Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 8 - Fault Identification and Monitoring
Chapter 8 - Fault Identification and Monitoring
Condition monitoring
Topics: Introduction Types of Condition Monitoring Different types of predictive Maintenance Vibration Condition Monitoring
2
Introduction
Approximately half of all operating costs in most processing and manufacturing operations can be attributed to maintenance. Machine condition monitoring and fault diagnostics
the field of technical activity in which selected physical parameters, associated with machinery operation, are observed for the purpose of determining machinery integrity.
The ultimate goal in regard to maintenance activities is to schedule only what is needed at a time, which results in optimum use of resources.
3
Need of Monitoring
Demand for economic design, higher power density Lighter flexible designs highly stressed machinery Cost of Downtime enormous
Maintenance Regimes
Types of Maintenance
Introduction
Predictive
Condition Monitoring
7
Maintenance Regimes
Issues of Monitoring
Criticality of inspected part/machine/process Offline inspections / online inspections Sensitivity of faults parameter to monitor Optimum inspection interval
10
11
Visual inspection
Cost effective Optical assistance Low cost aides, e.g. Borescope, Fibrescope etc. Dye penetrant (for surface crack)
12
Infrared Thermography
Faults accompanied by unexpected change in temperature E.g. overhauling of coupling, motor bearings, electrical connections Temperature changes much before perceptible physical damage Thermal imaging of the system
13
Infrared Thermography
One state Electricity Board in India using for power transmission Lines (thermal imaging cameras (29 nos) Railways use for monitoring of overhead power lines along railway tracks (overhead line switch) Many transmission authorities in the West use helicopter patrolling to patrol thousands of joints in transmission lines. High voltage/high current system: I2R effect 31 systems are recently ordered to a European company by Power Transmission division of Korea. Used for Boiler Insulation wear & erosion/blocking of boiler tubes. One European electrical traction railway operator uses thermal energy system to monitor condition of overhead lines to detect overheating clamped connections preventive maintenance. Detection of single fault paid for cost of camera
14
Surface and Internal Defect detection Eddy Current testing Electrical Resistance Testing Magnetic Particle Testing Dye Penetration Testing Resonance Testing Ultrasonic Testing Visual Examination
15
EARLY BIRD??
16
17
18
19
20
21
Vibration Monitoring
Time domain (waveform) measurements Frequency domain representation of vibration signal Waterfall plots, Spectrum Cascade, Full Spectrum Quefrency Domain Signal Analysis and other signal representation formats
Wavelet Transforms
22
Vibration is very sensitive to fault severity Machine never required to shut down, stopped and inspected. The process of vibration measurement is online. continuous and convenient 23 Non-intrusive, nondestructive.
Vibration or Process Parameter Monitoring??? Offline inspections Most faults show up in vibration response Vibration Monitoring: convenient and most suitable to online diagnostics
24
25
Machines are classified into four groups: K small machines upto 15kW M medium machines upto 75 kW or upto 300kW on special foundations G large machines with speeds below the foundation natural frequency frequency T large machines with operating speeds above the foundation natural 27 e.g., turbomachinery
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
36
37
x average
1 = x dt T 0
x RMS
1 2 = x (t )dt38 T 0
Machines are classified into four groups: K small machines upto 15kW M medium machines upto 75 kW or upto 300kW on special foundations G large machines with speeds below the foundation natural frequency T large machines with operating speeds above the foundation natural frequency e.g., turbomachinery
39
4 f(x) is the probability density function of the x instantaneous amplitude, x(t), at time t, is the mean value and is the standard deviation of x(t).
4 ( x x ) f ( x )dx
Useful for faults such as spalling on balls/rollers and cracked races in rolling element bearings leading to impulses in time domain waveforms that can be picked up by large values of the kurtosis 40 k < 3.5 good bearing k>3.5 bad bearing
41
Envelop Analysis
42
Shaft orbit
0.8
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (Hz)
44
45
Fourier Analysis
46
47
48
Case studies
Compressor of a process industry Casing vibration from velocity pickup
49
50
51
53
54
MFRT utilizes the fact that much of the energy resulting from a defect impact manifests itself in the higher resonant frequencies of the system. Defect frequency if periodic, presents in the spectra of the enveloped signal. ALE enhances the spectrum of enveloped 55 signal by reducing broadband noise
56
57
By synchronizing the sampling of the vibration signal with the rotation of a particular gear and evaluating the ensemble average over many revolutions with the start of each frame at the same angular position, a signal called time-synchronous average (TSA) is obtained, which in practice contains only the components which are synchronous with the revolution of the gear in question. As a matter of fact, this process strongly reduces the effects of all other sources, including other gears, and the noise
EFFECTIVENESS AND SENSITIVITY OF VIBRATION PROCESSING TECHNIQUES FOR LOCAL FAULT DETECTION 58 IN GEARS by G. Dalpiaz, A. Rivola And R. Rubini Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing (2000) 14(3), 387}412
59
60
xcos(t)
Gear blank digs into pinion and withdraws once in one rotation
xacos(at)
Time (sec)
x (t ) = [ x + xa cos( a t )] cos t
Time (sec)
61
Time (sec)
modulation frequency i.e., rotational speed of the gear - a carrier frequencies i.e.,gear mesh frequency -
xa x cos( a )t + a cos( + a )t 62 2 2
a = 25 Hz = 750Hz
x(t ) = x cos t + xa x cos( a )t + a cos( + a )t 2 2
a , 2a , 3a ,.... , 2 , 3
SPECTRUM
63
Cepstrum is defined as inverse Fourier transform of the logarithm of the power spectrum
c( ) = F 1{log S X ( )}
If one or more periodic structures appear in a spectrum, each one appear as a distinct peak in cepstrum
64
Cepstrum for Spectrum Quefrency for Frequency Rahmonics for Harmonics Gamnitude for Magnitude
65
66
67
CONCLUSIONS .. Contd
Spectral analysis of gear faults gives a rather confusing picture Cepstrum analysis is better suited in such type of faults and gives a clearer picture
68
Waterfall plot
69
Trend plots
70
Wavelet Transform
Signal Analysis of Vibration Data KEY for Fault Detection & Monitoring Time Domain & Fourier Analysis has some inherent disadvantages Wavelet Transforms scores over traditional techniques for transient signals
71
Fourier Analysis
Breaking down a periodic signal into its constituent sinusoids of different frequencies
1 F (k ) = N
N 1 n =0
2nk j ( n )e N
72
Analyzing a small section of the signal at a time with Fourier Transform Same Basis Functions (sinusoids) are used Window size is fixed (uniform) for all frequencies so all spectral estimates have same (constant) bandwidth
73
Wavelet Analysis A windowing technique with variable sized regions Allows use of long time intervals where we need more precise low-frequency information & use of shorter regions where we want highfrequency information
74
Wavelet Transform
Fourier Transform signal broken into sinusoids that are global functions Wavelet Transform signal broken into a series of local basis functions called wavelets, which are scaled and shifted versions of the original (or Mother) wavelet
75
Wavelet
Wavelet means a small wave The function that defines a wavelet integrates to zero It is local in the sense that it decays to zero when sufficiently far from its center It is square integrable, i.e., it has finite energy
Morlet Wavelet
(t ) = e t cos ln 2 t
2
(t )dt = 0
| (t ) | 2 dt <
Wavelets
Signals with sharp sudden changes could be better analyzed with an irregular wavelet than with a smooth sinusoid In other words, local features can be better captured with wavelets which have local extent
77
Ensures energy stays same for all s&b Sum over all time of the signal multiplied by scaled and shifted versions of the wavelet 78
80
Rotor-stator arrangement
81
Experimental Results
NO RUB
RUB
82
83
PARTIAL/INTERMITTENT RUB
NO RUB
Partial RUB
84
85
86
88
89
90
Response of Cracked Rotor with Transient Torsional Excitation at =00 during 5th cycle
91
92
CWT of Lateral Response of Cracked Rotor with Transient Torsional Excitation at =00 during 5th cycle
93
Response of Cracked Rotor with Transient Torsional Excitation at =1800 during 5th cycle
94
95
96
5% crack depth97
From the above WT map of TSA vibration, it is possible to clearly distinguish the transient effects introduced by the cracked tooth. Moreover, such a procedure makes it possible to localize the damage in100 most of the cross-sections.
WAVELET TRANSFORM
Wavelet Transform is an excellent tool for detection of non-stationary vibration signals Features that are obscured during Fourier Transformation are revealed with better clarity Time information is preserved
101
102
Results on test rig simulating very slow speed rolling bearings of Air Preheater (1.3-1.4rpm)
103
Rotor-stator Rub:
Rotor rubbing can exhibit very rich form of the periodic, quasi-periodic and chaotic vibrations. Subharmonics chiefly at 1/2X, 1/3X, and 2/3X along with the higher harmonics mainly at 2X, 3/2X and 3X of rotor speed is observed. Rubbing result in to backward whirling orbits. Instability zones at 1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 1, 3/2, and 2 of the critical speeds.
105
Asymmetry:
Steady state response with frequency component 2X of the rotating speed is observed. Subharmonic resonances at only of cr during cost up or down. Orbits with two inner loops at subharmonic resonance. Instability zones at 1/2, 1 and 2 of the critical speeds.
106
Misalignment
Crack
Asymmetry
Rub
Yes No Mainly 2X; other higher harmonics Resonance at & of critical speed No Multi lobed with external loops
Yes No 2X & 3X Resonance at , & of critical speed at , , 1 & 2 of the critical speeds Multi lobed with internal loops
No No Only 2X Resonance at of critical speed at , 1, 3/2, & 2 of the critical speeds Two loops at subharmonic resonances No No No
No X, X, X, & even lower 2X, 3/2X , 3X, & even higher Highly unstable at , , , 1, 3/2, & 2 of the critical speeds Backward whirling orbit
Transient response
Instability zones
Yes Yes No
Yes No No
107
108
Darpe (2002)
Wavelet time-frequency maps for the cracked Crack and rub rotor are different from the cracked rotor with rubbing. Crack and misalignment Continuous wavelet transform is more sensitive to the misalignment compared to crack.
109
112
113
Vibration Monitoring
There is a strong negative correlation between the overall vibration level for a bearing, and the expected life of that bearing. Put simply, the higher the overall vibration level to which the bearing is subjected, then the shorter the expected life of the bearing. Second, it should be recognised that bearing vibration can be induced by applying cyclical forces from two sources, either: From forces originating within the bearing (e.g. those due to impending bearing failure), or From forces applied to the bearing from external effects. Misalignment Improper bearing installation Rotor imbalance Pump cavitation Flow induced vibration, Etc.
114
Vibration Monitoring
Journal Bearings Besides the forces of kinematic origin and friction forces in the journal bearings, the forces act hat are the results of nonlinear interaction of the static load with the friction forces. These forces accompany the rotor selfoscillations in the bearings. The rotor self-oscillations in the journal bearings are very much alike the pendulum oscillations of the rotor in relation to the equilibrium position in the lowest point of the bearing. The rotor is shifted from the equilibrium position by the friction forces and is returned in it by the gravity force. The reason of this unstable equilibrium is the nonlinear dependence of the friction forces from the thickness of the lubrication layer that grows while the rotor position deviates from the equilibrium position. The self-oscillation frequency is the lesser the larger is the gap in the bearing, i.e. the more is the bearing's wear.
115
Vibration Monitoring
As a rule the rotor self-oscillation frequency changes abruptly from the RPM to 1/2 RPM but sometimes, with increasing the wear, to 1/3 RPM. The reason of the rotor self-oscillation can be not only its wear, but also the decreased quality of lubricant or failure in feed lubrication. The self-oscillation can appear also in the rolling element bearings but only with large wear. The frequency of the rotor self-oscillation in the rolling element bearings as a rule coincides with the second order of the rotating frequency of the cage. The shock forces that act in the journal bearings can be of two types. A "dry" shock with the disruption of the lubrication layer is very dangerous but it appears very seldom and is accompanied with significant growth of high frequency vibration.
116
Vibration Monitoring
"Hydraulic" shock does not disrupt the lubrication layer, but because of uneven wear of the bearing in the loaded zone, where the thickness and the velocity of the lubrication flow jump, the turbulent breakaway of the flow occurs. The moment of the breakaway of the flow is sensed by the measuring system as a shock, accompanied by an impulse increase of the high frequency vibration. Such shock does not lead to fast destruction of the bearing but it is a cause of fast uneven wear. The friction forces in the journal bearing are rather stronger than in the rolling element bearings but as the high frequency bearing vibration, when there is no turbulence of the lubrication flow, is activated only by the boundary friction, the random vibration of the journal bearing is significantly lower than in the rolling element bearings.
117
Shock Pulse Analysis (SPA) The SPA technique has been specifically developed for the condition monitoring of rolling element bearings. The technique is based on the fact that any damage in rolling element bearings will cause mechanical impacts that will generate ultrasonic shock waves. The magnitude of these impacts is a measure of the condition of the bearings. The magnitude of impacts depends on impact velocity, which depends on defect size and bearings speed and size.
118
The transducer of the shock pulse meter (SPM) is a piezoelectric accelerometer tuned mechanically and electronically to a resonant frequency around 32 kHz. The shock wave is propagated through the bearing housing, and when the shock pulse hits the transducer, damped oscillations are initiated at the resonant frequency of the transducer. The amplitude increase of the damped resonant oscillation gives an indication of the condition of the rolling element bearings. The transducer signal is processed electronically to filter out low frequency vibrations such as inbalance, misalignment and other structurerelated vibrations. The decibel (dB) unit is used to measure the shock value to accommodate a large range of shock values of good and damaged bearings.
119
The bearing race surfaces will always have a certain degree of roughness. So, when a bearing rotates, this surface roughness causes mechanical impacts with rolling elements. The shock pulse value generated by good bearings due to surface roughness has been found empirically to be dependent upon the bearing bore diameter and speed. This value, called initial value (dBi), is subtracted from the shock value of the test bearing to obtain a normalized shock pulse value (dBN). The digital shock pulse meter gives the reading directly in dBN. The shock pulse meter gives two values namely the maximum shock value (dBM) and the carpet value (dBC), as shown in Figure 5.8.
120
The maximum shock value is a measure of low rate (LR) impacts, and the carpet value is a measure of high rate (HR) impacts. HR impacts may exceed 1000 impacts per second and LR impacts may exceed 25 impacts per second. An increase in dBM value without an increase in dBC value is an indication of damaged bearings. Increase in both dBM and dBC value is an indication of lubrication problems. Manufacturers of SPM instruments supply a diagnostic table based on dBM and dBC. 121
Pumps
Topics: Causes of excessive vibration Types of forces Measures
122
124
125
126
Frequency ranges
127
128
129
130
Diagnostic Paradigm
Signal Based Diagnosis Model Based Diagnosis
131
r0(t) r (t)
r(t)=r0(t)+r(t)
: Vector representing fault parameters such as type, magnitude, location of the fault e.g., for a transverse crack, represents depth a and location n of the crack Thus a fault induced change in the vibrational behavior is represented by virtual forces on the undamaged system 132
Residual vibrations representing fault in the system is given as r=r(t)-r0(t) The equivalent (virtual) loads induce the change in the dynamic behavior of the undamaged linear model If the vectorial difference r is found out, from the known system matrices, F can be found, wherefrom the fault can be estimated. To identify fault parameters, the difference between the virtual forces from measured data and theoretical fault model is minimised using the least square method 133
Heuristic Methods
134
OLES (online expert system) OSBUDD (operator support and backup data
display). Uses knowledge base compiled by john S Sohre. Continuous online vibration and process data can be acquired from any machine. The diagnosis of the fault is almost instantaneous. The important vibration data be trended over any interval of time. Orbit plot, waterfall plot, can be plotted. An integrated signal analysis toolbox 136 is provided.
137
138
Fig.6 Screen Snapshot of Frequency Domain Signal
139
140
141
142
OSBUDD
(Operator Support and Back Up Data Display) Displays processed data in various format Trend of important vibration parameters Expert system diagnostic results Provision of reviewing past data Demo and Help for operator assistance
143
Plots:
Time Domain Frequency Domain Trend Orbit Waterfall Expert System Diagnosis Signal Processing Demo Help
144
Analysis: Assistance:
Expert System
Each fault produces a typical frequency pattern (signature) Sohres Database as knowledge base Direction and type (shaft/brg) of predominant vibration taken into account Expert system estimates probability of each fault, lists five most probable ones.
145
146
147
Vibrations of Bearings
149
Roller bearings
Force impulse when rolling element passes Roughness will increase contact forces Modulation due to varying transfer path Slip
150
151
152
153
154
Vibration spectrum measured at a motor six weeks before a rolling element bearing burnt out.
156
Disadvantages: Prone to interference from other vibration sources Does not detect as wide a range of faults as Spectrum comparison
158
Spectrum Comparison
Advantages: Detects a wide range of machine faults Provides frequency information that can be used for fault diagnosis Same equipment can usually be used to do further fault diagnosis Disadvantages: Larger capital outlay
159
Envelope Analysis
Envelope spectrum showing a harmonic series of fout (Outer race defect)
160
Zoom Analysis
Zoom spectrum showing harmonics corresponding to the ball-pass frequency outer race. When the bearing was stripped down, eight months after the fault was first detected, a spall was discovered on the outer race.
161
Cepstrum Analysis
The family of harmonics shows up in the cepstrum as a distinct peak whose quefrency corresponds to the frequency spacing of the harmonics. A number of rahmonics are also present.
162
Amplitude modulation
163
164
Vibration of Gears
165
Healthy Gears
Gear tooth profile Fluctuating tooth meshing force Tooth mesh frequency and harmonics Modulations give sidebands Several stages many frequencies
166
Healthy Gears
167
Typical defects
Localised surface damage Wear or inadequate lubrication Tooth root cracks, missing tooth Pitch error Eccentricity
168
169
170
Defective gears
171
Defective gears
172
175
176
Residuals
Remove expected (healthy) signal components Suitable for gears
177
178
179
180
Example
Surface damage on gear in truck gearbox
181
182
183
Extract Residual
184
185
Kurtosis > 3
Kurtosis = 3.0
Kurtosis = 4.7
186
Summary
Gear meshing frequency Sidebands Synchronous time domain averaging Residuals Defect enhancement: AR-models etc Defect severity
187
188
BREATHING OF CRACK
189
190
191
b) Asymmetric Rotor
&& 2 & + k = m 2 cos mg cos & 2 ) + c m( & 2 ) + c( && + 2 & + ) + k = m 2 sin + mg sin m(
c) Cracked Rotor
&& 2 & + k + k = m 2 cos mg cos & 2 ) + c m( & 2 ) + c( && + 2 & + ) + k + k = m 2 sin + mg sin 192 m(
Frequency content
Subharmonic Resonance Instability for deeper cracks, for lightly damped rotors.
193
Waterfall Plot
(a)
cr
1/2cr 1/3cr
194
Torsional Vibration
(b) 1/3tor 1/4tor 1X 2X 3X 4X 1/6tor (c)
1/2tor
195
196
197
198
199
Stiffness variation characteristic due to breathing is responsible for unique directionality of crack vibration response
200
To exploit Non-linearity due to crack breathing & Coupling between Bendinglongitudinal-Torsional vibrations
201
202
-1.36e-4
4e-6
2 3
Vertical
Amplitude
-1.40e-4
-1.44e-4
(a)
(b)
-1.48e-4 5e-6
Horizontal
2 3
Amplitude
0e+0
(c)
-5e-6 0e+0
(d)
Axial
2
Amplitude
-1e-7
(e)
-2e-7 2e-7
(f)
2
Torsional
Amplitude
0e+0
(g)
-2e-7 0 360 720
4
10 20 30 40 50
(h)
60
Frequency (Hz)
203 Figure 8. Unbalance response of a cracked rotor (a/D=0.3) without torsional excitation. =22rad/sec.
0
Amplitude
5e-6
Vertical
2 0- 0-2 0+ 0+2 0
(a)
0e+0 2.0e-5 1.5e-5
(b)
2e-5
Horizontal
Amplitude
1.0e-5 5.0e-6
(c)
0.0e+0 6.0e-8
0-2
0-
0+
0+2
(d)
Axial
2 0+ 0-2 0- 0 0+2
Amplitude
4.0e-8
2.0e-8
(e)
0.0e+0 0.10 0.08
(f)
0.10
Torsional
Amplitude
(g)
Angle of rotation (degrees)
(h)
60
Frequency (Hz)
Resonance conditions: natural frequency component Interaction between external excitation frequency and rotational frequency and its harmonics - presence of sum and difference frequencies - Horizontal component (natural freq.) - stronger Sensitive to crack depth
205
EXPERIMENTATION
Transient Response through Critical Speed Variation of peak response Unbalance phase Slotted and fatigue cracked rotor Response through subharmonic resonances Response to impulse axial excitation Presence of the coupling mechanism
206
Proximeter
A/D Card
Computer
Flexible coupling
Motor
Exciter
Disk
Motor Controller
Oscillator
Power Amplifier
Vertical
0.02 0.02
Horizontal (b)
(a)
0.01 0.01
Amplitude (mm)
1x
Amplitude (mm)
(c)
5x
10 20 30 40 50 60
10
20
30
40
50
60
0.04 0.02
(e) z
(f)
0.00
y
-0.02 -0.04 0.020
Amplitude (mm)
1x
3x
Amplitude (mm)
(g)
20
30
40
50
60
0.06 0.03
(j) z
(k)
Amplitude (mm)
Amplitude (mm)
(l) 2x 1x
60
1x
50 60
208
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
(a)
(b)
Horizontal
0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 0.06 100 200 300 Time (msec) 400 500
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Frequency (Hz) 80 90 100
(c)
Amplitude
0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 100 200 300 Time (msec) 400 500
(d)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Frequency (Hz) 80 90 100
(a)
Amplitude
(b)
0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 0.06 100 200 300 400 500 Time (msec)
Horizontal
Vertical
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Frequency (Hz) 80 90 100
(c)
Amplitude
0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 100 200 300 400 500 Time (msec)
(d)
Vertical
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 11. Time domain and frequency domain response of the uncracked shaft with axial excitation (=0). a,b - horizontal, c,d - vertical.
209
(a)
(b) 2 3 0
Horizontal
0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 0.06 100 200 300 400 500 Time (msec)
Rotating condition
Vertical
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Frequency (Hz)
(c)
Amplitude
(d) 2 3 0
0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 100 200 300 400 500 Time (msec) 0.000 0
0.010 0.005
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Frequency (Hz)
0.08 0.06
(a)
Amplitude
(b)
Horizontal
0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 0 0.06 100 200 300 Time (msec) 400 500
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Frequency (Hz)
Vertical
(c)
0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 100 200 300 400 500 Time (msec)
(d)
2 3
0 10 20 30 40
210
50 60 70 80 90 100 Frequency (Hz)
Stress Monitoring
For detection of crack, rotor needs to be stress monitored Additional external excitation is useful for unambiguous detection
211
Misalignment symptom
Misalignment symptom
-60
-40
40
60
80
214
215
x 10
-6
-60
-40
40
60
80
0 -80
-60
-40
40
60
80
x 10
-6
x 10
-6
-60
-40
40
60
80
0 -80
-60
-40
40
60
80
216
7 6
x 10
-6
2 5 Amplitude [m] 1.5 Amplitude [m] 4 3 2 0.5 1 0 -80 3.5 3 0.8 2.5 Amplitude [m] Amplitude [m] 2 1.5 1 0.2 0.5 0 -80 0 -80 0.6 x 10
-6
Depth 30%
-60
-5
-60
-40
40
60
80
0 -80 1 x 10
-40
40
60
80
0.4
Depth 40%
-60
-40
40
60
80
-60
-40
40
60
80
P = 1/3
P = 1/2
217
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
x 10
-6
0 -80
-60
-40
40
60
80
P=1/3
p=1/2
218
1X 2X 3X 1138 RPM
-1X
In cracked rotor, vibration excitations are forward in nature. Presence of weak backward 1X frequency component along with the strong 219 forward 1X frequency component is due to crack only
Types of misalignment
Angular misalignment
Parallel misalignment
220
These models are more hypothetical than actual and could not 221 conclusively tell the misalignment behavior.
0.7m
C Fmisal
0.25m
0.7m
222
223
= cr / 4 = 12.4Hz 4X
= cr / 3 = 16.87Hz 3X
= cr / 2 = 24.8Hz 2X
Presence of nx spectral components along with +nx components 224 is typical to misalignment
Experimentation set-up
Rotor - 2
225
Without misalignment
226
227
STATOR RUB
k yy k zz
k yz k 1 =T k zy k
k T k
Rubbing Forces:
Fy (e ) k s = e Fz
f y 1 1 f z
e=
y2 + z2
228
Rotor Parameters:
mass of the disk, m = 4 kg; unbalance eccentricity, u = 1E-05m; stator stiffness, = 60E+06 N/m; coefficient of friction,= 0.2. shaft stiffness, = 2.275E+05 N/m; damping ratio, = 0.05; clearance, = 1.735E-04 m Natural frequency = 2277 rpm (38Hz)
229
230
Backward whirl just before pseudo resonance was not reported before
231
1X 2X 3X
1138 RPM
-1X
In cracked rotor, vibration excitations are forward in nature. Presence of weak backward 1X frequency component along with the strong 232 forward 1X frequency component is due to crack only
Spectrum shows forward whirling 1X response with substantial -1X frequency component. Spectrum rich in superharmonics is typical rub indicator. However, these harmonics are weak in magnitude and +ve and ve frequency components233 are almost equal in magnitude.
SUMMARY
Single sided FFT may not give full information Can not pinpoint the fault among the probable faults with similar symptoms Transient vibration response reveals more information Stress monitoring useful particularly for crack detection Full Spectrum analysis is found very useful for pinpointing faults with similar symptoms
234