” (erwelterte Er Sobran), b Religious Feeling and the Critical Pallosophy 7 Trocltsch thought that they could not), then they must be derived by means of 8 general investigation of religion. In this way, modern theology takes the form of a normative science of religion. The science of religion is wot the description of religion, just as litle as the science of law i the description of an existing law or of lw in general... The sicace of re ligion searches forthe validity of religion and for valid celigion, Since in tie teak the ‘teat fo supernatural criteria is deed (or histerical-rtcal reasons sad ot reasons ia eligon isl) it mst proceed lke mara, legal and menial science (Geiseswisson, sch) generally (KFR 183). Siticlly speaking, then, the religious a prion is called upon to accomplish two tasks in relation to the validity of religion. Tt is meant to establish the validity of religious experience in general as a distinct and inteducible sphere of human experiences alongside the scientific, the ethical andthe aesthetic, and it is meant lo provide a means for determining the relative validity of particular Kinds of experience within that sphote. The first of these concerns was addressed by Trooltsch in his essay, Die Selbstndigkeit der Religion (1893), ad the second was the topie of his book, Die Absoluthetsanspruch des Christentums und die Religionsgeschichte (A902). In the latter work, ‘Troelsch lad sought to establish norms for determining the relative value of individual historical religions on the basis of a purely historical method. Liter he developed the notion ofa religious a priori in an effort to accomplish the sume goal. Inthe Kantisch-Fries'sche Religionsphilosophie, Otto appears to have been influenced by the direction of Troelisch’s thinking, as indicated by his remark that "Supernaturalisin and Historiciom [both fail to deliver « standard or principle of the truth in religion” (KER 3), Otto clealy believes ‘hat the identification of such a standard is ofthe utmost practical importance forthe religious life and for theology. “We would in fact have no chance at allof deciding between greater and lesser values of the historical formations, sie Would not ourselves be capable of accepting, recognizing, having insight int the truth and valigity of religious or moral claims, without the “spiritus sanctus in corde,’ without a peculiar principe of rath lying within ourselves, by which we measure and through which we decide” (KFR 2), IL Religious Feeling and the Critical Philosophy While Trocltsch’s influence lies in the background of the Kantisch-Fries'sche Religionsphitosophie, it is equally important to recognize the place of this Work in the development of Otto's own thinking, At the end of the last chapter, I noted Otto's criticism of Schleicrmacher’s failute in the Speeches ‘o addiess the question of the validity of religious experience, and in the 58 The Kantian Feesin Philosophy of Religion opening pages of the Kant-Fries book, this criticism is taken up again. It is Precisely in relation to this question that Otto has come to prefer Fries" Philosophy of religion to Schleiermaches’s. In his effort to distinguish religion from both metaphysics and morality, Otto argues, Schleiermacher had left dangerously little ground upon which the validity of religious judg- ments might be established, ‘Schleiermacter succeeds only with woube, and at © mater of secondary importance, in establishing the connection between religious feeling and religious coaviction, without which the later Would have no basis er right. A valiiy af such conviction as 6 “The Kantian Friesian Philosophy of Retigion from Protestant theology."* In Das Heilige, Otto identifies the “testimony of the spirit within” as the theological expression corresponding to a general psychological “faculty of divination” that is recognizable throughout the history of religion. He attributes the discovery of this general psychological capacity to Schleiermacher, Fries and DeWetle, and he refers his readers to the texts that have been considered in the first two chapters of this study (DH 175). ‘The fact that Otto identifies the universal principle of truth in religion with 4 term expressive of Protestant religious experience and theology is indica- tive of @ characteristic feature of his approach to the history of religions, which will be addressed further in the next chapter. Here itis sufficient 10 point out that the a priori principle that is meant to provide a normative standard of judgment is itself taken from a specific, historically localizable tradition. In Das Heilige, Otto acknowledges that his recognition of the numinous began to develop in the course of his early study of Luther's “De servo arbitrio,” before he “rediscovered” it elsewhere (DH 123). Otto's emphasis upon the spiriaum sanctus in corde can be traced back to his dis- sertation on Luther’s doctrine of the intuition of the Holy Spirit, in which he undertook a psychological analysis of the experience wherein the external spoken or written word is recognized as the living Word of God.” He emphasized that the effectiveness ef the Word is contingent upon the activity of the spirit within, which alone is able to produce a recognition of the Word as holy.”* In Otto's later thought, this Lutheran doctrine is transposed onto the history of religion as a whole, and the testimonium spiritus sancturs intarnum i2 conceived as 4 general capacity for recognizing the boly in history (DH 174), and for distinguishing the relative validity of individual manifestations of the holy. Already’ in his frst published work, itis possible to recognize the beginning of Otto’s attempt to identify a general religious aptitude that “is stirved up (reg? sich) as soon as the religious object is per- ceived [and] becomes conscious, according to exactly the same compulsion ‘The term originates inthe Loeésieologict (X610-1622) ofthe orthodox Lutheran theolo sian Johann Gechard (1582-1637), The inne testimony of the Sprit serves asthe exit ‘ion forthe absolut th ofthe Word. For Gecharst, ¥e fstinony ofthe Spirit is pres: tent in Scripture, which works upon the believer from without. However, its alo presen subjectively as 4"vaus porum sensu” which ie something “experienced” (experi) CE ‘Allsed Adam, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschiche, 6b ed, Vol. I (Giterslob: Moba, 1992), Ds (to's eissertation is ented Geist und Wort nack Luther (Gottingen: Huth, 1898). Ax extended version was published the sume year wader the tile, Die Anzchawing vor helt den Geist bei Luther (Gottingen: Vandenboeck & Ruprec, 1898). Schtte argues tit (Otto's Lather disserlation is the seed from which his Ialer thought grows. CE. Hans ‘Waller Schutte, Religion und Christentun in der Theologie Rudolf Ottos (Berlin: & Gruste, 1969), footnote p12. * CL Owe, Geist und Wort. 8. ‘The Thiet of Hisorcisen 1 of psychological motivation as when our moral or aesthetic. sensibility (Empfinden) is aroused when a corresponding object enters into conscious- anes The path leading from the preliminary recognition of the numinous in Luther to the full-fledged theory of the religious a priort in Das Heilige leads through a period characterized by Otto's increasing familiarity with non- Christian religions, and by his response to a broadcr debate about the histori- ‘al origin of religion pursued by a number of prominent scholars during the ‘arly decades of the twentieth century. In the course of these developments, Otto's own approach to the psychology and history of religion came to be ‘more clearly defined. AV the same time, asthe following chapters will show, Ott’s early investigation of Luther's doctrine of the Holy Spirit lingers in the background of his mature theory of religion, and the Protestant experience of being “in the spitit” continues to function in his thought as the paradigm of religious experience in general. ® hid, 9.6. Chapter Three : ‘The Psychology and History of Religion in Otto’s Thought 1. Otto’s Critique of Wundt’s Theory of Animism In attempting to situate Das Heilige within the development of O1to’s thought as a whole, the question arises whether that work should be viewed in cont nuity with Otto's carlicr writings, or instead as introducing an entirely new point of departure. Hans-Walter Schillte has observed that, for many of ‘Otts contemporaries, the appearance of Das Heilige came as something of a surprise insofar as “a theologian apparently interested in the rational founda- tion of religion tuned away fron his previous work and atributed an unusual significance to the ‘irrational’ factors in religious experience." Troelisch, for example, in his review of Das Heilige, spoke of a “total about-face (Frontwechseb,” wich he thought was obscured by Otto's claim thet Das Heilige bad merely extended his carlicr investigation of the rational founda- ion of religion in the Kant-Fries book to include a consideration of its itcational dimension.* Several commentators, including Schiitte, who empha- size the continuity of the development of Otto’s work, have poiated to his review of Wilhelm Wundt's Volkerpsychologie a8 a mediating link between the programmatic sketch for a science of religion founded on Friesian princi- ples and the mature position articulated in Das Heilige. In fact, the Wunct review (1910) represents Otto’s only significant publication between 1909 and 1917. Schitte observes that, in the outward sequence of Otto’s publica- lions, it alone presents the transition which allows both phases of Otto's thought to appear as belonging together.”? Similarly, Pfleiderer regards the ‘Wandt review both as an “application” ofthe program developed inthe Kant Fries book, and as “an important preliminary to Otto's primary work. 1 Sebi, Religion wad Christentum in der Theologie Rudolf Otes,p. 4. > Erst Tosach, “21 elgonphilsophie Aus Anas es aches von Kad! Ot aber das Helge," Kaw Studion 23 (1919), 76. Ov remark to tis effect is contained ina fooinow in the Ist ed. of Das Heilige, which was removed in eubsequentexitions Cl. Das Peiig, Ist ed, (Breslau: Trewendk & Grenier, 1917), 5. 2 Schite, Religion und Christentum in der Thealogie Rudolf Oe, . 45, * piideter, Theologic als Wirklichkeitswizcenschaf, p. 112 i : to's Critique of Wondt 79 It is certainly the case that Otto's argnment in Das Heilige is nearly impossible to decipher without some prior familiarity with the Kantian Friesian conceptual framework upon which it is founded. Nevertheless, (Otio's Friesian philosophical commitments do not suffice to account for the stiginality of his famous descriptions of numinous experience in the opening chapters of Das Heifige. Even those commentators who emphasize the Continuity of Otto's thought would agree that these chapters contain some. thing completely new, not only in the development of Otto’s wark, but in the ‘modern discussion of religion generally. It is therefore important to ask Whether itis possible to identify y clues in Otto’s earlier writings that might sted light on the nature his procedure in those famous chapters, 4m botk the centennial edition of Schleiermacher’s Speeches, and in the Kantisch-Fries'sche Religionsphilosophie, Owwo’s discussion of religion reamains for the most part abstract and theoretical. In these works we find him struggling to establish the philosophical foundation for « modera theol- ay conceived as a normative science of religion. While an important place is reserved for an “inductive” component within the programmatic siucture of tis science, an investigation of concrete religious phenomena has not yet been pursued in aay detail. Thus, one might say that the execution of the Progrim remains up to this point only a promise, ‘The significance of the Wanet review is due in part to the fact that in it Otto begin attention toward an analysis of religious experience. stakes out a position in the debate sbout the nature a being carried out among a number of prominent anthrop. psychologists and theologians around the tnrn of the token, its not rally accarate to call the Wundl review an “application” of the method that Otto had worked out in his previous publications, since, still speaking, up to this point he bas not proposed a “method for study. ing religion, but rather a philosophical theory that is intended to religion ¢an be true despite the multiplicity of its historia! forms, Although the analysis of religious experience presented in the opening chapters of Das Heilige is foreshadowed in Otto’s earlier works, its aetucl execution is worked out by Otio in direct contact mit der Sache selbst. Over ‘he years, many astute cries have been deeply impressed by the originality and insightfulness of Otto’s descriptions of religious experience, while remaining skeptical of the epistemological claims that he makes for that taperience, as well as his theory of the religious a priori. Althongh a great 24) of effort has been spent in attempting to decipher the Kantian tetmninol. og} employed by Otto in Das Heilige, less attention has been paid to Oito's ‘approach to the psychology and history of religion. Despite the originality of Otto's analysis of anminous experience in Das Heilige, that analysis wos pursued within the context of a broader debate about of the nature of the Geisteswissenschaften, o: human sciences, being carried out in Germany to direct his In doing so, be also ind origin of religion ologists, sociologists, ceulury. By the same show how 80 The Psychology and History of Religion around the tum ofthe century. Pat ofthe value ofthe Wand evi i that ithelps to locate Otto's poston within tis broader debate Willem Wand: (1832-1920), ho established the fist paychologea laboratory in 1879 al the Univesity of Leipig is sometimes feteed ¥ a8, the founder of experimental psyehology. At end ofthe ninetesatscentuy, psychology was sil inthe process of estnguishing itself a an indepensea cisciplne, distinct trom philosophy, and Wundt was instrumental in this process. Wundt’s educational background was in medicine and biology. Yet ination to works oa the principles of experimental psychology and tial psychology, he also published works on ethics, logic and the system ef philosophy. Wundt regarded psychology as "ihe common basis for all Selle nd cual Kowedge and ie fond ulin alte individ sciences, and therefore the ‘science drecty preparatory to pilosophy Between the years of 1900 and 1920, he produced teavolume Volker psychologe, in which he undertook to explain the origins of language, my and morals by applying the principles of experimental psychology to the investigation of prehistoric human culture. The three volumes dedicated to inyth and religion appeared in 1905, 1906, and 1909. ‘isthe theory pre sented in these volumes that Oto discusses in his seview esay Volkersyehologie, xs conceived by Wundk, constitutes an independent discipline, diferent onthe one haed fom individual psychology, and onthe other from history and literature.* Although Vélkerpsychologie involves the. application ofthe principles of individual psychology to the investigation of the origins of human culture, iasofc asthe term “application” connotes some praia nother han he purely cereal inte of seas ek Wonk argues, the characterization of Volkerpsychologic as applied psychology is misleading. “The origin and development of language, the formation of ‘mythological and religious ideas (Vorstellungen), the emergence of morals ‘and moral fecling ~ the ireatment of these probleans serves immediately only the interests of psychology itself and the theoretical human sciences (Ceistes- wissenschafien) bound up with it” Valkerpsychologie is thus not so much an application of individual psychology as an extension of its methods and principles to the investigation of primitive, pre-literate culture On the other hand, Volkerpsychologie must also be distinguished from the historical sciences. Where cultural innovatioas and developments can be attributed to the activity of individual social agents, they are no longer ‘Albert Wellek, "Wand, Wilhelm,” The Eneyelop Paul Edwards (New Yotk: Macmillan, 1967), p. 348 1s iia to decide how bes wo uanslate the term Volkerpsychologie. “Falk psychol- "IS misleading. “Social psychology” would be mare accurate accept that Word is concerned specifically wih the origins of human culture in pe-lterstesoveles. Wilkelm Wand, Vaterpeychologie, Vol. Ll (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1900) p.2, ia of Philosophy, Vol. VU, ed. by Oti0's Ceique of Wundt 81 Suitable objects of this discipline, Since the emergence ef the so-called higher religions can only be understood in terms ofthe historical agency of itr seepective founders, it falls ouside the scope of Volkerpsycholugte, ‘hich must limit itself to the investigation of those “pre-religious” phenom 2mm out of which religion proper finally emerges at the end of a long process Sracetlopment. Wandk identities two criteria for distinguishing appropriste bjects of this new science: they must be the product of a collective cocial Mat and therefore not capable Of being attributed to the innovation of any Particular individual; and they must exhibit universally valid laws of devel. ‘opment. The final source of al artistic and mythological creativity, as well as religious feeling, in Wundt’s theory, is fantasy. Fantasy, as Wuudt conccives Incorporates an ideationsl and affective component. It involves firs the ‘pacity to rearrange ofthe contents of sense perception and express them few forms, according to the law of the association of ideas. But it also involves an act of projection (Einfihlung), whereby the self comes to $e Henifed withthe objects of its own imaginative erestion. Its through the

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