350 BC METAPHYSICS by Aristotle translated by W. D. Ross Boo ! A"" #en by nat$re desire to no%.

An indi&ation o' t(is is t(e deli)(t %e ta e in o$r senses* 'or e+en a,art 'ro# t(eir $se'$lness t(ey are lo+ed 'or t(e#sel+es* and abo+e all ot(ers t(e sense o' si)(t. -or not only %it( a +ie% to a&tion. b$t e+en %(en %e are not )oin) to do anyt(in). %e ,re'er seein) /one #i)(t say0 to e+eryt(in) else. T(e reason is t(at t(is. #ost o' all t(e senses. #a es $s no% and brin)s to li)(t #any di''eren&es bet%een t(in)s. By nat$re ani#als are born %it( t(e 'a&$lty o' sensation. and 'ro# sensation #e#ory is ,rod$&ed in so#e o' t(e#. t(o$)( not in ot(ers. And t(ere'ore t(e 'or#er are #ore intelli)ent and a,t at learnin) t(an t(ose %(i&( &annot re#e#ber* t(ose %(i&( are in&a,able o' (earin) so$nds are intelli)ent t(o$)( t(ey &annot be ta$)(t. e.). t(e bee. and any ot(er ra&e o' ani#als t(at #ay be li e it* and t(ose %(i&( besides #e#ory (a+e t(is sense o' (earin) &an be ta$)(t. T(e ani#als ot(er t(an #an li+e by a,,earan&es and #e#ories. and (a+e b$t little o' &onne&ted e1,erien&e* b$t t(e ($#an ra&e li+es also by art and reasonin)s. 2o% 'ro# #e#ory e1,erien&e is ,rod$&ed in #en* 'or t(e se+eral #e#ories o' t(e sa#e t(in) ,rod$&e 'inally t(e &a,a&ity 'or a sin)le e1,erien&e. And e1,erien&e see#s ,retty #$&( li e s&ien&e and art. b$t really s&ien&e and art &o#e to #en t(ro$)( e1,erien&e* 'or 3e1,erien&e #ade art3. as Pol$s says. 3b$t ine1,erien&e l$& .3 2o% art arises %(en 'ro# #any notions )ained by e1,erien&e one $ni+ersal 4$d)e#ent abo$t a &lass o' ob4e&ts is ,rod$&ed. -or to (a+e a 4$d)e#ent t(at %(en Callias %as ill o' t(is disease t(is did (i# )ood. and si#ilarly in t(e &ase o' So&rates and in #any indi+id$al &ases. is a #atter o' e1,erien&e* b$t to 4$d)e t(at it (as done )ood to all ,ersons o' a &ertain &onstit$tion. #ar ed o'' in one &lass. %(en t(ey %ere ill o' t(is disease. e.). to ,(le)#ati& or bilio$s ,eo,le %(en b$rnin) %it( 'e+ers5t(is is a #atter o' art. Wit( a +ie% to a&tion e1,erien&e see#s in no res,e&t in'erior to art. and #en o' e1,erien&e s$&&eed e+en better t(an t(ose %(o (a+e t(eory %it(o$t e1,erien&e. /T(e reason is t(at e1,erien&e is no%led)e o' indi+id$als. art o' $ni+ersals. and a&tions and ,rod$&tions are all &on&erned %it( t(e indi+id$al* 'or t(e ,(ysi&ian does not &$re #an. e1&e,t in an in&idental %ay. b$t Callias or So&rates or so#e ot(er &alled by so#e s$&( indi+id$al na#e. %(o (a,,ens to be a #an. I'. t(en. a #an (as t(e t(eory %it(o$t t(e e1,erien&e. and re&o)ni6es t(e $ni+ersal b$t does not no% t(e indi+id$al in&l$ded in t(is. (e %ill o'ten 'ail to &$re* 'or it is t(e indi+id$al t(at is to be &$red.0 B$t yet %e t(in t(at no%led)e and $nderstandin) belon) to art rat(er t(an to e1,erien&e. and %e s$,,ose artists to be %iser t(an #en o' e1,erien&e /%(i&( i#,lies t(at Wisdo# de,ends in all &ases rat(er on no%led)e0* and t(is be&a$se t(e 'or#er no% t(e &a$se. b$t t(e latter do not. -or #en o' e1,erien&e no% t(at t(e t(in) is so. b$t do not no% %(y. %(ile t(e ot(ers no% t(e 3%(y3 and t(e &a$se. Hen&e %e t(in also t(at t(e #aster%or ers in ea&( &ra't are #ore (ono$rable and no% in a tr$er sense and are %iser t(an t(e #an$al %or ers. be&a$se t(ey no% t(e &a$ses o' t(e t(in)s t(at are done /%e t(in t(e #an$al %or ers are li e &ertain li'eless t(in)s %(i&( a&t indeed. b$t a&t %it(o$t no%in) %(at t(ey do. as 'ire b$rns.5b$t %(ile t(e li'eless t(in)s ,er'or# ea&( o' t(eir '$n&tions by a nat$ral tenden&y. t(e labo$rers ,er'or# t(e# t(ro$)( (abit0* t($s %e +ie% t(e# as bein) %iser not in +irt$e o' bein) able to a&t. b$t o' I

(a+in) t(e t(eory 'or t(e#sel+es and no%in) t(e &a$ses. And in )eneral it is a si)n o' t(e #an %(o no%s and o' t(e #an %(o does not no%. t(at t(e 'or#er &an tea&(. and t(ere'ore %e t(in art #ore tr$ly no%led)e t(an e1,erien&e is* 'or artists &an tea&(. and #en o' #ere e1,erien&e &annot. A)ain. %e do not re)ard any o' t(e senses as Wisdo#* yet s$rely t(ese )i+e t(e #ost a$t(oritati+e no%led)e o' ,arti&$lars. B$t t(ey do not tell $s t(e 3%(y3 o' anyt(in)5e.). %(y 'ire is (ot* t(ey only say t(at it is (ot. At 'irst (e %(o in+ented any art %(ate+er t(at %ent beyond t(e &o##on ,er&e,tions o' #an %as nat$rally ad#ired by #en. not only be&a$se t(ere %as so#et(in) $se'$l in t(e in+entions. b$t be&a$se (e %as t(o$)(t %ise and s$,erior to t(e rest. B$t as #ore arts %ere in+ented. and so#e %ere dire&ted to t(e ne&essities o' li'e. ot(ers to re&reation. t(e in+entors o' t(e latter %ere nat$rally al%ays re)arded as %iser t(an t(e in+entors o' t(e 'or#er. be&a$se t(eir bran&(es o' no%led)e did not ai# at $tility. Hen&e %(en all s$&( in+entions %ere already establis(ed. t(e s&ien&es %(i&( do not ai# at )i+in) ,leas$re or at t(e ne&essities o' li'e %ere dis&o+ered. and 'irst in t(e ,la&es %(ere #en 'irst be)an to (a+e leis$re. T(is is %(y t(e #at(e#ati&al arts %ere 'o$nded in E)y,t* 'or t(ere t(e ,riestly &aste %as allo%ed to be at leis$re. We (a+e said in t(e Et(i&s %(at t(e di''eren&e is bet%een art and s&ien&e and t(e ot(er indred 'a&$lties* b$t t(e ,oint o' o$r ,resent dis&$ssion is t(is. t(at all #en s$,,ose %(at is &alled Wisdo# to deal %it( t(e 'irst &a$ses and t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(in)s* so t(at. as (as been said be'ore. t(e #an o' e1,erien&e is t(o$)(t to be %iser t(an t(e ,ossessors o' any sense5,er&e,tion %(ate+er. t(e artist %iser t(an t(e #en o' e1,erien&e. t(e #aster%or er t(an t(e #e&(ani&. and t(e t(eoreti&al inds o' no%led)e to be #ore o' t(e nat$re o' Wisdo# t(an t(e ,rod$&ti+e. Clearly t(en Wisdo# is no%led)e abo$t &ertain ,rin&i,les and &a$ses. 7 Sin&e %e are see in) t(is no%led)e. %e #$st in8$ire o' %(at ind are t(e &a$ses and t(e ,rin&i,les. t(e no%led)e o' %(i&( is Wisdo#. I' one %ere to ta e t(e notions %e (a+e abo$t t(e %ise #an. t(is #i)(t ,er(a,s #a e t(e ans%er #ore e+ident. We s$,,ose 'irst. t(en. t(at t(e %ise #an no%s all t(in)s. as 'ar as ,ossible. alt(o$)( (e (as not no%led)e o' ea&( o' t(e# in detail* se&ondly. t(at (e %(o &an learn t(in)s t(at are di''i&$lt. and not easy 'or #an to no%. is %ise /sense5,er&e,tion is &o##on to all. and t(ere'ore easy and no #ar o' Wisdo#0* a)ain. t(at (e %(o is #ore e1a&t and #ore &a,able o' tea&(in) t(e &a$ses is %iser. in e+ery bran&( o' no%led)e* and t(at o' t(e s&ien&es. also. t(at %(i&( is desirable on its o%n a&&o$nt and 'or t(e sa e o' no%in) it is #ore o' t(e nat$re o' Wisdo# t(an t(at %(i&( is desirable on a&&o$nt o' its res$lts. and t(e s$,erior s&ien&e is #ore o' t(e nat$re o' Wisdo# t(an t(e an&illary* 'or t(e %ise #an #$st not be ordered b$t #$st order. and (e #$st not obey anot(er. b$t t(e less %ise #$st obey (i#. S$&( and so #any are t(e notions. t(en. %(i&( %e (a+e abo$t Wisdo# and t(e %ise. 2o% o' t(ese &(ara&teristi&s t(at o' no%in) all t(in)s #$st belon) to (i# %(o (as in t(e (i)(est de)ree $ni+ersal no%led)e* 'or (e no%s in a sense all t(e instan&es t(at 'all $nder t(e $ni+ersal. And t(ese t(in)s. t(e #ost $ni+ersal. are on t(e %(ole t(e (ardest 'or #en to no%* 'or t(ey are 'art(est 'ro# t(e senses. And t(e #ost e1a&t o' t(e s&ien&es are t(ose %(i&( deal #ost %it( 'irst ,rin&i,les* 'or t(ose %(i&( in+ol+e 'e%er ,rin&i,les are #ore e1a&t t(an t(ose %(i&( in+ol+e additional ,rin&i,les. e.). arit(#eti& t(an )eo#etry. B$t t(e s&ien&e %(i&( in+esti)ates &a$ses is also instr$&ti+e. in a (i)(er de)ree. 'or t(e ,eo,le %(o instr$&t $s are t(ose %(o tell t(e &a$ses o' ea&( t(in). And $nderstandin) and no%led)e ,$rs$ed 'or t(eir o%n sa e are 'o$nd #ost in t(e no%led)e o' t(at %(i&( is #ost no%able /'or (e %(o &(ooses to no% 'or t(e

sa e o' no%in) %ill &(oose #ost readily t(at %(i&( is #ost tr$ly no%led)e. and s$&( is t(e no%led)e o' t(at %(i&( is #ost no%able0* and t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les and t(e &a$ses are #ost no%able* 'or by reason o' t(ese. and 'ro# t(ese. all ot(er t(in)s &o#e to be no%n. and not t(ese by #eans o' t(e t(in)s s$bordinate to t(e#. And t(e s&ien&e %(i&( no%s to %(at end ea&( t(in) #$st be done is t(e #ost a$t(oritati+e o' t(e s&ien&es. and #ore a$t(oritati+e t(an any an&illary s&ien&e* and t(is end is t(e )ood o' t(at t(in). and in )eneral t(e s$,re#e )ood in t(e %(ole o' nat$re. 9$d)ed by all t(e tests %e (a+e #entioned. t(en. t(e na#e in 8$estion 'alls to t(e sa#e s&ien&e* t(is #$st be a s&ien&e t(at in+esti)ates t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les and &a$ses* 'or t(e )ood. i.e. t(e end. is one o' t(e &a$ses. T(at it is not a s&ien&e o' ,rod$&tion is &lear e+en 'ro# t(e (istory o' t(e earliest ,(iloso,(ers. -or it is o%in) to t(eir %onder t(at #en bot( no% be)in and at 'irst be)an to ,(iloso,(i6e* t(ey %ondered ori)inally at t(e ob+io$s di''i&$lties. t(en ad+an&ed little by little and stated di''i&$lties abo$t t(e )reater #atters. e.). abo$t t(e ,(eno#ena o' t(e #oon and t(ose o' t(e s$n and o' t(e stars. and abo$t t(e )enesis o' t(e $ni+erse. And a #an %(o is ,$66led and %onders t(in s (i#sel' i)norant /%(en&e e+en t(e lo+er o' #yt( is in a sense a lo+er o' Wisdo#. 'or t(e #yt( is &o#,osed o' %onders0* t(ere'ore sin&e t(ey ,(iloso,(i6ed order to es&a,e 'ro# i)noran&e. e+idently t(ey %ere ,$rs$in) s&ien&e in order to no%. and not 'or any $tilitarian end. And t(is is &on'ir#ed by t(e 'a&ts* 'or it %as %(en al#ost all t(e ne&essities o' li'e and t(e t(in)s t(at #a e 'or &o#'ort and re&reation (ad been se&$red. t(at s$&( no%led)e be)an to be so$)(t. E+idently t(en %e do not see it 'or t(e sa e o' any ot(er ad+anta)e* b$t as t(e #an is 'ree. %e say. %(o e1ists 'or (is o%n sa e and not 'or anot(er3s. so %e ,$rs$e t(is as t(e only 'ree s&ien&e. 'or it alone e1ists 'or its o%n sa e. Hen&e also t(e ,ossession o' it #i)(t be 4$stly re)arded as beyond ($#an ,o%er* 'or in #any %ays ($#an nat$re is in bonda)e. so t(at a&&ordin) to Si#onides 3:od alone &an (a+e t(is ,ri+ile)e3. and it is $n'ittin) t(at #an s(o$ld not be &ontent to see t(e no%led)e t(at is s$ited to (i#. I'. t(en. t(ere is so#et(in) in %(at t(e ,oets say. and 4ealo$sy is nat$ral to t(e di+ine ,o%er. it %o$ld ,robably o&&$r in t(is &ase abo+e all. and all %(o e1&elled in t(is no%led)e %o$ld be $n'ort$nate. B$t t(e di+ine ,o%er &annot be 4ealo$s /nay. a&&ordin) to t(e ,ro+erb. 3bards tell a lie30. nor s(o$ld any ot(er s&ien&e be t(o$)(t #ore (ono$rable t(an one o' t(is sort. -or t(e #ost di+ine s&ien&e is also #ost (ono$rable* and t(is s&ien&e alone #$st be. in t%o %ays. #ost di+ine. -or t(e s&ien&e %(i&( it %o$ld be #ost #eet 'or :od to (a+e is a di+ine s&ien&e. and so is any s&ien&e t(at deals %it( di+ine ob4e&ts* and t(is s&ien&e alone (as bot( t(ese 8$alities* 'or /!0 :od is t(o$)(t to be a#on) t(e &a$ses o' all t(in)s and to be a 'irst ,rin&i,le. and /70 s$&( a s&ien&e eit(er :od alone &an (a+e. or :od abo+e all ot(ers. All t(e s&ien&es. indeed. are #ore ne&essary t(an t(is. b$t none is better. Yet t(e a&8$isition o' it #$st in a sense end in so#et(in) %(i&( is t(e o,,osite o' o$r ori)inal in8$iries. -or all #en be)in. as %e said. by %onderin) t(at t(in)s are as t(ey are. as t(ey do abo$t sel'5#o+in) #arionettes. or abo$t t(e solsti&es or t(e in&o##ens$rability o' t(e dia)onal o' a s8$are %it( t(e side* 'or it see#s %onder'$l to all %(o (a+e not yet seen t(e reason. t(at t(ere is a t(in) %(i&( &annot be #eas$red e+en by t(e s#allest $nit. B$t %e #$st end in t(e &ontrary and. a&&ordin) to t(e ,ro+erb. t(e better state. as is t(e &ase in t(ese instan&es too %(en #en learn t(e &a$se* 'or t(ere is not(in) %(i&( %o$ld s$r,rise a )eo#eter so #$&( as i' t(e dia)onal t$rned o$t to be &o##ens$rable. We (a+e stated. t(en. %(at is t(e nat$re o' t(e s&ien&e %e are sear&(in) 'or. and %(at is t(e #ar %(i&( o$r sear&( and o$r %(ole in+esti)ation #$st rea&(. 3

E+idently %e (a+e to a&8$ire no%led)e o' t(e ori)inal &a$ses /'or %e say %e no% ea&( t(in) only %(en %e t(in %e re&o)ni6e its 'irst &a$se0. and &a$ses are s,o en o' in 'o$r senses. In one o' t(ese %e #ean t(e s$bstan&e. i.e. t(e essen&e /'or t(e 3%(y3 is red$&ible 'inally to t(e de'inition. and t(e $lti#ate 3%(y3 is a &a$se and ,rin&i,le0* in anot(er t(e #atter or s$bstrat$#. in a t(ird t(e so$r&e o' t(e &(an)e. and in a 'o$rt( t(e &a$se o,,osed to t(is. t(e ,$r,ose and t(e )ood /'or t(is is t(e end o' all )eneration and &(an)e0. We (a+e st$died t(ese &a$ses s$''i&iently in o$r %or on nat$re. b$t yet let $s &all to o$r aid t(ose %(o (a+e atta& ed t(e in+esti)ation o' bein) and ,(iloso,(i6ed abo$t reality be'ore $s. -or ob+io$sly t(ey too s,ea o' &ertain ,rin&i,les and &a$ses* to )o o+er t(eir +ie%s. t(en. %ill be o' ,ro'it to t(e ,resent in8$iry. 'or %e s(all eit(er 'ind anot(er ind o' &a$se. or be #ore &on+in&ed o' t(e &orre&tness o' t(ose %(i&( %e no% #aintain. ;' t(e 'irst ,(iloso,(ers. t(en. #ost t(o$)(t t(e ,rin&i,les %(i&( %ere o' t(e nat$re o' #atter %ere t(e only ,rin&i,les o' all t(in)s. T(at o' %(i&( all t(in)s t(at are &onsist. t(e 'irst 'ro# %(i&( t(ey &o#e to be. t(e last into %(i&( t(ey are resol+ed /t(e s$bstan&e re#ainin). b$t &(an)in) in its #odi'i&ations0. t(is t(ey say is t(e ele#ent and t(is t(e ,rin&i,le o' t(in)s. and t(ere'ore t(ey t(in not(in) is eit(er )enerated or destroyed. sin&e t(is sort o' entity is al%ays &onser+ed. as %e say So&rates neit(er &o#es to be absol$tely %(en (e &o#es to be bea$ti'$l or #$si&al. nor &eases to be %(en loses t(ese &(ara&teristi&s. be&a$se t(e s$bstrat$#. So&rates (i#sel' re#ains. 4$st so t(ey say not(in) else &o#es to be or &eases to be* 'or t(ere #$st be so#e entity5eit(er one or #ore t(an one5'ro# %(i&( all ot(er t(in)s &o#e to be. it bein) &onser+ed. Yet t(ey do not all a)ree as to t(e n$#ber and t(e nat$re o' t(ese ,rin&i,les. T(ales. t(e 'o$nder o' t(is ty,e o' ,(iloso,(y. says t(e ,rin&i,le is %ater /'or %(i&( reason (e de&lared t(at t(e eart( rests on %ater0. )ettin) t(e notion ,er(a,s 'ro# seein) t(at t(e n$tri#ent o' all t(in)s is #oist. and t(at (eat itsel' is )enerated 'ro# t(e #oist and e,t ali+e by it /and t(at 'ro# %(i&( t(ey &o#e to be is a ,rin&i,le o' all t(in)s0. He )ot (is notion 'ro# t(is 'a&t. and 'ro# t(e 'a&t t(at t(e seeds o' all t(in)s (a+e a #oist nat$re. and t(at %ater is t(e ori)in o' t(e nat$re o' #oist t(in)s. So#e t(in t(at e+en t(e an&ients %(o li+ed lon) be'ore t(e ,resent )eneration. and 'irst 'ra#ed a&&o$nts o' t(e )ods. (ad a si#ilar +ie% o' nat$re* 'or t(ey #ade ;&ean and Tet(ys t(e ,arents o' &reation. and des&ribed t(e oat( o' t(e )ods as bein) by %ater. to %(i&( t(ey )i+e t(e na#e o' Sty1* 'or %(at is oldest is #ost (ono$rable. and t(e #ost (ono$rable t(in) is t(at by %(i&( one s%ears. It #ay ,er(a,s be $n&ertain %(et(er t(is o,inion abo$t nat$re is ,ri#iti+e and an&ient. b$t T(ales at any rate is said to (a+e de&lared (i#sel' t($s abo$t t(e 'irst &a$se. Hi,,o no one %o$ld t(in 'it to in&l$de a#on) t(ese t(in ers. be&a$se o' t(e ,altriness o' (is t(o$)(t. Ana1i#enes and Dio)enes #a e air ,rior to %ater. and t(e #ost ,ri#ary o' t(e si#,le bodies. %(ile Hi,,as$s o' Meta,onti$# and Hera&lit$s o' E,(es$s say t(is o' 'ire. and E#,edo&les says it o' t(e 'o$r ele#ents /addin) a 'o$rt(5eart(5to t(ose %(i&( (a+e been na#ed0* 'or t(ese. (e says. al%ays re#ain and do not &o#e to be. e1&e,t t(at t(ey &o#e to be #ore or 'e%er. bein) a))re)ated into one and se)re)ated o$t o' one. Ana1a)oras o' Cla6o#enae. %(o. t(o$)( older t(an E#,edo&les. %as later in (is ,(iloso,(i&al a&ti+ity. says t(e ,rin&i,les are in'inite in n$#ber* 'or (e says al#ost all t(e t(in)s t(at are #ade o' ,arts li e t(e#sel+es. in t(e #anner o' %ater or 'ire. are )enerated and destroyed in t(is %ay. only by a))re)ation and se)re)ation. and are not in any ot(er sense )enerated or destroyed. b$t re#ain eternally. -ro# t(ese 'a&ts one #i)(t t(in t(at t(e only &a$se is t(e

so5&alled #aterial &a$se* b$t as #en t($s ad+an&ed. t(e +ery 'a&ts o,ened t(e %ay 'or t(e# and 4oined in 'or&in) t(e# to in+esti)ate t(e s$b4e&t. Ho%e+er tr$e it #ay be t(at all )eneration and destr$&tion ,ro&eed 'ro# so#e one or /'or t(at #atter0 'ro# #ore ele#ents. %(y does t(is (a,,en and %(at is t(e &a$se< -or at least t(e s$bstrat$# itsel' does not #a e itsel' &(an)e* e.). neit(er t(e %ood nor t(e bron6e &a$ses t(e &(an)e o' eit(er o' t(e#. nor does t(e %ood #an$'a&t$re a bed and t(e bron6e a stat$e. b$t so#et(in) else is t(e &a$se o' t(e &(an)e. And to see t(is is to see t(e se&ond &a$se. as %e s(o$ld say.5t(at 'ro# %(i&( &o#es t(e be)innin) o' t(e #o+e#ent. 2o% t(ose %(o at t(e +ery be)innin) set t(e#sel+es to t(is ind o' in8$iry. and said t(e s$bstrat$# %as one. %ere not at all dissatis'ied %it( t(e#sel+es* b$t so#e at least o' t(ose %(o #aintain it to be one5as t(o$)( de'eated by t(is sear&( 'or t(e se&ond &a$se5say t(e one and nat$re as a %(ole is $n&(an)eable not only in res,e&t o' )eneration and destr$&tion /'or t(is is a ,ri#iti+e belie'. and all a)reed in it0. b$t also o' all ot(er &(an)e* and t(is +ie% is ,e&$liar to t(e#. ;' t(ose %(o said t(e $ni+erse %as one. t(en none s$&&eeded in dis&o+erin) a &a$se o' t(is sort. e1&e,t ,er(a,s Par#enides. and (e only inas#$&( as (e s$,,oses t(at t(ere is not only one b$t also in so#e sense t%o &a$ses. B$t 'or t(ose %(o #a e #ore ele#ents it is #ore ,ossible to state t(e se&ond &a$se. e.). 'or t(ose %(o #a e (ot and &old. or 'ire and eart(. t(e ele#ents* 'or t(ey treat 'ire as (a+in) a nat$re %(i&( 'its it to #o+e t(in)s. and %ater and eart( and s$&( t(in)s t(ey treat in t(e &ontrary %ay. W(en t(ese #en and t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(is ind (ad (ad t(eir day. as t(e latter %ere 'o$nd inade8$ate to )enerate t(e nat$re o' t(in)s #en %ere a)ain 'or&ed by t(e tr$t( itsel'. as %e said. to in8$ire into t(e ne1t ind o' &a$se. -or it is not li ely eit(er t(at 'ire or eart( or any s$&( ele#ent s(o$ld be t(e reason %(y t(in)s #ani'est )oodness and. bea$ty bot( in t(eir bein) and in t(eir &o#in) to be. or t(at t(ose t(in ers s(o$ld (a+e s$,,osed it %as* nor a)ain &o$ld it be ri)(t to entr$st so )reat a #atter to s,ontaneity and &(an&e. W(en one #an said. t(en. t(at reason %as ,resent5as in ani#als. so t(ro$)(o$t nat$re5as t(e &a$se o' order and o' all arran)e#ent. (e see#ed li e a sober #an in &ontrast %it( t(e rando# tal o' (is ,rede&essors. We no% t(at Ana1a)oras &ertainly ado,ted t(ese +ie%s. b$t Her#oti#$s o' Cla6o#enae is &redited %it( e1,ressin) t(e# earlier. T(ose %(o t(o$)(t t($s stated t(at t(ere is a ,rin&i,le o' t(in)s %(i&( is at t(e sa#e ti#e t(e &a$se o' bea$ty. and t(at sort o' &a$se 'ro# %(i&( t(in)s a&8$ire #o+e#ent. = ;ne #i)(t s$s,e&t t(at Hesiod %as t(e 'irst to loo 'or s$&( a t(in)5or so#e one else %(o ,$t lo+e or desire a#on) e1istin) t(in)s as a ,rin&i,le. as Par#enides. too. does* 'or (e. in &onstr$&tin) t(e )enesis o' t(e $ni+erse. says>5 "o+e 'irst o' all t(e :ods s(e ,lanned. And Hesiod says>5 -irst o' all t(in)s %as &(aos #ade. and t(en Broad5breasted eart(... And lo+e. 3#id all t(e )ods ,re5e#inent. %(i&( i#,lies t(at a#on) e1istin) t(in)s t(ere #$st be 'ro# t(e 'irst a &a$se %(i&( %ill #o+e t(in)s and brin) t(e# to)et(er. Ho% t(ese t(in ers s(o$ld be arran)ed %it( re)ard to ,riority o' dis&o+ery let $s be allo%ed to de&ide later* b$t sin&e t(e &ontraries o' t(e +ario$s 'or#s o' )ood %ere also ,er&ei+ed to be ,resent in nat$re5not only order and t(e bea$ti'$l. b$t also disorder and t(e $)ly. and bad t(in)s in )reater n$#ber t(an )ood. and i)noble t(in)s t(an bea$ti'$l5t(ere'ore anot(er t(in er introd$&ed 'riends(i, and

stri'e. ea&( o' t(e t%o t(e &a$se o' one o' t(ese t%o sets o' 8$alities. -or i' %e %ere to 'ollo% o$t t(e +ie% o' E#,edo&les. and inter,ret it a&&ordin) to its #eanin) and not to its lis,in) e1,ression. %e s(o$ld 'ind t(at 'riends(i, is t(e &a$se o' )ood t(in)s. and stri'e o' bad. T(ere'ore. i' %e said t(at E#,edo&les in a sense bot( #entions. and is t(e 'irst to #ention. t(e bad and t(e )ood as ,rin&i,les. %e s(o$ld ,er(a,s be ri)(t. sin&e t(e &a$se o' all )oods is t(e )ood itsel'. T(ese t(in ers. as %e say. e+idently )ras,ed. and to t(is e1tent. t%o o' t(e &a$ses %(i&( %e distin)$is(ed in o$r %or on nat$re5t(e #atter and t(e so$r&e o' t(e #o+e#ent5+a)$ely. (o%e+er. and %it( no &learness. b$t as $ntrained #en be(a+e in 'i)(ts* 'or t(ey )o ro$nd t(eir o,,onents and o'ten stri e 'ine blo%s. b$t t(ey do not 'i)(t on s&ienti'i& ,rin&i,les. and so too t(ese t(in ers do not see# to no% %(at t(ey say* 'or it is e+ident t(at. as a r$le. t(ey #a e no $se o' t(eir &a$ses e1&e,t to a s#all e1tent. -or Ana1a)oras $ses reason as a de$s e1 #a&(ina 'or t(e #a in) o' t(e %orld. and %(en (e is at a loss to tell 'ro# %(at &a$se so#et(in) ne&essarily is. t(en (e dra)s reason in. b$t in all ot(er &ases as&ribes e+ents to anyt(in) rat(er t(an to reason. And E#,edo&les. t(o$)( (e $ses t(e &a$ses to a )reater e1tent t(an t(is. neit(er does so s$''i&iently nor attains &onsisten&y in t(eir $se. At least. in #any &ases (e #a es lo+e se)re)ate t(in)s. and stri'e a))re)ate t(e#. -or %(ene+er t(e $ni+erse is dissol+ed into its ele#ents by stri'e. 'ire is a))re)ated into one. and so is ea&( o' t(e ot(er ele#ents* b$t %(ene+er a)ain $nder t(e in'l$en&e o' lo+e t(ey &o#e to)et(er into one. t(e ,arts #$st a)ain be se)re)ated o$t o' ea&( ele#ent. E#,edo&les. t(en. in &ontrast %it( (is ,re&essors. %as t(e 'irst to introd$&e t(e di+idin) o' t(is &a$se. not ,ositin) one so$r&e o' #o+e#ent. b$t di''erent and &ontrary so$r&es. A)ain. (e %as t(e 'irst to s,ea o' 'o$r #aterial ele#ents* yet (e does not $se 'o$r. b$t treats t(e# as t%o only* (e treats 'ire by itsel'. and its o,,osite5eart(. air. and %ater5as one ind o' t(in). We #ay learn t(is by st$dy o' (is +erses. T(is ,(iloso,(er t(en. as %e say. (as s,o en o' t(e ,rin&i,les in t(is %ay. and #ade t(e# o' t(is n$#ber. "e$&i,,$s and (is asso&iate De#o&rit$s say t(at t(e '$ll and t(e e#,ty are t(e ele#ents. &allin) t(e one bein) and t(e ot(er non5bein)5t(e '$ll and solid bein) bein). t(e e#,ty non5bein) /%(en&e t(ey say bein) no #ore is t(an non5bein). be&a$se t(e solid no #ore is t(an t(e e#,ty0* and t(ey #a e t(ese t(e #aterial &a$ses o' t(in)s. And as t(ose %(o #a e t(e $nderlyin) s$bstan&e one )enerate all ot(er t(in)s by its #odi'i&ations. s$,,osin) t(e rare and t(e dense to be t(e so$r&es o' t(e #odi'i&ations. in t(e sa#e %ay t(ese ,(iloso,(ers say t(e di''eren&es in t(e ele#ents are t(e &a$ses o' all ot(er 8$alities. T(ese di''eren&es. t(ey say. are t(ree5s(a,e and order and ,osition. -or t(ey say t(e real is di''erentiated only by 3r(yt(# and 3inter5&onta&t3 and 3t$rnin)3* and o' t(ese r(yt(# is s(a,e. inter5&onta&t is order. and t$rnin) is ,osition* 'or A di''ers 'ro# 2 in s(a,e. A2 'ro# 2A in order. M 'ro# W in ,osition. T(e 8$estion o' #o+e#ent5%(en&e or (o% it is to belon) to t(in)s5t(ese t(in ers. li e t(e ot(ers. la6ily ne)le&ted. Re)ardin) t(e t%o &a$ses. t(en. as %e say. t(e in8$iry see#s to (a+e been ,$s(ed t($s 'ar by t(e early ,(iloso,(ers. 5 Conte#,oraneo$sly %it( t(ese ,(iloso,(ers and be'ore t(e#. t(e so5&alled Pyt(a)oreans. %(o %ere t(e 'irst to ta e $, #at(e#ati&s. not only ad+an&ed t(is st$dy. b$t also (a+in) been bro$)(t $, in it t(ey t(o$)(t its ,rin&i,les %ere t(e ,rin&i,les o' all t(in)s. Sin&e o' t(ese ,rin&i,les n$#bers are by nat$re t(e 'irst. and in n$#bers t(ey see#ed to see #any rese#blan&es to t(e t(in)s t(at e1ist and &o#e into bein)5#ore t(an in 'ire and eart( and %ater /s$&( and s$&( a #odi'i&ation o' n$#bers bein) 4$sti&e. anot(er bein) so$l and

reason. anot(er bein) o,,ort$nity5and si#ilarly al#ost all ot(er t(in)s bein) n$#eri&ally e1,ressible0* sin&e. a)ain. t(ey sa% t(at t(e #odi'i&ations and t(e ratios o' t(e #$si&al s&ales %ere e1,ressible in n$#bers*5sin&e. t(en. all ot(er t(in)s see#ed in t(eir %(ole nat$re to be #odelled on n$#bers. and n$#bers see#ed to be t(e 'irst t(in)s in t(e %(ole o' nat$re. t(ey s$,,osed t(e ele#ents o' n$#bers to be t(e ele#ents o' all t(in)s. and t(e %(ole (ea+en to be a #$si&al s&ale and a n$#ber. And all t(e ,ro,erties o' n$#bers and s&ales %(i&( t(ey &o$ld s(o% to a)ree %it( t(e attrib$tes and ,arts and t(e %(ole arran)e#ent o' t(e (ea+ens. t(ey &olle&ted and 'itted into t(eir s&(e#e* and i' t(ere %as a )a, any%(ere. t(ey readily #ade additions so as to #a e t(eir %(ole t(eory &o(erent. E.). as t(e n$#ber !0 is t(o$)(t to be ,er'e&t and to &o#,rise t(e %(ole nat$re o' n$#bers. t(ey say t(at t(e bodies %(i&( #o+e t(ro$)( t(e (ea+ens are ten. b$t as t(e +isible bodies are only nine. to #eet t(is t(ey in+ent a tent(55t(e 3&o$nter5eart(3. We (a+e dis&$ssed t(ese #atters #ore e1a&tly else%(ere. B$t t(e ob4e&t o' o$r re+ie% is t(at %e #ay learn 'ro# t(ese ,(iloso,(ers also %(at t(ey s$,,ose to be t(e ,rin&i,les and (o% t(ese 'all $nder t(e &a$ses %e (a+e na#ed. E+idently. t(en. t(ese t(in ers also &onsider t(at n$#ber is t(e ,rin&i,le bot( as #atter 'or t(in)s and as 'or#in) bot( t(eir #odi'i&ations and t(eir ,er#anent states. and (old t(at t(e ele#ents o' n$#ber are t(e e+en and t(e odd. and t(at o' t(ese t(e latter is li#ited. and t(e 'or#er $nli#ited* and t(at t(e ;ne ,ro&eeds 'ro# bot( o' t(ese /'or it is bot( e+en and odd0. and n$#ber 'ro# t(e ;ne* and t(at t(e %(ole (ea+en. as (as been said. is n$#bers. ;t(er #e#bers o' t(is sa#e s&(ool say t(ere are ten ,rin&i,les. %(i&( t(ey arran)e in t%o &ol$#ns o' &o)nates5li#it and $nli#ited. odd and e+en. one and ,l$rality. ri)(t and le't. #ale and 'e#ale. restin) and #o+in). strai)(t and &$r+ed. li)(t and dar ness. )ood and bad. s8$are and oblon). In t(is %ay Al&#aeon o' Croton see#s also to (a+e &on&ei+ed t(e #atter. and eit(er (e )ot t(is +ie% 'ro# t(e# or t(ey )ot it 'ro# (i#* 'or (e e1,ressed (i#sel' si#ilarly to t(e#. -or (e says #ost ($#an a''airs )o in ,airs. #eanin) not de'inite &ontrarieties s$&( as t(e Pyt(a)oreans s,ea o'. b$t any &(an&e &ontrarieties. e.). %(ite and bla& . s%eet and bitter. )ood and bad. )reat and s#all. He t(re% o$t inde'inite s$))estions abo$t t(e ot(er &ontrarieties. b$t t(e Pyt(a)oreans de&lared bot( (o% #any and %(i&( t(eir &ontrari&ties are. -ro# bot( t(ese s&(ools. t(en. %e &an learn t(is #$&(. t(at t(e &ontraries are t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(in)s* and (o% #any t(ese ,rin&i,les are and %(i&( t(ey are. %e &an learn 'ro# one o' t(e t%o s&(ools. B$t (o% t(ese ,rin&i,les &an be bro$)(t to)et(er $nder t(e &a$ses %e (a+e na#ed (as not been &learly and arti&$lately stated by t(e#* t(ey see#. (o%e+er. to ran)e t(e ele#ents $nder t(e (ead o' #atter* 'or o$t o' t(ese as i##anent ,arts t(ey say s$bstan&e is &o#,osed and #o$lded. -ro# t(ese 'a&ts %e #ay s$''i&iently ,er&ei+e t(e #eanin) o' t(e an&ients %(o said t(e ele#ents o' nat$re %ere #ore t(an one* b$t t(ere are so#e %(o s,o e o' t(e $ni+erse as i' it %ere one entity. t(o$)( t(ey %ere not all ali e eit(er in t(e e1&ellen&e o' t(eir state#ent or in its &on'or#ity to t(e 'a&ts o' nat$re. T(e dis&$ssion o' t(e# is in no %ay a,,ro,riate to o$r ,resent in+esti)ation o' &a$ses. 'or. t(ey do not. li e so#e o' t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers. ass$#e bein) to be one and yet )enerate it o$t o' t(e one as o$t o' #atter. b$t t(ey s,ea in anot(er %ay* t(ose ot(ers add &(an)e. sin&e t(ey )enerate t(e $ni+erse. b$t t(ese t(in ers say t(e $ni+erse is $n&(an)eable. Yet t(is #$&( is )er#ane to t(e ,resent in8$iry> Par#enides see#s to 'asten on t(at %(i&( is one in de'inition. Meliss$s on t(at %(i&( is one in #atter. 'or %(i&( reason t(e 'or#er says t(at it is li#ited. t(e latter t(at it is $nli#ited* %(ile ?eno,(anes. t(e 'irst o' t(ese ,artisans o' t(e ;ne /'or Par#enides is said to (a+e been (is ,$,il0. )a+e no &lear state#ent. nor does (e see# to (a+e )ras,ed

t(e nat$re o' eit(er o' t(ese &a$ses. b$t %it( re'eren&e to t(e %(ole #aterial $ni+erse (e says t(e ;ne is :od. 2o% t(ese t(in ers. as %e said. #$st be ne)le&ted 'or t(e ,$r,oses o' t(e ,resent in8$iry5t%o o' t(e# entirely. as bein) a little too nai+e. +i6. ?eno,(anes and Meliss$s* b$t Par#enides see#s in ,la&es to s,ea %it( #ore insi)(t. -or. &lai#in) t(at. besides t(e e1istent. not(in) non5e1istent e1ists. (e t(in s t(at o' ne&essity one t(in) e1ists. +i6. t(e e1istent and not(in) else /on t(is %e (a+e s,o en #ore &learly in o$r %or on nat$re0. b$t bein) 'or&ed to 'ollo% t(e obser+ed 'a&ts. and s$,,osin) t(e e1isten&e o' t(at %(i&( is one in de'inition. b$t #ore t(an one a&&ordin) to o$r sensations. (e no% ,osits t%o &a$ses and t%o ,rin&i,les. &allin) t(e# (ot and &old. i.e. 'ire and eart(* and o' t(ese (e ran)es t(e (ot %it( t(e e1istent. and t(e ot(er %it( t(e non5e1istent. -ro# %(at (as been said. t(en. and 'ro# t(e %ise #en %(o (a+e no% sat in &o$n&il %it( $s. %e (a+e )ot t($s #$&(5on t(e one (and 'ro# t(e earliest ,(iloso,(ers. %(o re)ard t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le as &or,oreal /'or %ater and 'ire and s$&( t(in)s are bodies0. and o' %(o# so#e s$,,ose t(at t(ere is one &or,oreal ,rin&i,le. ot(ers t(at t(ere are #ore t(an one. b$t bot( ,$t t(ese $nder t(e (ead o' #atter* and on t(e ot(er (and 'ro# so#e %(o ,osit bot( t(is &a$se and besides t(is t(e so$r&e o' #o+e#ent. %(i&( %e (a+e )ot 'ro# so#e as sin)le and 'ro# ot(ers as t%o'old. Do%n to t(e Italian s&(ool. t(en. and a,art 'ro# it. ,(iloso,(ers (a+e treated t(ese s$b4e&ts rat(er obs&$rely. e1&e,t t(at. as %e said. t(ey (a+e in 'a&t $sed t%o inds o' &a$se. and one o' t(ese5t(e so$r&e o' #o+e#ent5so#e treat as one and ot(ers as t%o. B$t t(e Pyt(a)oreans (a+e said in t(e sa#e %ay t(at t(ere are t%o ,rin&i,les. b$t added t(is #$&(. %(i&( is ,e&$liar to t(e#. t(at t(ey t(o$)(t t(at 'init$de and in'inity %ere not attrib$tes o' &ertain ot(er t(in)s. e.). o' 'ire or eart( or anyt(in) else o' t(is ind. b$t t(at in'inity itsel' and $nity itsel' %ere t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ey are ,redi&ated. T(is is %(y n$#ber %as t(e s$bstan&e o' all t(in)s. ;n t(is s$b4e&t. t(en. t(ey e1,ressed t(e#sel+es t($s* and re)ardin) t(e 8$estion o' essen&e t(ey be)an to #a e state#ents and de'initions. b$t treated t(e #atter too si#,ly. -or t(ey bot( de'ined s$,er'i&ially and t(o$)(t t(at t(e 'irst s$b4e&t o' %(i&( a )i+en de'inition %as ,redi&able %as t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e t(in) de'ined. as i' one s$,,osed t(at 3do$ble3 and 373 %ere t(e sa#e. be&a$se 7 is t(e 'irst t(in) o' %(i&( 3do$ble3 is ,redi&able. B$t s$rely to be do$ble and to be 7 are not t(e sa#e* i' t(ey are. one t(in) %ill be #any5a &onse8$en&e %(i&( t(ey a&t$ally dre%. -ro# t(e earlier ,(iloso,(ers. t(en. and 'ro# t(eir s$&&essors %e &an learn t($s #$&(. @ A'ter t(e syste#s %e (a+e na#ed &a#e t(e ,(iloso,(y o' Plato. %(i&( in #ost res,e&ts 'ollo%ed t(ese t(in ers. b$t (ad ,e&$llarities t(at distin)$is(ed it 'ro# t(e ,(iloso,(y o' t(e Italians. -or. (a+in) in (is yo$t( 'irst be&o#e 'a#iliar %it( Cratyl$s and %it( t(e Hera&litean do&trines /t(at all sensible t(in)s are e+er in a state o' 'l$1 and t(ere is no no%led)e abo$t t(e#0. t(ese +ie%s (e (eld e+en in later years. So&rates. (o%e+er. %as b$syin) (i#sel' abo$t et(i&al #atters and ne)le&tin) t(e %orld o' nat$re as a %(ole b$t see in) t(e $ni+ersal in t(ese et(i&al #atters. and 'i1ed t(o$)(t 'or t(e 'irst ti#e on de'initions* Plato a&&e,ted (is tea&(in). b$t (eld t(at t(e ,roble# a,,lied not to sensible t(in)s b$t to entities o' anot(er ind5'or t(is reason. t(at t(e &o##on de'inition &o$ld not be a de'inition o' any sensible t(in). as t(ey %ere al%ays &(an)in). T(in)s o' t(is ot(er sort. t(en. (e &alled Ideas. and sensible t(in)s. (e said. %ere all na#ed a'ter t(ese. and in +irt$e o' a relation to t(ese* 'or t(e #any e1isted by ,arti&i,ation in t(e Ideas t(at (a+e t(e sa#e na#e as t(ey. ;nly t(e na#e 3,arti&i,ation3 %as ne%* 'or t(e Pyt(a)oreans say t(at t(in)s

e1ist by 3i#itation3 o' n$#bers. and Plato says t(ey e1ist by ,arti&i,ation. &(an)in) t(e na#e. B$t %(at t(e ,arti&i,ation or t(e i#itation o' t(e -or#s &o$ld be t(ey le't an o,en 8$estion. -$rt(er. besides sensible t(in)s and -or#s (e says t(ere are t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. %(i&( o&&$,y an inter#ediate ,osition. di''erin) 'ro# sensible t(in)s in bein) eternal and $n&(an)eable. 'ro# -or#s in t(at t(ere are #any ali e. %(ile t(e -or# itsel' is in ea&( &ase $ni8$e. Sin&e t(e -or#s %ere t(e &a$ses o' all ot(er t(in)s. (e t(o$)(t t(eir ele#ents %ere t(e ele#ents o' all t(in)s. As #atter. t(e )reat and t(e s#all %ere ,rin&i,les* as essential reality. t(e ;ne* 'or 'ro# t(e )reat and t(e s#all. by ,arti&i,ation in t(e ;ne. &o#e t(e 2$#bers. B$t (e a)reed %it( t(e Pyt(a)oreans in sayin) t(at t(e ;ne is s$bstan&e and not a ,redi&ate o' so#et(in) else* and in sayin) t(at t(e 2$#bers are t(e &a$ses o' t(e reality o' ot(er t(in)s (e a)reed %it( t(e#* b$t ,ositin) a dyad and &onstr$&tin) t(e in'inite o$t o' )reat and s#all. instead o' treatin) t(e in'inite as one. is ,e&$liar to (i#* and so is (is +ie% t(at t(e 2$#bers e1ist a,art 'ro# sensible t(in)s. %(ile t(ey say t(at t(e t(in)s t(e#sel+es are 2$#bers. and do not ,la&e t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s bet%een -or#s and sensible t(in)s. His di+er)en&e 'ro# t(e Pyt(a)oreans in #a in) t(e ;ne and t(e 2$#bers se,arate 'ro# t(in)s. and (is introd$&tion o' t(e -or#s. %ere d$e to (is in8$iries in t(e re)ion o' de'initions /'or t(e earlier t(in ers (ad no tin&t$re o' diale&ti&0. and (is #a in) t(e ot(er entity besides t(e ;ne a dyad %as d$e to t(e belie' t(at t(e n$#bers. e1&e,t t(ose %(i&( %ere ,ri#e. &o$ld be neatly ,rod$&ed o$t o' t(e dyad as o$t o' so#e ,lasti& #aterial. Yet %(at (a,,ens is t(e &ontrary* t(e t(eory is not a reasonable one. -or t(ey #a e #any t(in)s o$t o' t(e #atter. and t(e 'or# )enerates only on&e. b$t %(at %e obser+e is t(at one table is #ade 'ro# one #atter. %(ile t(e #an %(o a,,lies t(e 'or#. t(o$)( (e is one. #a es #any tables. And t(e relation o' t(e #ale to t(e 'e#ale is si#ilar* 'or t(e latter is i#,re)nated by one &o,$lation. b$t t(e #ale i#,re)nates #any 'e#ales* yet t(ese are analo)$es o' t(ose 'irst ,rin&i,les. Plato. t(en. de&lared (i#sel' t($s on t(e ,oints in 8$estion* it is e+ident 'ro# %(at (as been said t(at (e (as $sed only t%o &a$ses. t(at o' t(e essen&e and t(e #aterial &a$se /'or t(e -or#s are t(e &a$ses o' t(e essen&e o' all ot(er t(in)s. and t(e ;ne is t(e &a$se o' t(e essen&e o' t(e -or#s0* and it is e+ident %(at t(e $nderlyin) #atter is. o' %(i&( t(e -or#s are ,redi&ated in t(e &ase o' sensible t(in)s. and t(e ;ne in t(e &ase o' -or#s. +i6. t(at t(is is a dyad. t(e )reat and t(e s#all. -$rt(er. (e (as assi)ned t(e &a$se o' )ood and t(at o' e+il to t(e ele#ents. one to ea&( o' t(e t%o. as %e say so#e o' (is ,rede&essors so$)(t to do. e.). E#,edo&les and Ana1a)oras. A ;$r re+ie% o' t(ose %(o (a+e s,o en abo$t 'irst ,rin&i,les and reality and o' t(e %ay in %(i&( t(ey (a+e s,o en. (as been &on&ise and s$##ary* b$t yet %e (a+e learnt t(is #$&( 'ro# t(e#. t(at o' t(ose %(o s,ea abo$t 3,rin&i,le3 and 3&a$se3 no one (as #entioned any ,rin&i,le e1&e,t t(ose %(i&( (a+e been distin)$is(ed in o$r %or on nat$re. b$t all e+idently (a+e so#e in lin) o' t(e#. t(o$)( only +a)$ely. -or so#e s,ea o' t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le as #atter. %(et(er t(ey s$,,ose one or #ore 'irst ,rin&i,les. and %(et(er t(ey s$,,ose t(is to be a body or to be in&or,oreal* e.). Plato s,o e o' t(e )reat and t(e s#all. t(e Italians o' t(e in'inite. E#,edo&les o' 'ire. eart(. %ater. and air. Ana1a)oras o' t(e in'inity o' t(in)s &o#,osed o' si#ilar ,arts. T(ese. t(en. (a+e all (ad a notion o' t(is ind o' &a$se. and so (a+e all %(o s,ea o' air or 'ire or %ater. or so#et(in) denser t(an 'ire and rarer t(an air* 'or so#e (a+e said t(e ,ri#e ele#ent is o' t(is ind. T(ese t(in ers )ras,ed t(is &a$se only* b$t &ertain ot(ers (a+e #entioned t(e so$r&e o' #o+e#ent. e.). t(ose %(o #a e 'riends(i, and

stri'e. or reason. or lo+e. a ,rin&i,le. T(e essen&e. i.e. t(e s$bstantial reality. no one (as e1,ressed distin&tly. It is (inted at &(ie'ly by t(ose %(o belie+e in t(e -or#s* 'or t(ey do not s$,,ose eit(er t(at t(e -or#s are t(e #atter o' sensible t(in)s. and t(e ;ne t(e #atter o' t(e -or#s. or t(at t(ey are t(e so$r&e o' #o+e#ent /'or t(ey say t(ese are &a$ses rat(er o' i##obility and o' bein) at rest0. b$t t(ey '$rnis( t(e -or#s as t(e essen&e o' e+ery ot(er t(in). and t(e ;ne as t(e essen&e o' t(e -or#s. T(at 'or %(ose sa e a&tions and &(an)es and #o+e#ents ta e ,la&e. t(ey assert to be a &a$se in a %ay. b$t not in t(is %ay. i.e. not in t(e %ay in %(i&( it is its nat$re to be a &a$se. -or t(ose %(o s,ea o' reason or 'riends(i, &lass t(ese &a$ses as )oods* t(ey do not s,ea . (o%e+er. as i' anyt(in) t(at e1ists eit(er e1isted or &a#e into bein) 'or t(e sa e o' t(ese. b$t as i' #o+e#ents started 'ro# t(ese. In t(e sa#e %ay t(ose %(o say t(e ;ne or t(e e1istent is t(e )ood. say t(at it is t(e &a$se o' s$bstan&e. b$t not t(at s$bstan&e eit(er is or &o#es to be 'or t(e sa e o' t(is. T(ere'ore it t$rns o$t t(at in a sense t(ey bot( say and do not say t(e )ood is a &a$se* 'or t(ey do not &all it a &a$se 8$a )ood b$t only in&identally. All t(ese t(in ers t(en. as t(ey &annot ,it&( on anot(er &a$se. see# to testi'y t(at %e (a+e deter#ined ri)(tly bot( (o% #any and o' %(at sort t(e &a$ses are. Besides t(is it is ,lain t(at %(en t(e &a$ses are bein) loo ed 'or. eit(er all 'o$r #$st be so$)(t t($s or t(ey #$st be so$)(t in one o' t(ese 'o$r %ays. "et $s ne1t dis&$ss t(e ,ossible di''i&$lties %it( re)ard to t(e %ay in %(i&( ea&( o' t(ese t(in ers (as s,o en. and %it( re)ard to (is sit$ation relati+ely to t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. B T(ose. t(en. %(o say t(e $ni+erse is one and ,osit one ind o' t(in) as #atter. and as &or,oreal #atter %(i&( (as s,atial #a)nit$de. e+idently )o astray in #any %ays. -or t(ey ,osit t(e ele#ents o' bodies only. not o' in&or,oreal t(in)s. t(o$)( t(ere are also in&or,oreal t(in)s. And in tryin) to state t(e &a$ses o' )eneration and destr$&tion. and in )i+in) a ,(ysi&al a&&o$nt o' all t(in)s. t(ey do a%ay %it( t(e &a$se o' #o+e#ent. -$rt(er. t(ey err in not ,ositin) t(e s$bstan&e. i.e. t(e essen&e. as t(e &a$se o' anyt(in). and besides t(is in li)(tly &allin) any o' t(e si#,le bodies e1&e,t eart( t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le. %it(o$t in8$irin) (o% t(ey are ,rod$&ed o$t o' one anot(ers5I #ean 'ire. %ater. eart(. and air. -or so#e t(in)s are ,rod$&ed o$t o' ea&( ot(er by &o#bination. ot(ers by se,aration. and t(is #a es t(e )reatest di''eren&e to t(eir ,riority and ,osteriority. -or /!0 in a %ay t(e ,ro,erty o' bein) #ost ele#entary o' all %o$ld see# to belon) to t(e 'irst t(in) 'ro# %(i&( t(ey are ,rod$&ed by &o#bination. and t(is ,ro,erty %o$ld belon) to t(e #ost 'ine5)rained and s$btle o' bodies. -or t(is reason t(ose %(o #a e 'ire t(e ,rin&i,le %o$ld be #ost in a)ree#ent %it( t(is ar)$#ent. B$t ea&( o' t(e ot(er t(in ers a)rees t(at t(e ele#ent o' &or,oreal t(in)s is o' t(is sort. At least none o' t(ose %(o na#ed one ele#ent &lai#ed t(at eart( %as t(e ele#ent. e+idently be&a$se o' t(e &oarseness o' its )rain. /;' t(e ot(er t(ree ele#ents ea&( (as 'o$nd so#e 4$d)e on its side* 'or so#e #aintain t(at 'ire. ot(ers t(at %ater. ot(ers t(at air is t(e ele#ent. Yet %(y. a'ter all. do t(ey not na#e eart( also. as #ost #en do< -or ,eo,le say all t(in)s are eart( Hesiod says eart( %as ,rod$&ed 'irst o' &or,oreal t(in)s* so ,ri#iti+e and ,o,$lar (as t(e o,inion been.0 A&&ordin) to t(is ar)$#ent. t(en. no one %o$ld be ri)(t %(o eit(er says t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le is any o' t(e ele#ents ot(er t(an 'ire. or s$,,oses it to be denser t(an air b$t rarer t(an %ater. B$t /70 i' t(at %(i&( is later in )eneration is ,rior in nat$re. and t(at %(i&( is &on&o&ted and &o#,o$nded is later in )eneration. t(e &ontrary o' %(at %e (a+e been sayin) #$st be tr$e.5%ater #$st be ,rior to air. and eart( to %ater. So #$&(. t(en. 'or t(ose %(o ,osit one &a$se s$&( as %e #entioned*

b$t t(e sa#e is tr$e i' one s$,,oses #ore o' t(ese. as E#,edo&les says #atter o' t(in)s is 'o$r bodies. -or (e too is &on'ronted by &onse8$en&es so#e o' %(i&( are t(e sa#e as (a+e been #entioned. %(ile ot(ers are ,e&$liar to (i#. -or %e see t(ese bodies ,rod$&ed 'ro# one anot(er. %(i&( i#,lies t(at t(e sa#e body does not al%ays re#ain 'ire or eart( /%e (a+e s,o en abo$t t(is in o$r %or s on nat$re0* and re)ardin) t(e &a$se o' #o+e#ent and t(e 8$estion %(et(er %e #$st ,osit one or t%o. (e #$st be t(o$)(t to (a+e s,o en neit(er &orre&tly nor alto)et(er ,la$sibly. And in )eneral. &(an)e o' 8$ality is ne&essarily done a%ay %it( 'or t(ose %(o s,ea t($s. 'or on t(eir +ie% &old %ill not &o#e 'ro# (ot nor (ot 'ro# &old. -or i' it did t(ere %o$ld be so#et(in) t(at a&&e,ted t(e &ontraries t(e#sel+es. and t(ere %o$ld be so#e one entity t(at be&a#e 'ire and %ater. %(i&( E#,edo&les denies. As re)ards Ana1a)oras. i' one %ere to s$,,ose t(at (e said t(ere %ere t%o ele#ents. t(e s$,,osition %o$ld a&&ord t(oro$)(ly %it( an ar)$#ent %(i&( Ana1a)oras (i#sel' did not state arti&$lately. b$t %(i&( (e #$st (a+e a&&e,ted i' any one (ad led (i# on to it. Tr$e. to say t(at in t(e be)innin) all t(in)s %ere #i1ed is abs$rd bot( on ot(er )ro$nds and be&a$se it 'ollo%s t(at t(ey #$st (a+e e1isted be'ore in an $n#i1ed 'or#. and be&a$se nat$re does not allo% any &(an&e t(in) to be #i1ed %it( any &(an&e t(in). and also be&a$se on t(is +ie% #odi'i&ations and a&&idents &o$ld be se,arated 'ro# s$bstan&es /'or t(e sa#e t(in)s %(i&( are #i1ed &an be se,arated0* yet i' one %ere to 'ollo% (i# $,. ,ie&in) to)et(er %(at (e #eans. (e %o$ld ,er(a,s be seen to be so#e%(at #odern in (is +ie%s. -or %(en not(in) %as se,arated o$t. e+idently not(in) &o$ld be tr$ly asserted o' t(e s$bstan&e t(at t(en e1isted. I #ean. e.). t(at it %as neit(er %(ite nor bla& . nor )rey nor any ot(er &olo$r. b$t o' ne&essity &olo$rless* 'or i' it (ad been &olo$red. it %o$ld (a+e (ad one o' t(ese &olo$rs. And si#ilarly. by t(is sa#e ar)$#ent. it %as 'la+o$rless. nor (ad it any si#ilar attrib$te* 'or it &o$ld not be eit(er o' any 8$ality or o' any si6e. nor &o$ld it be any de'inite ind o' t(in). -or i' it %ere. one o' t(e ,arti&$lar 'or#s %o$ld (a+e belon)ed to it. and t(is is i#,ossible. sin&e all %ere #i1ed to)et(er* 'or t(e ,arti&$lar 'or# %o$ld ne&essarily (a+e been already se,arated o$t. b$t (e all %ere #i1ed e1&e,t reason. and t(is alone %as $n#i1ed and ,$re. -ro# t(is it 'ollo%s. t(en. t(at (e #$st say t(e ,rin&i,les are t(e ;ne /'or t(is is si#,le and $n#i1ed0 and t(e ;t(er. %(i&( is o' s$&( a nat$re as %e s$,,ose t(e inde'inite to be be'ore it is de'ined and ,arta es o' so#e 'or#. T(ere'ore. %(ile e1,ressin) (i#sel' neit(er ri)(tly nor &learly. (e #eans so#et(in) li e %(at t(e later t(in ers say and %(at is no% #ore &learly seen to be t(e &ase. B$t t(ese t(in ers are. a'ter all. at (o#e only in ar)$#ents abo$t )eneration and destr$&tion and #o+e#ent* 'or it is ,ra&ti&ally only o' t(is sort o' s$bstan&e t(at t(ey see t(e ,rin&i,les and t(e &a$ses. B$t t(ose %(o e1tend t(eir +ision to all t(in)s t(at e1ist. and o' e1istin) t(in)s s$,,ose so#e to be ,er&e,tible and ot(ers not ,er&e,tible. e+idently st$dy bot( &lasses. %(i&( is all t(e #ore reason %(y one s(o$ld de+ote so#e ti#e to seein) %(at is )ood in t(eir +ie%s and %(at bad 'ro# t(e stand,oint o' t(e in8$iry %e (a+e no% be'ore $s. T(e 3Pyt(a)oreans3 treat o' ,rin&i,les and ele#ents stran)er t(an t(ose o' t(e ,(ysi&al ,(iloso,(ers /t(e reason is t(at t(ey )ot t(e ,rin&i,les 'ro# non5sensible t(in)s. 'or t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. e1&e,t t(ose o' astrono#y. are o' t(e &lass o' t(in)s %it(o$t #o+e#ent0* yet t(eir dis&$ssions and in+esti)ations are all abo$t nat$re* 'or t(ey )enerate t(e (ea+ens. and %it( re)ard to t(eir ,arts and attrib$tes and '$n&tions t(ey obser+e t(e ,(eno#ena. and $se $, t(e ,rin&i,les and t(e &a$ses in e1,lainin) t(ese. %(i&( i#,lies t(at t(ey a)ree %it( t(e ot(ers. t(e ,(ysi&al ,(iloso,(ers. t(at t(e real is 4$st all t(at %(i&( is ,er&e,tible and &ontained by t(e so5&alled 3(ea+ens3. B$t t(e &a$ses and t(e ,rin&i,les %(i&( t(ey #ention are. as %e said. s$''i&ient to a&t as ste,s e+en $, to

t(e (i)(er real#s o' reality. and are #ore s$ited to t(ese t(an to t(eories abo$t nat$re. T(ey do not tell $s at all. (o%e+er. (o% t(ere &an be #o+e#ent i' li#it and $nli#ited and odd and e+en are t(e only t(in)s ass$#ed. or (o% %it(o$t #o+e#ent and &(an)e t(ere &an be )eneration and destr$&tion. or t(e bodies t(at #o+e t(ro$)( t(e (ea+ens &an do %(at t(ey do. -$rt(er. i' one eit(er )ranted t(e# t(at s,atial #a)nit$de &onsists o' t(ese ele#ents. or t(is %ere ,ro+ed. still (o% %o$ld so#e bodies be li)(t and ot(ers (a+e %ei)(t< To 4$d)e 'ro# %(at t(ey ass$#e and #aintain t(ey are s,ea in) no #ore o' #at(e#ati&al bodies t(an o' ,er&e,tible* (en&e t(ey (a+e said not(in) %(ate+er abo$t 'ire or eart( or t(e ot(er bodies o' t(is sort. I s$,,ose be&a$se t(ey (a+e not(in) to say %(i&( a,,lies ,e&$liarly to ,er&e,tible t(in)s. -$rt(er. (o% are %e to &o#bine t(e belie's t(at t(e attrib$tes o' n$#ber. and n$#ber itsel'. are &a$ses o' %(at e1ists and (a,,ens in t(e (ea+ens bot( 'ro# t(e be)innin) and no%. and t(at t(ere is no ot(er n$#ber t(an t(is n$#ber o$t o' %(i&( t(e %orld is &o#,osed< W(en in one ,arti&$lar re)ion t(ey ,la&e o,inion and o,,ort$nity. and. a little abo+e or belo%. in4$sti&e and de&ision or #i1t$re. and alle)e. as ,roo'. t(at ea&( o' t(ese is a n$#ber. and t(at t(ere (a,,ens to be already in t(is ,la&e a ,l$rality o' t(e e1tended bodies &o#,osed o' n$#bers. be&a$se t(ese attrib$tes o' n$#ber atta&( to t(e +ario$s ,la&es.5t(is bein) so. is t(is n$#ber. %(i&( %e #$st s$,,ose ea&( o' t(ese abstra&tions to be. t(e sa#e n$#ber %(i&( is e1(ibited in t(e #aterial $ni+erse. or is it anot(er t(an t(is< Plato says it is di''erent* yet e+en (e t(in s t(at bot( t(ese bodies and t(eir &a$ses are n$#bers. b$t t(at t(e intelli)ible n$#bers are &a$ses. %(ile t(e ot(ers are sensible. C "et $s lea+e t(e Pyt(a)oreans 'or t(e ,resent* 'or it is eno$)( to (a+e to$&(ed on t(e# as #$&( as %e (a+e done. B$t as 'or t(ose %(o ,osit t(e Ideas as &a$ses. 'irstly. in see in) to )ras, t(e &a$ses o' t(e t(in)s aro$nd $s. t(ey introd$&ed ot(ers e8$al in n$#ber to t(ese. as i' a #an %(o %anted to &o$nt t(in)s t(o$)(t (e %o$ld not be able to do it %(ile t(ey %ere 'e%. b$t tried to &o$nt t(e# %(en (e (ad added to t(eir n$#ber. -or t(e -or#s are ,ra&ti&ally e8$al to5or not 'e%er t(an5t(e t(in)s. in tryin) to e1,lain %(i&( t(ese t(in ers ,ro&eeded 'ro# t(e# to t(e -or#s. -or to ea&( t(in) t(ere ans%ers an entity %(i&( (as t(e sa#e na#e and e1ists a,art 'ro# t(e s$bstan&es. and so also in t(e &ase o' all ot(er )ro$,s t(ere is a one o+er #any. %(et(er t(e #any are in t(is %orld or are eternal. -$rt(er. o' t(e %ays in %(i&( %e ,ro+e t(at t(e -or#s e1ist. none is &on+in&in)* 'or 'ro# so#e no in'eren&e ne&essarily 'ollo%s. and 'ro# so#e arise -or#s e+en o' t(in)s o' %(i&( %e t(in t(ere are no -or#s. -or a&&ordin) to t(e ar)$#ents 'ro# t(e e1isten&e o' t(e s&ien&es t(ere %ill be -or#s o' all t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ere are s&ien&es and a&&ordin) to t(e 3one o+er #any3 ar)$#ent t(ere %ill be -or#s e+en o' ne)ations. and a&&ordin) to t(e ar)$#ent t(at t(ere is an ob4e&t 'or t(o$)(t e+en %(en t(e t(in) (as ,eris(ed. t(ere %ill be -or#s o' ,eris(able t(in)s* 'or %e (a+e an i#a)e o' t(ese. -$rt(er. o' t(e #ore a&&$rate ar)$#ents. so#e lead to Ideas o' relations. o' %(i&( %e say t(ere is no inde,endent &lass. and ot(ers introd$&e t(e 3t(ird #an3. And in )eneral t(e ar)$#ents 'or t(e -or#s destroy t(e t(in)s 'or %(ose e1isten&e %e are #ore 6ealo$s t(an 'or t(e e1isten&e o' t(e Ideas* 'or it 'ollo%s t(at not t(e dyad b$t n$#ber is 'irst. i.e. t(at t(e relati+e is ,rior to t(e absol$te.5besides all t(e ot(er ,oints on %(i&( &ertain ,eo,le by 'ollo%in) o$t t(e o,inions (eld abo$t t(e Ideas (a+e &o#e into &on'li&t %it( t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(e t(eory. -$rt(er. a&&ordin) to t(e ass$#,tion on %(i&( o$r belie' in t(e Ideas rests. t(ere %ill be -or#s not only o' s$bstan&es b$t also o' #any ot(er t(in)s /'or t(e &on&e,t is sin)le not only in t(e &ase o' s$bstan&es b$t also in t(e ot(er &ases. and t(ere are s&ien&es not

only o' s$bstan&e b$t also o' ot(er t(in)s. and a t(o$sand ot(er s$&( di''i&$lties &on'ront t(e#0. B$t a&&ordin) to t(e ne&essities o' t(e &ase and t(e o,inions (eld abo$t t(e -or#s. i' -or#s &an be s(ared in t(ere #$st be Ideas o' s$bstan&es only. -or t(ey are not s(ared in in&identally. b$t a t(in) #$st s(are in its -or# as in so#et(in) not ,redi&ated o' a s$b4e&t /by 3bein) s(ared in in&identally3 I #ean t(at e.). i' a t(in) s(ares in 3do$ble itsel'3. it s(ares also in 3eternal3. b$t in&identally* 'or 3eternal3 (a,,ens to be ,redi&able o' t(e 3do$ble30. T(ere'ore t(e -or#s %ill be s$bstan&e* b$t t(e sa#e ter#s indi&ate s$bstan&e in t(is and in t(e ideal %orld /or %(at %ill be t(e #eanin) o' sayin) t(at t(ere is so#et(in) a,art 'ro# t(e ,arti&$lars5t(e one o+er #any<0. And i' t(e Ideas and t(e ,arti&$lars t(at s(are in t(e# (a+e t(e sa#e 'or#. t(ere %ill be so#et(in) &o##on to t(ese* 'or %(y s(o$ld 373 be one and t(e sa#e in t(e ,eris(able 73s or in t(ose %(i&( are #any b$t eternal. and not t(e sa#e in t(e 373 itsel'3 as in t(e ,arti&$lar 7< B$t i' t(ey (a+e not t(e sa#e 'or#. t(ey #$st (a+e only t(e na#e in &o##on. and it is as i' one %ere to &all bot( Callias and a %ooden i#a)e a 3#an3. %it(o$t obser+in) any &o##$nity bet%een t(e#. Abo+e all one #i)(t dis&$ss t(e 8$estion %(at on eart( t(e -or#s &ontrib$te to sensible t(in)s. eit(er to t(ose t(at are eternal or to t(ose t(at &o#e into bein) and &ease to be. -or t(ey &a$se neit(er #o+e#ent nor any &(an)e in t(e#. B$t a)ain t(ey (el, in no %ise eit(er to%ards t(e no%led)e o' t(e ot(er t(in)s /'or t(ey are not e+en t(e s$bstan&e o' t(ese. else t(ey %o$ld (a+e been in t(e#0. or to%ards t(eir bein). i' t(ey are not in t(e ,arti&$lars %(i&( s(are in t(e#* t(o$)( i' t(ey %ere. t(ey #i)(t be t(o$)(t to be &a$ses. as %(ite &a$ses %(iteness in a %(ite ob4e&t by enterin) into its &o#,osition. B$t t(is ar)$#ent. %(i&( 'irst Ana1a)oras and later E$do1$s and &ertain ot(ers $sed. is +ery easily $,set* 'or it is not di''i&$lt to &olle&t #any ins$,erable ob4e&tions to s$&( a +ie%. B$t. '$rt(er. all ot(er t(in)s &annot &o#e 'ro# t(e -or#s in any o' t(e $s$al senses o' 3'ro#3. And to say t(at t(ey are ,atterns and t(e ot(er t(in)s s(are in t(e# is to $se e#,ty %ords and ,oeti&al #eta,(ors. -or %(at is it t(at %or s. loo in) to t(e Ideas< And anyt(in) &an eit(er be. or be&o#e. li e anot(er %it(o$t bein) &o,ied 'ro# it. so t(at %(et(er So&rates or not a #an So&rates li e #i)(t &o#e to be* and e+idently t(is #i)(t be so e+en i' So&rates %ere eternal. And t(ere %ill be se+eral ,atterns o' t(e sa#e t(in). and t(ere'ore se+eral -or#s* e.). 3ani#al3 and 3t%o5'ooted3 and also 3#an (i#sel'3 %ill be -or#s o' #an. A)ain. t(e -or#s are ,atterns not only sensible t(in)s. b$t o' -or#s t(e#sel+es also* i.e. t(e )en$s. as )en$s o' +ario$s s,e&ies. %ill be so* t(ere'ore t(e sa#e t(in) %ill be ,attern and &o,y. A)ain. it %o$ld see# i#,ossible t(at t(e s$bstan&e and t(at o' %(i&( it is t(e s$bstan&e s(o$ld e1ist a,art* (o%. t(ere'ore. &o$ld t(e Ideas. bein) t(e s$bstan&es o' t(in)s. e1ist a,art< In t(e P(aedo3 t(e &ase is stated in t(is %ay5t(at t(e -or#s are &a$ses bot( o' bein) and o' be&o#in)* yet %(en t(e -or#s e1ist. still t(e t(in)s t(at s(are in t(e# do not &o#e into bein). $nless t(ere is so#et(in) to ori)inate #o+e#ent* and #any ot(er t(in)s &o#e into bein) /e.). a (o$se or a rin)0 o' %(i&( %e say t(ere are no -or#s. Clearly. t(ere'ore. e+en t(e ot(er t(in)s &an bot( be and &o#e into bein) o%in) to s$&( &a$ses as ,rod$&e t(e t(in)s 4$st #entioned. A)ain. i' t(e -or#s are n$#bers. (o% &an t(ey be &a$ses< Is it be&a$se e1istin) t(in)s are ot(er n$#bers. e.). one n$#ber is #an. anot(er is So&rates. anot(er Callias< W(y t(en are t(e one set o' n$#bers &a$ses o' t(e ot(er set< It %ill not #a e any di''eren&e e+en i' t(e 'or#er are eternal and t(e latter are not. B$t i' it is be&a$se t(in)s in t(is sensible %orld /e.). (ar#ony0 are ratios o' n$#bers. e+idently t(e t(in)s bet%een %(i&( t(ey are ratios are so#e one &lass o' t(in)s. I'. t(en. t(is55t(e #atter55is so#e de'inite t(in). e+idently t(e n$#bers t(e#sel+es too %ill be ratios o' so#et(in) to so#et(in) else. E.). i' Callias is a n$#eri&al ratio

bet%een 'ire and eart( and %ater and air. (is Idea also %ill be a n$#ber o' &ertain ot(er $nderlyin) t(in)s* and #an (i#sel'. %(et(er it is a n$#ber in a sense or not. %ill still be a n$#eri&al ratio o' &ertain t(in)s and not a n$#ber ,ro,er. nor %ill it be a o' n$#ber #erely be&a$se it is a n$#eri&al ratio. A)ain. 'ro# #any n$#bers one n$#ber is ,rod$&ed. b$t (o% &an one -or# &o#e 'ro# #any -or#s< And i' t(e n$#ber &o#es not 'ro# t(e #any n$#bers t(e#sel+es b$t 'ro# t(e $nits in t(e#. e.). in !0.000. (o% is it %it( t(e $nits< I' t(ey are s,e&i'i&ally ali e. n$#ero$s abs$rdities %ill 'ollo%. and also i' t(ey are not ali e /neit(er t(e $nits in one n$#ber bein) t(e#sel+es li e one anot(er nor t(ose in ot(er n$#bers bein) all li e to all0* 'or in %(at %ill t(ey di''er. as t(ey are %it(o$t 8$ality< T(is is not a ,la$sible +ie%. nor is it &onsistent %it( o$r t(o$)(t on t(e #atter. -$rt(er. t(ey #$st set $, a se&ond ind o' n$#ber /%it( %(i&( arit(#eti& deals0. and all t(e ob4e&ts %(i&( are &alled 3inter#ediate3 by so#e t(in ers* and (o% do t(ese e1ist or 'ro# %(at ,rin&i,les do t(ey ,ro&eed< ;r %(y #$st t(ey be inter#ediate bet%een t(e t(in)s in t(is sensible %orld and t(e t(in)s5t(e#sel+es< -$rt(er. t(e $nits in #$st ea&( &o#e 'ro# a ,rior b$t t(is is i#,ossible. -$rt(er. %(y is a n$#ber. %(en ta en all to)et(er. one< A)ain. besides %(at (as been said. i' t(e $nits are di+erse t(e Platonists s(o$ld (a+e s,o en li e t(ose %(o say t(ere are 'o$r. or t%o. ele#ents* 'or ea&( o' t(ese t(in ers )i+es t(e na#e o' ele#ent not to t(at %(i&( is &o##on. e.). to body. b$t to 'ire and eart(. %(et(er t(ere is so#et(in) &o##on to t(e#. +i6. body. or not. B$t in 'a&t t(e Platonists s,ea as i' t(e ;ne %ere (o#o)eneo$s li e 'ire or %ater* and i' t(is is so. t(e n$#bers %ill not be s$bstan&es. E+idently. i' t(ere is a ;ne itsel' and t(is is a 'irst ,rin&i,le. 3one3 is bein) $sed in #ore t(an one sense* 'or ot(er%ise t(e t(eory is i#,ossible. W(en %e %is( to red$&e s$bstan&es to t(eir ,rin&i,les. %e state t(at lines &o#e 'ro# t(e s(ort and lon) /i.e. 'ro# a ind o' s#all and )reat0. and t(e ,lane 'ro# t(e broad and narro%. and body 'ro# t(e dee, and s(allo%. Yet (o% t(en &an eit(er t(e ,lane &ontain a line. or t(e solid a line or a ,lane< -or t(e broad and narro% is a di''erent &lass 'ro# t(e dee, and s(allo%. T(ere'ore. 4$st as n$#ber is not ,resent in t(ese. be&a$se t(e #any and 'e% are di''erent 'ro# t(ese. e+idently no ot(er o' t(e (i)(er &lasses %ill be ,resent in t(e lo%er. B$t a)ain t(e broad is not a )en$s %(i&( in&l$des t(e dee,. 'or t(en t(e solid %o$ld (a+e been a s,e&ies o' ,lane. -$rt(er. 'ro# %(at ,rin&i,le %ill t(e ,resen&e o' t(e ,oints in t(e line be deri+ed< Plato e+en $sed to ob4e&t to t(is &lass o' t(in)s as bein) a )eo#etri&al 'i&tion. He )a+e t(e na#e o' ,rin&i,le o' t(e line5and t(is (e o'ten ,osited5to t(e indi+isible lines. Yet t(ese #$st (a+e a li#it* t(ere'ore t(e ar)$#ent 'ro# %(i&( t(e e1isten&e o' t(e line 'ollo%s ,ro+es also t(e e1isten&e o' t(e ,oint. In )eneral. t(o$)( ,(iloso,(y see s t(e &a$se o' ,er&e,tible t(in)s. %e (a+e )i+en t(is $, /'or %e say not(in) o' t(e &a$se 'ro# %(i&( &(an)e ta es its start0. b$t %(ile %e 'an&y %e are statin) t(e s$bstan&e o' ,er&e,tible t(in)s. %e assert t(e e1isten&e o' a se&ond &lass o' s$bstan&es. %(ile o$r a&&o$nt o' t(e %ay in %(i&( t(ey are t(e s$bstan&es o' ,er&e,tible t(in)s is e#,ty tal * 'or 3s(arin)3. as %e said be'ore. #eans not(in). 2or (a+e t(e -or#s any &onne1ion %it( %(at %e see to be t(e &a$se in t(e &ase o' t(e arts. t(at 'or %(ose sa e bot( all #ind and t(e %(ole o' nat$re are o,erati+e.5%it( t(is &a$se %(i&( %e assert to be one o' t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les* b$t #at(e#ati&s (as &o#e to be identi&al %it( ,(iloso,(y 'or #odern t(in ers. t(o$)( t(ey say t(at it s(o$ld be st$died 'or t(e sa e o' ot(er t(in)s. -$rt(er. one #i)(t s$,,ose t(at t(e s$bstan&e %(i&( a&&ordin) to t(e# $nderlies as #atter is too #at(e#ati&al. and is a ,redi&ate and di''erentia o' t(e s$bstan&e. ie. o' t(e #atter. rat(er t(an #atter itsel'* i.e. t(e

)reat and t(e s#all are li e t(e rare and t(e dense %(i&( t(e ,(ysi&al ,(iloso,(ers s,ea o'. &allin) t(ese t(e ,ri#ary di''erentiae o' t(e s$bstrat$#* 'or t(ese are a ind o' e1&ess and de'e&t. And re)ardin) #o+e#ent. i' t(e )reat and t(e s#all are to (e #o+e#ent. e+idently t(e -or#s %ill be #o+ed* b$t i' t(ey are not to be #o+e#ent. %(en&e did #o+e#ent &o#e< T(e %(ole st$dy o' nat$re (as been anni(ilated. And %(at is t(o$)(t to be easy5to s(o% t(at all t(in)s are one5is not done* 'or %(at is ,ro+ed by t(e #et(od o' settin) o$t instan&es is not t(at all t(in)s are one b$t t(at t(ere is a ;ne itsel'.5i' %e )rant all t(e ass$#,tions. And not e+en t(is 'ollo%s. i' %e do not )rant t(at t(e $ni+ersal is a )en$s* and t(is in so#e &ases it &annot be. 2or &an it be e1,lained eit(er (o% t(e lines and ,lanes and solids t(at &o#e a'ter t(e n$#bers e1ist or &an e1ist. or %(at si)ni'i&an&e t(ey (a+e* 'or t(ese &an neit(er be -or#s /'or t(ey are not n$#bers0. nor t(e inter#ediates /'or t(ose are t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s0. nor t(e ,eris(able t(in)s. T(is is e+idently a distin&t 'o$rt( &lass. In )eneral. i' %e sear&( 'or t(e ele#ents o' e1istin) t(in)s %it(o$t distin)$is(in) t(e #any senses in %(i&( t(in)s are said to e1ist. %e &annot 'ind t(e#. es,e&ially i' t(e sear&( 'or t(e ele#ents o' %(i&( t(in)s are #ade is &ond$&ted in t(is #anner. -or it is s$rely i#,ossible to dis&o+er %(at 3a&tin)3 or 3bein) a&ted on3. or 3t(e strai)(t3. is #ade o'. b$t i' ele#ents &an be dis&o+ered at all. it is only t(e ele#ents o' s$bstan&es* t(ere'ore eit(er to see t(e ele#ents o' all e1istin) t(in)s or to t(in one (as t(e# is in&orre&t. And (o% &o$ld %e learn t(e ele#ents o' all t(in)s< E+idently %e &annot start by no%in) anyt(in) be'ore. -or as (e %(o is learnin) )eo#etry. t(o$)( (e #ay no% ot(er t(in)s be'ore. no%s none o' t(e t(in)s %it( %(i&( t(e s&ien&e deals and abo$t %(i&( (e is to learn. so is it in all ot(er &ases. T(ere'ore i' t(ere is a s&ien&e o' all t(in)s. s$&( as so#e assert to e1ist. (e %(o is learnin) t(is %ill no% not(in) be'ore. Yet all learnin) is by #eans o' ,re#isses %(i&( are /eit(er all or so#e o' t(e#0 no%n be'ore.5%(et(er t(e learnin) be by de#onstration or by de'initions* 'or t(e ele#ents o' t(e de'inition #$st be no%n be'ore and be 'a#iliar* and learnin) by ind$&tion ,ro&eeds si#ilarly. B$t a)ain. i' t(e s&ien&e %ere a&t$ally innate. it %ere stran)e t(at %e are $na%are o' o$r ,ossession o' t(e )reatest o' s&ien&es. A)ain. (o% is one to &o#e to no% %(at all t(in)s are #ade o'. and (o% is t(is to be #ade e+ident< T(is also a''ords a di''i&$lty* 'or t(ere #i)(t be a &on'li&t o' o,inion. as t(ere is abo$t &ertain syllables* so#e say 6a is #ade o$t o' s and d and a. %(ile ot(ers say it is a distin&t so$nd and none o' t(ose t(at are 'a#iliar. -$rt(er. (o% &o$ld %e no% t(e ob4e&ts o' sense %it(o$t (a+in) t(e sense in 8$estion< Yet %e o$)(t to. i' t(e ele#ents o' %(i&( all t(in)s &onsist. as &o#,le1 so$nds &onsist o' t(e &le#ents ,ro,er to so$nd. are t(e sa#e. !0 It is e+ident. t(en. e+en 'ro# %(at %e (a+e said be'ore. t(at all #en see# to see t(e &a$ses na#ed in t(e P(ysi&s. and t(at %e &annot na#e any beyond t(ese* b$t t(ey see t(ese +a)$ely* and t(o$)( in a sense t(ey (a+e all been des&ribed be'ore. in a sense t(ey (a+e not been des&ribed at all. -or t(e earliest ,(iloso,(y is. on all s$b4e&ts. li e one %(o lis,s. sin&e it is yo$n) and in its be)innin)s. -or e+en E#,edo&les says bone e1ists by +irt$e o' t(e ratio in it. 2o% t(is is t(e essen&e and t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e t(in). B$t it is si#ilarly ne&essary t(at 'les( and ea&( o' t(e ot(er tiss$es s(o$ld be t(e ratio o' its ele#ents. or t(at not one o' t(e# s(o$ld* 'or it is on a&&o$nt o' t(is t(at bot( 'les( and bone and e+eryt(in) else %ill e1ist. and not on a&&o$nt o' t(e #atter. %(i&( (e na#es.5'ire and eart( and %ater and air. B$t %(ile (e %o$ld ne&essarily (a+e a)reed i'

anot(er (ad said t(is. (e (as not said it &learly. ;n t(ese 8$estions o$r +ie%s (a+e been e1,ressed be'ore* b$t let $s ret$rn to en$#erate t(e di''i&$lties t(at #i)(t be raised on t(ese sa#e ,oints* 'or ,er(a,s %e #ay )et 'ro# t(e# so#e (el, to%ards o$r later di''i&$lties. Boo II ! THE in+esti)ation o' t(e tr$t( is in one %ay (ard. in anot(er easy. An indi&ation o' t(is is 'o$nd in t(e 'a&t t(at no one is able to attain t(e tr$t( ade8$ately. %(ile. on t(e ot(er (and. %e do not &olle&ti+ely 'ail. b$t e+ery one says so#et(in) tr$e abo$t t(e nat$re o' t(in)s. and %(ile indi+id$ally %e &ontrib$te little or not(in) to t(e tr$t(. by t(e $nion o' all a &onsiderable a#o$nt is a#assed. T(ere'ore. sin&e t(e tr$t( see#s to be li e t(e ,ro+erbial door. %(i&( no one &an 'ail to (it. in t(is res,e&t it #$st be easy. b$t t(e 'a&t t(at %e &an (a+e a %(ole tr$t( and not t(e ,arti&$lar ,art %e ai# at s(o%s t(e di''i&$lty o' it. Per(a,s. too. as di''i&$lties are o' t%o inds. t(e &a$se o' t(e ,resent di''i&$lty is not in t(e 'a&ts b$t in $s. -or as t(e eyes o' bats are to t(e bla6e o' day. so is t(e reason in o$r so$l to t(e t(in)s %(i&( are by nat$re #ost e+ident o' all. It is 4$st t(at %e s(o$ld be )rate'$l. not only to t(ose %it( %(ose +ie%s %e #ay a)ree. b$t also to t(ose %(o (a+e e1,ressed #ore s$,er'i&ial +ie%s* 'or t(ese also &ontrib$ted so#et(in). by de+elo,in) be'ore $s t(e ,o%ers o' t(o$)(t. It is tr$e t(at i' t(ere (ad been no Ti#ot(e$s %e s(o$ld (a+e been %it(o$t #$&( o' o$r lyri& ,oetry* b$t i' t(ere (ad been no P(rynis t(ere %o$ld (a+e been no Ti#ot(e$s. T(e sa#e (olds )ood o' t(ose %(o (a+e e1,ressed +ie%s abo$t t(e tr$t(* 'or 'ro# so#e t(in ers %e (a+e in(erited &ertain o,inions. %(ile t(e ot(ers (a+e been res,onsible 'or t(e a,,earan&e o' t(e 'or#er. It is ri)(t also t(at ,(iloso,(y s(o$ld be &alled no%led)e o' t(e tr$t(. -or t(e end o' t(eoreti&al no%led)e is tr$t(. %(ile t(at o' ,ra&ti&al no%led)e is a&tion /'or e+en i' t(ey &onsider (o% t(in)s are. ,ra&ti&al #en do not st$dy t(e eternal. b$t %(at is relati+e and in t(e ,resent0. 2o% %e do not no% a tr$t( %it(o$t its &a$se* and a t(in) (as a 8$ality in a (i)(er de)ree t(an ot(er t(in)s i' in +irt$e o' it t(e si#ilar 8$ality belon)s to t(e ot(er t(in)s as %ell /e.). 'ire is t(e (ottest o' t(in)s* 'or it is t(e &a$se o' t(e (eat o' all ot(er t(in)s0* so t(at t(at &a$ses deri+ati+e tr$t(s to be tr$e is #ost tr$e. Hen&e t(e ,rin&i,les o' eternal t(in)s #$st be al%ays #ost tr$e /'or t(ey are not #erely so#eti#es tr$e. nor is t(ere any &a$se o' t(eir bein). b$t t(ey t(e#sel+es are t(e &a$se o' t(e bein) o' ot(er t(in)s0. so t(at as ea&( t(in) is in res,e&t o' bein). so is it in res,e&t o' tr$t(. 7 B$t e+idently t(ere is a 'irst ,rin&i,le. and t(e &a$ses o' t(in)s are neit(er an in'inite series nor in'initely +ario$s in ind. -or neit(er &an one t(in) ,ro&eed 'ro# anot(er. as 'ro# #atter. ad in'init$# /e.). 'les( 'ro# eart(. eart( 'ro# air. air 'ro# 'ire. and so on %it(o$t sto,,in)0. nor &an t(e so$r&es o' #o+e#ent 'or# an endless series /#an 'or instan&e bein) a&ted on by air. air by t(e s$n. t(e s$n by Stri'e. and so on %it(o$t li#it0. Si#ilarly t(e 'inal &a$ses &annot )o on ad in'init$#.5%al in) bein) 'or t(e sa e o' (ealt(. t(is 'or t(e sa e o' (a,,iness. (a,,iness 'or t(e sa e o' so#et(in) else. and so one t(in) al%ays 'or t(e sa e o' anot(er. And t(e &ase o' t(e essen&e is si#ilar. -or in t(e &ase o' inter#ediates. %(i&( (a+e a last ter# and a ter# ,rior to t(e#. t(e ,rior #$st be t(e &a$se o' t(e later ter#s. -or i' %e (ad to say %(i&( o' t(e t(ree is t(e &a$se. %e s(o$ld say t(e 'irst* s$rely not t(e last. 'or t(e 'inal ter# is t(e &a$se o' none* nor e+en t(e inter#ediate. 'or it is t(e &a$se only o' one. /It #a es no di''eren&e %(et(er t(ere is one inter#ediate or #ore. nor %(et(er t(ey are

in'inite or 'inite in n$#ber.0 B$t o' series %(i&( are in'inite in t(is %ay. and o' t(e in'inite in )eneral. all t(e ,arts do%n to t(at no% ,resent are ali e inter#ediates* so t(at i' t(ere is no 'irst t(ere is no &a$se at all. 2or &an t(ere be an in'inite ,ro&ess do%n%ards. %it( a be)innin) in t(e $,%ard dire&tion. so t(at %ater s(o$ld ,ro&eed 'ro# 'ire. eart( 'ro# %ater. and so al%ays so#e ot(er ind s(o$ld be ,rod$&ed. -or one t(in) &o#es 'ro# anot(er in t%o %ays5not in t(e sense in %(i&( 3'ro#3 #eans 3a'ter3 /as %e say 3'ro# t(e Ist(#ian )a#es &o#e t(e ;ly#,ian30. b$t eit(er /i0 as t(e #an &o#es 'ro# t(e boy. by t(e boy3s &(an)in). or /ii0 as air &o#es 'ro# %ater. By 3as t(e #an &o#es 'ro# t(e boy3 %e #ean 3as t(at %(i&( (as &o#e to be 'ro# t(at %(i&( is &o#in) to be3 or 3as t(at %(i&( is 'inis(ed 'ro# t(at %(i&( is bein) a&(ie+ed3 /'or as be&o#in) is bet%een bein) and not bein). so t(at %(i&( is be&o#in) is al%ays bet%een t(at %(i&( is and t(at %(i&( is not* 'or t(e learner is a #an o' s&ien&e in t(e #a in). and t(is is %(at is #eant %(en %e say t(at 'ro# a learner a #an o' s&ien&e is bein) #ade0* on t(e ot(er (and. &o#in) 'ro# anot(er t(in) as %ater &o#es 'ro# air i#,lies t(e destr$&tion o' t(e ot(er t(in). T(is is %(y &(an)es o' t(e 'or#er ind are not re+ersible. and t(e boy does not &o#e 'ro# t(e #an /'or it is not t(at %(i&( &o#es to be so#et(in) t(at &o#es to be as a res$lt o' &o#in) to be. b$t t(at %(i&( e1ists a'ter t(e &o#in) to be* 'or it is t($s t(at t(e day. too. &o#es 'ro# t(e #ornin)5in t(e sense t(at it &o#es a'ter t(e #ornin)* %(i&( is t(e reason %(y t(e #ornin) &annot &o#e 'ro# t(e day0* b$t &(an)es o' t(e ot(er ind are re+ersible. B$t in bot( &ases it is i#,ossible t(at t(e n$#ber o' ter#s s(o$ld be in'inite. -or ter#s o' t(e 'or#er ind. bein) inter#ediates. #$st (a+e an end. and ter#s o' t(e latter ind &(an)e ba& into one anot(er. 'or t(e destr$&tion o' eit(er is t(e )eneration o' t(e ot(er. At t(e sa#e ti#e it is i#,ossible t(at t(e 'irst &a$se. bein) eternal. s(o$ld be destroyed* 'or sin&e t(e ,ro&ess o' be&o#in) is not in'inite in t(e $,%ard dire&tion. t(at %(i&( is t(e 'irst t(in) by %(ose destr$&tion so#et(in) &a#e to be #$st be non5eternal. -$rt(er. t(e 'inal &a$se is an end. and t(at sort o' end %(i&( is not 'or t(e sa e o' so#et(in) else. b$t 'or %(ose sa e e+eryt(in) else is* so t(at i' t(ere is to be a last ter# o' t(is sort. t(e ,ro&ess %ill not be in'inite* b$t i' t(ere is no s$&( ter#. t(ere %ill be no 'inal &a$se. b$t t(ose %(o #aintain t(e in'inite series eli#inate t(e :ood %it(o$t no%in) it /yet no one %o$ld try to do anyt(in) i' (e %ere not )oin) to &o#e to a li#it0* nor %o$ld t(ere be reason in t(e %orld* t(e reasonable #an. at least. al%ays a&ts 'or a ,$r,ose. and t(is is a li#it* 'or t(e end is a li#it. B$t t(e essen&e. also. &annot be red$&ed to anot(er de'inition %(i&( is '$ller in e1,ression. -or t(e ori)inal de'inition is al%ays #ore o' a de'inition. and not t(e later one* and in a series in %(i&( t(e 'irst ter# (as not t(e re8$ired &(ara&ter. t(e ne1t (as not it eit(er. -$rt(er. t(ose %(o s,ea t($s destroy s&ien&e* 'or it is not ,ossible to (a+e t(is till one &o#es to t(e $nanalysable ter#s. And no%led)e be&o#es i#,ossible* 'or (o% &an one a,,re(end t(in)s t(at are in'inite in t(is %ay< -or t(is is not li e t(e &ase o' t(e line. to %(ose di+isibility t(ere is no sto,. b$t %(i&( %e &annot t(in i' %e do not #a e a sto, /'or %(i&( reason one %(o is tra&in) t(e in'initely di+isible line &annot be &o$ntin) t(e ,ossibilities o' se&tion0. b$t t(e %(ole line also #$st be a,,re(ended by so#et(in) in $s t(at does not #o+e 'ro# ,art to ,art.5A)ain. not(in) in'inite &an e1ist* and i' it &o$ld. at least t(e notion o' in'inity is not in'inite. B$t i' t(e inds o' &a$ses (ad been in'inite in n$#ber. t(en also no%led)e %o$ld (a+e been i#,ossible* 'or %e t(in %e no%. only %(en %e (a+e as&ertained t(e &a$ses. t(at b$t t(at %(i&( is in'inite by addition &annot be )one t(ro$)( in a 'inite ti#e. 3

T(e e''e&t %(i&( le&t$res ,rod$&e on a (earer de,ends on (is (abits* 'or %e de#and t(e lan)$a)e %e are a&&$sto#ed to. and t(at %(i&( is di''erent 'ro# t(is see#s not in ee,in) b$t so#e%(at $nintelli)ible and 'orei)n be&a$se o' its $n%ontedness. -or it is t(e &$sto#ary t(at is intelli)ible. T(e 'or&e o' (abit is s(o%n by t(e la%s. in %(i&( t(e le)endary and &(ildis( ele#ents ,re+ail o+er o$r no%led)e abo$t t(e#. o%in) to (abit. T($s so#e ,eo,le do not listen to a s,ea er $nless (e s,ea s #at(e#ati&ally. ot(ers $nless (e )i+es instan&es. %(ile ot(ers e1,e&t (i# to &ite a ,oet as %itness. And so#e %ant to (a+e e+eryt(in) done a&&$rately. %(ile ot(ers are annoyed by a&&$ra&y. eit(er be&a$se t(ey &annot 'ollo% t(e &onne1ion o' t(o$)(t or be&a$se t(ey re)ard it as ,etti'o))ery. -or a&&$ra&y (as so#et(in) o' t(is &(ara&ter. so t(at as in trade so in ar)$#ent so#e ,eo,le t(in it #ean. Hen&e one #$st be already trained to no% (o% to ta e ea&( sort o' ar)$#ent. sin&e it is abs$rd to see at t(e sa#e ti#e no%led)e and t(e %ay o' attainin) no%led)e* and it is not easy to )et e+en one o' t(e t%o. T(e #in$te a&&$ra&y o' #at(e#ati&s is not to be de#anded in all &ases. b$t only in t(e &ase o' t(in)s %(i&( (a+e no #atter. Hen&e #et(od is not t(at o' nat$ral s&ien&e* 'or ,res$#ably t(e %(ole o' nat$re (as #atter. Hen&e %e #$st in8$ire 'irst %(at nat$re is> 'or t($s %e s(all also see %(at nat$ral s&ien&e treats o' /and %(et(er it belon)s to one s&ien&e or to #ore to in+esti)ate t(e &a$ses and t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(in)s0. Boo III ! WE #$st. %it( a +ie% to t(e s&ien&e %(i&( %e are see in). 'irst re&o$nt t(e s$b4e&ts t(at s(o$ld be 'irst dis&$ssed. T(ese in&l$de bot( t(e ot(er o,inions t(at so#e (a+e (eld on t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. and any ,oint besides t(ese t(at (a,,ens to (a+e been o+erloo ed. -or t(ose %(o %is( to )et &lear o' di''i&$lties it is ad+anta)eo$s to dis&$ss t(e di''i&$lties %ell* 'or t(e s$bse8$ent 'ree ,lay o' t(o$)(t i#,lies t(e sol$tion o' t(e ,re+io$s di''i&$lties. and it is not ,ossible to $ntie a not o' %(i&( one does not no%. B$t t(e di''i&$lty o' o$r t(in in) ,oints to a 3 not3 in t(e ob4e&t* 'or in so 'ar as o$r t(o$)(t is in di''i&$lties. it is in li e &ase %it( t(ose %(o are bo$nd* 'or in eit(er &ase it is i#,ossible to )o 'or%ard. Hen&e one s(o$ld (a+e s$r+eyed all t(e di''i&$lties be'ore(and. bot( 'or t(e ,$r,oses %e (a+e stated and be&a$se ,eo,le %(o in8$ire %it(o$t 'irst statin) t(e di''i&$lties are li e t(ose %(o do not no% %(ere t(ey (a+e to )o* besides. a #an does not ot(er%ise no% e+en %(et(er (e (as at any )i+en ti#e 'o$nd %(at (e is loo in) 'or or not* 'or t(e end is not &lear to s$&( a #an. %(ile to (i# %(o (as 'irst dis&$ssed t(e di''i&$lties it is &lear. -$rt(er. (e %(o (as (eard all t(e &ontendin) ar)$#ents. as i' t(ey %ere t(e ,arties to a &ase. #$st be in a better ,osition 'or 4$d)in). T(e 'irst ,roble# &on&erns t(e s$b4e&t %(i&( %e dis&$ssed in o$r ,re'atory re#ar s. It is t(is5/!0 %(et(er t(e in+esti)ation o' t(e &a$ses belon)s to one or to #ore s&ien&es. and /70 %(et(er s$&( a s&ien&e s(o$ld s$r+ey only t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les o' s$bstan&e. or also t(e ,rin&i,les on %(i&( all #en base t(eir ,roo's. e.). %(et(er it is ,ossible at t(e sa#e ti#e to assert and deny one and t(e sa#e t(in) or not. and all ot(er s$&( 8$estions* and /30 i' t(e s&ien&e in 8$estion deals %it( s$bstan&e. %(et(er one s&ien&e deals %it( all s$bstan&es. or #ore t(an one. and i' #ore. %(et(er all are a in. or so#e o' t(e# #$st be &alled 'or#s o' Wisdo# and t(e ot(ers so#et(in) else. And /=0 t(is itsel' is also one o' t(e t(in)s t(at #$st be dis&$ssed5%(et(er sensible s$bstan&es alone s(o$ld be said to e1ist or ot(ers also besides t(e#. and %(et(er t(ese ot(ers are o' one ind or t(ere are se+eral &lasses o' s$bstan&es. as is s$,,osed by t(ose %(o belie+e bot( in -or#s and in #at(e#ati&al ob4e&ts inter#ediate bet%een t(ese and sensible t(in)s. Into t(ese 8$estions. t(en. as %e say. %e #$st in8$ire. and also /50 %(et(er o$r in+esti)ation is

&on&erned only %it( s$bstan&es or also %it( t(e essential attrib$tes o' s$bstan&es. -$rt(er. %it( re)ard to t(e sa#e and ot(er and li e and $nli e and &ontrariety. and %it( re)ard to ,rior and ,osterior and all ot(er s$&( ter#s abo$t %(i&( t(e diale&ti&ians try to in8$ire. startin) t(eir in+esti)ation 'ro# ,robable ,re#ises only.5%(ose b$siness is it to in8$ire into all t(ese< -$rt(er. %e #$st dis&$ss t(e essential attrib$tes o' t(ese t(e#sel+es* and %e #$st as not only %(at ea&( o' t(ese is. b$t also %(et(er one t(in) al%ays (as one &ontrary. A)ain /@0. are t(e ,rin&i,les and ele#ents o' t(in)s t(e )enera. or t(e ,arts ,resent in ea&( t(in). into %(i&( it is di+ided* and /A0 i' t(ey are t(e )enera. are t(ey t(e )enera t(at are ,redi&ated ,ro1i#ately o' t(e indi+id$als. or t(e (i)(est )enera. e.). is ani#al or #an t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le and t(e #ore inde,endent o' t(e indi+id$al instan&e< And /B0 %e #$st in8$ire and dis&$ss es,e&ially %(et(er t(ere is. besides t(e #atter. any t(in) t(at is a &a$se in itsel' or not. and %(et(er t(is &an e1ist a,art or not. and %(et(er it is one or #ore in n$#ber. and %(et(er t(ere is so#et(in) a,art 'ro# t(e &on&rete t(in) /by t(e &on&rete t(in) I #ean t(e #atter %it( so#et(in) already ,redi&ated o' it0. or t(ere is not(in) a,art. or t(ere is so#et(in) in so#e &ases t(o$)( not in ot(ers. and %(at sort o' &ases t(ese are. A)ain /C0 %e as %(et(er t(e ,rin&i,les are li#ited in n$#ber or in ind. bot( t(ose in t(e de'initions and t(ose in t(e s$bstrat$#* and /!00 %(et(er t(e ,rin&i,les o' ,eris(able and o' i#,eris(able t(in)s are t(e sa#e or di''erent* and %(et(er t(ey are all i#,eris(able or t(ose o' ,eris(able t(in)s are ,eris(able. -$rt(er /!!0 t(ere is t(e 8$estion %(i&( is (ardest o' all and #ost ,er,le1in). %(et(er $nity and bein). as t(e Pyt(a)oreans and Plato said. are not attrib$tes o' so#et(in) else b$t t(e s$bstan&e o' e1istin) t(in)s. or t(is is not t(e &ase. b$t t(e s$bstrat$# is so#et(in) else.5as E#,edo&les says. lo+e* as so#e one else says. 'ire* %(ile anot(er says %ater or air. A)ain /!70 %e as %(et(er t(e ,rin&i,les are $ni+ersal or li e indi+id$al t(in)s. and /!30 %(et(er t(ey e1ist ,otentially or a&t$ally. and '$rt(er. %(et(er t(ey are ,otential or a&t$al in any ot(er sense t(an in re'eren&e to #o+e#ent* 'or t(ese 8$estions also %o$ld ,resent #$&( di''i&$lty. -$rt(er /!=0. are n$#bers and lines and 'i)$res and ,oints a ind o' s$bstan&e or not. and i' t(ey are s$bstan&es are t(ey se,arate 'ro# sensible t(in)s or ,resent in t(e#< Wit( re)ard to all t(ese #atters not only is it (ard to )et ,ossession o' t(e tr$t(. b$t it is not easy e+en to t(in o$t t(e di''i&$lties %ell. 7 /!0 -irst t(en %it( re)ard to %(at %e #entioned 'irst. does it belon) to one or to #ore s&ien&es to in+esti)ate all t(e inds o' &a$ses< Ho% &o$ld it belon) to one s&ien&e to re&o)ni6e t(e ,rin&i,les i' t(ese are not &ontrary< -$rt(er. t(ere are #any t(in)s to %(i&( not all t(e ,rin&i,les ,ertain. -or (o% &an a ,rin&i,le o' &(an)e or t(e nat$re o' t(e )ood e1ist 'or $n&(an)eable t(in)s. sin&e e+eryt(in) t(at in itsel' and by its o%n nat$re is )ood is an end. and a &a$se in t(e sense t(at 'or its sa e t(e ot(er t(in)s bot( &o#e to be and are. and sin&e an end or ,$r,ose is t(e end o' so#e a&tion. and all a&tions i#,ly &(an)e< So in t(e &ase o' $n&(an)eable t(in)s t(is ,rin&i,le &o$ld not e1ist. nor &o$ld t(ere be a )ood itsel'. T(is is %(y in #at(e#ati&s not(in) is ,ro+ed by #eans o' t(is ind o' &a$se. nor is t(ere any de#onstration o' t(is ind53be&a$se it is better. or %orse3* indeed no one e+en #entions anyt(in) o' t(e ind. And so 'or t(is reason so#e o' t(e So,(ists. e.). Aristi,,$s. $sed to ridi&$le #at(e#ati&s* 'or in t(e arts /(e #aintained0. e+en in t(e ind$strial arts. e.). in &ar,entry and &obblin). t(e reason al%ays )i+en is 3be&a$se it is better. or %orse.3 b$t t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es ta e no a&&o$nt o' )oods and e+ils. B$t i' t(ere are se+eral s&ien&es o' t(e &a$ses. and a di''erent

s&ien&e 'or ea&( di''erent ,rin&i,le. %(i&( o' t(ese s&ien&es s(o$ld be said to be t(at %(i&( %e see . or %(i&( o' t(e ,eo,le %(o ,ossess t(e# (as t(e #ost s&ienti'i& no%led)e o' t(e ob4e&t in 8$estion< T(e sa#e t(in) #ay (a+e all t(e inds o' &a$ses. e.). t(e #o+in) &a$se o' a (o$se is t(e art or t(e b$ilder. t(e 'inal &a$se is t(e '$n&tion it '$l'ils. t(e #atter is eart( and stones. and t(e 'or# is t(e de'inition. To 4$d)e 'ro# o$r ,re+io$s dis&$ssion o' t(e 8$estion %(i&( o' t(e s&ien&es s(o$ld be &alled Wisdo#. t(ere is reason 'or a,,lyin) t(e na#e to ea&( o' t(e#. -or inas#$&( as it is #ost ar&(ite&toni& and a$t(oritati+e and t(e ot(er s&ien&es. li e sla+e%o#en. #ay not e+en &ontradi&t it. t(e s&ien&e o' t(e end and o' t(e )ood is o' t(e nat$re o' Wisdo# /'or t(e ot(er t(in)s are 'or t(e sa e o' t(e end0. B$t inas#$&( as it %as des&ribed3 as dealin) %it( t(e 'irst &a$ses and t(at %(i&( is in t(e (i)(est sense ob4e&t o' no%led)e. t(e s&ien&e o' s$bstan&e #$st be o' t(e nat$re o' Wisdo#. -or sin&e #en #ay no% t(e sa#e t(in) in #any %ays. %e say t(at (e %(o re&o)ni6es %(at a t(in) is by its bein) so and so no%s #ore '$lly t(an (e %(o re&o)ni6es it by its not bein) so and so. and in t(e 'or#er &lass itsel' one no%s #ore '$lly t(an anot(er. and (e no%s #ost '$lly %(o no%s %(at a t(in) is. not (e %(o no%s its 8$antity or 8$ality or %(at it &an by nat$re do or (a+e done to it. And '$rt(er in all &ases also %e t(in t(at t(e no%led)e o' ea&( e+en o' t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( de#onstration is ,ossible is ,resent only %(en %e no% %(at t(e t(in) is. e.). %(at s8$arin) a re&tan)le is. +i6. t(at it is t(e 'indin) o' a #ean* and si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. And %e no% abo$t be&o#in)s and a&tions and abo$t e+ery &(an)e %(en %e no% t(e so$r&e o' t(e #o+e#ent* and t(is is ot(er t(an and o,,osed to t(e end. T(ere'ore it %o$ld see# to belon) to di''erent s&ien&es to in+esti)ate t(ese &a$ses se+erally. B$t /70. ta in) t(e startin)5,oints o' de#onstration as %ell as t(e &a$ses. it is a dis,$table 8$estion %(et(er t(ey are t(e ob4e&t o' one s&ien&e or o' #ore /by t(e startin)5,oints o' de#onstration I #ean t(e &o##on belie's. on %(i&( all #en base t(eir ,roo's0* e.). t(at e+eryt(in) #$st be eit(er a''ir#ed or denied. and t(at a t(in) &annot at t(e sa#e ti#e be and not be. and all ot(er s$&( ,re#isses>5t(e 8$estion is %(et(er t(e sa#e s&ien&e deals %it( t(e# as %it( s$bstan&e. or a di''erent s&ien&e. and i' it is not one s&ien&e. %(i&( o' t(e t%o #$st be identi'ied %it( t(at %(i&( %e no% see .5It is not reasonable t(at t(ese to,i&s s(o$ld be t(e ob4e&t o' one s&ien&e* 'or %(y s(o$ld it be ,e&$liarly a,,ro,riate to )eo#etry or to any ot(er s&ien&e to $nderstand t(ese #atters< I' t(en it belon)s to e+ery s&ien&e ali e. and &annot belon) to all. it is not ,e&$liar to t(e s&ien&e %(i&( in+esti)ates s$bstan&es. any #ore t(an to any ot(er s&ien&e. to no% abo$t t(ese to,i&s.5And. at t(e sa#e ti#e. in %(at %ay &an t(ere be a s&ien&e o' t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les< -or %e are a%are e+en no% %(at ea&( o' t(e# in 'a&t is /at least e+en ot(er s&ien&es $se t(e# as 'a#iliar0* b$t i' t(ere is a de#onstrati+e s&ien&e %(i&( deals %it( t(e#. t(ere %ill (a+e to be an $nderlyin) ind. and so#e o' t(e# #$st be de#onstrable attrib$tes and ot(ers #$st be a1io#s /'or it is i#,ossible t(at t(ere s(o$ld be de#onstration abo$t all o' t(e#0* 'or t(e de#onstration #$st start 'ro# &ertain ,re#isses and be abo$t a &ertain s$b4e&t and ,ro+e &ertain attrib$tes. T(ere'ore it 'ollo%s t(at all attrib$tes t(at are ,ro+ed #$st belon) to a sin)le &lass* 'or all de#onstrati+e s&ien&es $se t(e a1io#s. B$t i' t(e s&ien&e o' s$bstan&e and t(e s&ien&e %(i&( deals %it( t(e a1io#s are di''erent. %(i&( o' t(e# is by nat$re #ore a$t(oritati+e and ,rior< T(e a1io#s are #ost $ni+ersal and are ,rin&i,les o' all t(in)s. And i' it is not t(e b$siness o' t(e ,(iloso,(er. to %(o# else %ill it belon) to in8$ire %(at is tr$e and %(at is $ntr$e abo$t t(e#< /30 In )eneral. do all s$bstan&es 'all $nder one s&ien&e or $nder #ore t(an one< I' t(e latter. to %(at sort o' s$bstan&e is t(e ,resent s&ien&e to be assi)ned<5;n t(e ot(er (and. it is not

reasonable t(at one s&ien&e s(o$ld deal %it( all. -or t(en t(ere %o$ld be one de#onstrati+e s&ien&e dealin) %it( all attrib$tes. -or e+er de#onstrati+e s&ien&e in+esti)ates %it( re)ard to so#e s$b4e&t its essential attrib$tes. startin) 'ro# t(e &o##on belie's. T(ere'ore to in+esti)ate t(e essential attrib$tes o' one &lass o' t(in)s. startin) 'ro# one set o' belie's. is t(e b$siness o' one s&ien&e. -or t(e s$b4e&t belon)s to one s&ien&e. and t(e ,re#isses belon) to one. %(et(er to t(e sa#e or to anot(er* so t(at t(e attrib$tes do so too. %(et(er t(ey are in+esti)ated by t(ese s&ien&es or by one &o#,o$nded o$t o' t(e#. /50 -$rt(er. does o$r in+esti)ation deal %it( s$bstan&es alone or also %it( t(eir attrib$tes< I #ean 'or instan&e. i' t(e solid is a s$bstan&e and so are lines and ,lanes. is it t(e b$siness o' t(e sa#e s&ien&e to no% t(ese and to no% t(e attrib$tes o' ea&( o' t(ese &lasses /t(e attrib$tes abo$t %(i&( t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es o''er ,roo's0. or o' a di''erent s&ien&e< I' o' t(e sa#e. t(e s&ien&e o' s$bstan&e also #$st be a de#onstrati+e s&ien&e. b$t it is t(o$)(t t(at t(ere is no de#onstration o' t(e essen&e o' t(in)s. And i' o' anot(er. %(at %ill be t(e s&ien&e t(at in+esti)ates t(e attrib$tes o' s$bstan&e< T(is is a +ery di''i&$lt 8$estion. /=0 -$rt(er. #$st %e say t(at sensible s$bstan&es alone e1ist. or t(at t(ere are ot(ers besides t(ese< And are s$bstan&es o' one ind or are t(ere in 'a&t se+eral inds o' s$bstan&es. as t(ose say %(o assert t(e e1isten&e bot( o' t(e -or#s and o' t(e inter#ediates. %it( %(i&( t(ey say t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es deal<5T(e sense in %(i&( %e say t(e -or#s are bot( &a$ses and sel'5de,endent s$bstan&es (as been e1,lained in o$r 'irst re#ar s abo$t t(e#* %(ile t(e t(eory ,resents di''i&$lties in #any %ays. t(e #ost ,arado1i&al t(in) o' all is t(e state#ent t(at t(ere are &ertain t(in)s besides t(ose in t(e #aterial $ni+erse. and t(at t(ese are t(e sa#e as sensible t(in)s e1&e,t t(at t(ey are eternal %(ile t(e latter are ,eris(able. -or t(ey say t(ere is a #an5(i#sel' and a (orse5itsel' and (ealt(5itsel'. %it( no '$rt(er 8$ali'i&ation.5a ,ro&ed$re li e t(at o' t(e ,eo,le %(o said t(ere are )ods. b$t in ($#an 'or#. -or t(ey %ere ,ositin) not(in) b$t eternal #en. nor are t(e Platonists #a in) t(e -or#s anyt(in) ot(er t(an eternal sensible t(in)s. -$rt(er. i' %e are to ,osit besides t(e -or#s and t(e sensibles t(e inter#ediates bet%een t(e#. %e s(all (a+e #any di''i&$lties. -or &learly on t(e sa#e ,rin&i,le t(ere %ill be lines besides t(e lines5t(e#sel+es and t(e sensible lines. and so %it( ea&( o' t(e ot(er &lasses o' t(in)s* so t(at sin&e astrono#y is one o' t(ese #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es t(ere %ill also be a (ea+en besides t(e sensible (ea+en. and a s$n and a #oon /and so %it( t(e ot(er (ea+enly bodies0 besides t(e sensible. Yet (o% are %e to belie+e in t(ese t(in)s< It is not reasonable e+en to s$,,ose s$&( a body i##o+able. b$t to s$,,ose it #o+in) is 8$ite i#,ossible.5And si#ilarly %it( t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( o,ti&s and #at(e#ati&al (ar#oni&s treat* 'or t(ese also &annot e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e sensible t(in)s. 'or t(e sa#e reasons. -or i' t(ere are sensible t(in)s and sensations inter#ediate bet%een -or# and indi+id$al. e+idently t(ere %ill also be ani#als inter#ediate bet%een ani#als5t(e#sel+es and t(e ,eris(able ani#als.5We #i)(t also raise t(e 8$estion. %it( re'eren&e to %(i&( ind o' e1istin) t(in)s %e #$st loo 'or t(ese s&ien&es o' inter#ediates. I' )eo#etry is to di''er 'ro# #ens$ration only in t(is. t(at t(e latter deals %it( t(in)s t(at %e ,er&ei+e. and t(e 'or#er %it( t(in)s t(at are not ,er&e,tible. e+idently t(ere %ill also be a s&ien&e ot(er t(an #edi&ine. inter#ediate bet%een #edi&al5s&ien&e5itsel' and t(is indi+id$al #edi&al s&ien&e. and so %it( ea&( o' t(e ot(er s&ien&es. Yet (o% is t(is ,ossible< T(ere %o$ld (a+e to be also (ealt(y t(in)s besides t(e ,er&e,tible (ealt(y t(in)s and t(e (ealt(y5itsel'.55And at t(e sa#e ti#e not e+en t(is is tr$e. t(at #ens$ration deals %it( ,er&e,tible and ,eris(able #a)nit$des* 'or t(en it %o$ld (a+e ,eris(ed %(en t(ey ,eris(ed. B$t on t(e ot(er (and astrono#y &annot be dealin) %it( ,er&e,tible

#a)nit$des nor %it( t(is (ea+en abo+e $s. -or neit(er are ,er&e,tible lines s$&( lines as t(e )eo#eter s,ea s o' /'or no ,er&e,tible t(in) is strai)(t or ro$nd in t(e %ay in %(i&( (e de'ines 3strai)(t3 and 3ro$nd3* 'or a (oo, to$&(es a strai)(t ed)e not at a ,oint. b$t as Prota)oras $sed to say it did. in (is re'$tation o' t(e )eo#eters0. nor are t(e #o+e#ents and s,iral orbits in t(e (ea+ens li e t(ose o' %(i&( astrono#y treats. nor (a+e )eo#etri&al ,oints t(e sa#e nat$re as t(e a&t$al stars.52o% t(ere are so#e %(o say t(at t(ese so5&alled inter#ediates bet%een t(e -or#s and t(e ,er&e,tible t(in)s e1ist. not a,art 'ro# t(e ,er&e,tible t(in)s. (o%e+er. b$t in t(ese* t(e i#,ossible res$lts o' t(is +ie% %o$ld ta e too lon) to en$#erate. b$t it is eno$)( to &onsider e+en s$&( ,oints as t(e 'ollo%in)>5It is not reasonable t(at t(is s(o$ld be so only in t(e &ase o' t(ese inter#ediates. b$t &learly t(e -or#s also #i)(t be in t(e ,er&e,tible t(in)s* 'or bot( state#ents are ,arts o' t(e sa#e t(eory. -$rt(er. it 'ollo%s 'ro# t(is t(eory t(at t(ere are t%o solids in t(e sa#e ,la&e. and t(at t(e inter#ediates are not i##o+able. sin&e t(ey are in t(e #o+in) ,er&e,tible t(in)s. And in )eneral to %(at ,$r,ose %o$ld one s$,,ose t(e# to e1ist indeed. b$t to e1ist in ,er&e,tible t(in)s< -or t(e sa#e ,arado1i&al res$lts %ill 'ollo% %(i&( %e (a+e already #entioned* t(ere %ill be a (ea+en besides t(e (ea+en. only it %ill be not a,art b$t in t(e sa#e ,la&e* %(i&( is still #ore i#,ossible. 3 /@0 A,art 'ro# t(e )reat di''i&$lty o' statin) t(e &ase tr$ly %it( re)ard to t(ese #atters. it is +ery (ard to say. %it( re)ard to t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. %(et(er it is t(e )enera t(at s(o$ld be ta en as ele#ents and ,rin&i,les. or rat(er t(e ,ri#ary &onstit$ents o' a t(in)* e.). it is t(e ,ri#ary ,arts o' %(i&( arti&$late so$nds &onsist t(at are t(o$)(t to be ele#ents and ,rin&i,les o' arti&$late so$nd. not t(e &o##on )en$s5arti&$late so$nd* and %e )i+e t(e na#e o' 3ele#ents3 to t(ose )eo#etri&al ,ro,ositions. t(e ,roo's o' %(i&( are i#,lied in t(e ,roo's o' t(e ot(ers. eit(er o' all or o' #ost. -$rt(er. bot( t(ose %(o say t(ere are se+eral ele#ents o' &or,oreal t(in)s and t(ose %(o say t(ere is one. say t(e ,arts o' %(i&( bodies are &o#,o$nded and &onsist are ,rin&i,les* e.). E#,edo&les says 'ire and %ater and t(e rest are t(e &onstit$ent ele#ents o' t(in)s. b$t does not des&ribe t(ese as )enera o' e1istin) t(in)s. Besides t(is. i' %e %ant to e1a#ine t(e nat$re o' anyt(in) else. %e e1a#ine t(e ,arts o' %(i&(. e.). a bed &onsists and (o% t(ey are ,$t to)et(er. and t(en %e no% its nat$re. To 4$d)e 'ro# t(ese ar)$#ents. t(en. t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(in)s %o$ld not be t(e )enera* b$t i' %e no% ea&( t(in) by its de'inition. and t(e )enera are t(e ,rin&i,les or startin)5,oints o' de'initions. t(e )enera #$st also be t(e ,rin&i,les o' de'inable t(in)s. And i' to )et t(e no%led)e o' t(e s,e&ies a&&ordin) to %(i&( t(in)s are na#ed is to )et t(e no%led)e o' t(in)s. t(e )enera are at least startin)5,oints o' t(e s,e&ies. And so#e also o' t(ose %(o say $nity or bein). or t(e )reat and t(e s#all. are ele#ents o' t(in)s. see# to treat t(e# as )enera. B$t. a)ain. it is not ,ossible to des&ribe t(e ,rin&i,les in bot( %ays. -or t(e 'or#$la o' t(e essen&e is one* b$t de'inition by )enera %ill be di''erent 'ro# t(at %(i&( states t(e &onstit$ent ,arts o' a t(in). /A0 Besides t(is. e+en i' t(e )enera are in t(e (i)(est de)ree ,rin&i,les. s(o$ld one re)ard t(e 'irst o' t(e )enera as ,rin&i,les. or t(ose %(i&( are ,redi&ated dire&tly o' t(e indi+id$als< T(is also ad#its o' dis,$te. -or i' t(e $ni+ersals are al%ays #ore o' t(e nat$re o' ,rin&i,les. e+idently t(e $,,er#ost o' t(e )enera are t(e ,rin&i,les* 'or t(ese are ,redi&ated o' all t(in)s. T(ere %ill. t(en. be as #any ,rin&i,les o' t(in)s as t(ere are ,ri#ary )enera. so t(at bot( bein) and $nity %ill be ,rin&i,les and s$bstan&es* 'or t(ese are #ost o' all ,redi&ated o' all e1istin) t(in)s. B$t it is not

,ossible t(at eit(er $nity or bein) s(o$ld be a sin)le )en$s o' t(in)s* 'or t(e di''erentiae o' any )en$s #$st ea&( o' t(e# bot( (a+e bein) and be one. b$t it is not ,ossible 'or t(e )en$s ta en a,art 'ro# its s,e&ies /any #ore t(an 'or t(e s,e&ies o' t(e )en$s0 to be ,redi&ated o' its ,ro,er di''erentiae* so t(at i' $nity or bein) is a )en$s. no di''erentia %ill eit(er (a+e bein) or be one. B$t i' $nity and bein) are not )enera. neit(er %ill t(ey be ,rin&i,les. i' t(e )enera are t(e ,rin&i,les. A)ain. t(e inter#ediate inds. in %(ose nat$re t(e di''erentiae are in&l$ded. %ill on t(is t(eory be )enera. do%n to t(e indi+isible s,e&ies* b$t as it is. so#e are t(o$)(t to be )enera and ot(ers are not t(o$)(t to be so. Besides t(is. t(e di''erentiae are ,rin&i,les e+en #ore t(an t(e )enera* and i' t(ese also are ,rin&i,les. t(ere &o#es to be ,ra&ti&ally an in'inite n$#ber o' ,rin&i,les. es,e&ially i' %e s$,,ose t(e (i)(est )en$s to be a ,rin&i,le.5B$t a)ain. i' $nity is #ore o' t(e nat$re o' a ,rin&i,le. and t(e indi+isible is one. and e+eryt(in) indi+isible is so eit(er in 8$antity or in s,e&ies. and t(at %(i&( is so in s,e&ies is t(e ,rior. and )enera are di+isible into s,e&ies 'or #an is not t(e )en$s o' indi+id$al #en0. t(at %(i&( is ,redi&ated dire&tly o' t(e indi+id$als %ill (a+e #ore $nity.5-$rt(er. in t(e &ase o' t(in)s in %(i&( t(e distin&tion o' ,rior and ,osterior is ,resent. t(at %(i&( is ,redi&able o' t(ese t(in)s &annot be so#et(in) a,art 'ro# t(e# /e.). i' t%o is t(e 'irst o' n$#bers. t(ere %ill not be a 2$#ber a,art 'ro# t(e inds o' n$#bers* and si#ilarly t(ere %ill not be a -i)$re a,art 'ro# t(e inds o' 'i)$res* and i' t(e )enera o' t(ese t(in)s do not e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e s,e&ies. t(e )enera o' ot(er t(in)s %ill s&ar&ely do so* 'or )enera o' t(ese t(in)s are t(o$)(t to e1ist i' any do0. B$t a#on) t(e indi+id$als one is not ,rior and anot(er ,osterior. -$rt(er. %(ere one t(in) is better and anot(er %orse. t(e better is al%ays ,rior* so t(at o' t(ese also no )en$s &an e1ist. -ro# t(ese &onsiderations. t(en. t(e s,e&ies ,redi&ated o' indi+id$als see# to be ,rin&i,les rat(er t(an t(e )enera. B$t a)ain. it is not easy to say in %(at sense t(ese are to be ta en as ,rin&i,les. -or t(e ,rin&i,le or &a$se #$st e1ist alon)side o' t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( it is t(e ,rin&i,le. and #$st be &a,able o' e1istin) in se,aration 'ro# t(e#* b$t 'or %(at reason s(o$ld %e s$,,ose any s$&( t(in) to e1ist alon)side o' t(e indi+id$al. e1&e,t t(at it is ,redi&ated $ni+ersally and o' all< B$t i' t(is is t(e reason. t(e t(in)s t(at are #ore $ni+ersal #$st be s$,,osed to be #ore o' t(e nat$re o' ,rin&i,les* so t(at t(e (i)(est )enera %o$ld be t(e ,rin&i,les. = /B0 T(ere is a di''i&$lty &onne&ted %it( t(ese. t(e (ardest o' all and t(e #ost ne&essary to e1a#ine. and o' t(is t(e dis&$ssion no% a%aits $s. I'. on t(e one (and. t(ere is not(in) a,art 'ro# indi+id$al t(in)s. and t(e indi+id$als are in'inite in n$#ber. (o% t(en is it ,ossible to )et no%led)e o' t(e in'inite indi+id$als< -or all t(in)s t(at %e &o#e to no%. %e &o#e to no% in so 'ar as t(ey (a+e so#e $nity and identity. and in so 'ar as so#e attrib$te belon)s to t(e# $ni+ersally. B$t i' t(is is ne&essary. and t(ere #$st be so#et(in) a,art 'ro# t(e indi+id$als. it %ill be ne&essary t(at t(e )enera e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e indi+id$als. eit(er t(e lo%est or t(e (i)(est )enera* b$t %e 'o$nd by dis&$ssion 4$st no% t(at t(is is i#,ossible. -$rt(er. i' %e ad#it in t(e '$llest sense t(at so#et(in) e1ists a,art 'ro# t(e &on&rete t(in). %(ene+er so#et(in) is ,redi&ated o' t(e #atter. #$st t(ere. i' t(ere is so#et(in) a,art. be so#et(in) a,art 'ro# ea&( set o' indi+id$als. or 'ro# so#e and not 'ro# ot(ers. or 'ro# none< /A0 I' t(ere is not(in) a,art 'ro# indi+id$als. t(ere %ill be no ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t. b$t all t(in)s %ill be ob4e&ts o' sense. and t(ere %ill not be no%led)e o' anyt(in). $nless %e say t(at sensation is no%led)e. -$rt(er. not(in) %ill be eternal or $n#o+able* 'or all ,er&e,tible t(in)s ,eris( and are in #o+e#ent. B$t i' t(ere is not(in) eternal. neit(er &an t(ere be a ,ro&ess o' &o#in) to be* 'or

t(ere #$st be so#et(in) t(at &o#es to be. i.e. 'ro# %(i&( so#et(in) &o#es to be. and t(e $lti#ate ter# in t(is series &annot (a+e &o#e to be. sin&e t(e series (as a li#it and sin&e not(in) &an &o#e to be o$t o' t(at %(i&( is not. -$rt(er. i' )eneration and #o+e#ent e1ist t(ere #$st also be a li#it* 'or no #o+e#ent is in'inite. b$t e+ery #o+e#ent (as an end. and t(at %(i&( is in&a,able o' &o#,letin) its &o#in) to be &annot be in ,ro&ess o' &o#in) to be* and t(at %(i&( (as &o#,leted its &o#in) to be #$st (e as soon as it (as &o#e to be. -$rt(er. sin&e t(e #atter e1ists. be&a$se it is $n)enerated. it is a 'ortiori reasonable t(at t(e s$bstan&e or essen&e. t(at %(i&( t(e #atter is at any ti#e &o#in) to be. s(o$ld e1ist* 'or i' neit(er essen&e nor #atter is to be. not(in) %ill be at all. and sin&e t(is is i#,ossible t(ere #$st be so#et(in) besides t(e &on&rete t(in). +i6. t(e s(a,e or 'or#. B$t a)ain /B0 i' %e are to s$,,ose t(is. it is (ard to say in %(i&( &ases %e are to s$,,ose it and in %(i&( not. -or e+idently it is not ,ossible to s$,,ose it in all &ases* %e &o$ld not s$,,ose t(at t(ere is a (o$se besides t(e ,arti&$lar (o$ses.5Besides t(is. %ill t(e s$bstan&e o' all t(e indi+id$als. e.). o' all #en. be one< T(is is ,arado1i&al. 'or all t(e t(in)s %(ose s$bstan&e is one are one. B$t are t(e s$bstan&es #any and di''erent< T(is also is $nreasonable.5At t(e sa#e ti#e. (o% does t(e #atter be&o#e ea&( o' t(e indi+id$als. and (o% is t(e &on&rete t(in) t(ese t%o ele#ents< /C0 A)ain. one #i)(t as t(e 'ollo%in) 8$estion also abo$t t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. I' t(ey are one in ind only. not(in) %ill be n$#eri&ally one. not e+en $nity5itsel' and bein)5itsel'* and (o% %ill no%in) e1ist. i' t(ere is not to be so#et(in) &o##on to a %(ole set o' indi+id$als< B$t i' t(ere is a &o##on ele#ent %(i&( is n$#eri&ally one. and ea&( o' t(e ,rin&i,les is one. and t(e ,rin&i,les are not as in t(e &ase o' ,er&e,tible t(in)s di''erent 'or di''erent t(in)s /e.). sin&e t(is ,arti&$lar syllable is t(e sa#e in ind %(ene+er it o&&$rs. t(e ele#ents it are also t(e sa#e in ind* only in ind. 'or t(ese also. li e t(e syllable. are n$#eri&ally di''erent in di''erent &onte1ts0.5i' it is not li e t(is b$t t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(in)s are n$#eri&ally one. t(ere %ill be not(in) else besides t(e ele#ents /'or t(ere is no di''eren&e o' #eanin) bet%een 3n$#eri&ally one3 and 3indi+id$al3* 'or t(is is 4$st %(at %e #ean by t(e indi+id$al5t(e n$#eri&ally one. and by t(e $ni+ersal %e #ean t(at %(i&( is ,redi&able o' t(e indi+id$als0. T(ere'ore it %ill be 4$st as i' t(e ele#ents o' arti&$late so$nd %ere li#ited in n$#ber* all t(e lan)$a)e in t(e %orld %o$ld be &on'ined to t(e ABC. sin&e t(ere &o$ld not be t%o or #ore letters o' t(e sa#e ind. /!00 ;ne di''i&$lty %(i&( is as )reat as any (as been ne)le&ted bot( by #odern ,(iloso,(ers and by t(eir ,rede&essors5%(et(er t(e ,rin&i,les o' ,eris(able and t(ose o' i#,eris(able t(in)s are t(e sa#e or di''erent. I' t(ey are t(e sa#e. (o% are so#e t(in)s ,eris(able and ot(ers i#,eris(able. and 'or %(at reason< T(e s&(ool o' Hesiod and all t(e t(eolo)ians t(o$)(t only o' %(at %as ,la$sible to t(e#sel+es. and (ad no re)ard to $s. -or. assertin) t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les to be )ods and born o' )ods. t(ey say t(at t(e bein)s %(i&( did not taste o' ne&tar and a#brosia be&a#e #ortal* and &learly t(ey are $sin) %ords %(i&( are 'a#iliar to t(e#sel+es. yet %(at t(ey (a+e said abo$t t(e +ery a,,li&ation o' t(ese &a$ses is abo+e o$r &o#,re(ension. -or i' t(e )ods taste o' ne&tar and a#brosia 'or t(eir ,leas$re. t(ese are in no %ise t(e &a$ses o' t(eir e1isten&e* and i' t(ey taste t(e# to #aintain t(eir e1isten&e. (o% &an )ods %(o need 'ood be eternal<5B$t into t(e s$btleties o' t(e #yt(olo)ists it is not %ort( o$r %(ile to in8$ire serio$sly* t(ose. (o%e+er. %(o $se t(e lan)$a)e o' ,roo' %e #$st &ross5e1a#ine and as %(y. a'ter all. t(in)s %(i&( &onsist o' t(e sa#e ele#ents are. so#e o' t(e#. eternal in nat$re. %(ile ot(ers ,eris(. Sin&e t(ese ,(iloso,(ers #ention no &a$se. and it is $nreasonable t(at t(in)s s(o$ld be as t(ey say. e+idently t(e ,rin&i,les or &a$ses o' t(in)s &annot be t(e sa#e. E+en t(e #an %(o#

one #i)(t s$,,ose to s,ea #ost &onsistently5E#,edo&les. e+en (e (as #ade t(e sa#e #ista e* 'or (e #aintains t(at stri'e is a ,rin&i,le t(at &a$ses destr$&tion. b$t e+en stri'e %o$ld see# no less to ,rod$&e e+eryt(in). e1&e,t t(e ;ne* 'or all t(in)s e1&e,tin) :od ,ro&eed 'ro# stri'e. At least (e says>5 -ro# %(i&( all t(at %as and is and %ill be (erea'ter5 Trees. and #en and %o#en. too t(eir )ro%t(. And beasts and birds and %ater5no$ris(ed 'is(. And lon)5a)ed )ods. T(e i#,li&ation is e+ident e+en a,art 'ro# t(ese %ords* 'or i' stri'e (ad not been ,resent in t(in)s. all t(in)s %o$ld (a+e been one. a&&ordin) to (i#* 'or %(en t(ey (a+e &o#e to)et(er. 3t(en stri'e stood o$ter#ost.3 Hen&e it also 'ollo%s on (is t(eory t(at :od #ost blessed is less %ise t(an all ot(ers* 'or (e does not no% all t(e ele#ents* 'or (e (as in (i# no stri'e. and no%led)e is o' t(e li e by t(e li e. 3-or by eart(.3 (e says. %e see eart(. by %ater %ater. By et(er )odli e et(er. by 'ire %astin) 'ire. "o+e by lo+e. and stri'e by )loo#y stri'e. B$t5and t(is is t(e ,oint %e started 'ro# t(is at least is e+ident. t(at on (is t(eory it 'ollo%s t(at stri'e is as #$&( t(e &a$se o' e1isten&e as o' destr$&tion. And si#ilarly lo+e is not s,e&ially t(e &a$se o' e1isten&e* 'or in &olle&tin) t(in)s into t(e ;ne it destroys all ot(er t(in)s. And at t(e sa#e ti#e E#,edo&les #entions no &a$se o' t(e &(an)e itsel'. e1&e,t t(at t(in)s are so by nat$re. B$t %(en stri'e at last %a1ed )reat in t(e li#bs o' t(e S,(ere. And s,ran) to assert its ri)(ts as t(e ti#e %as '$l'illed W(i&( is 'i1ed 'or t(e# in t$rn by a #i)(ty oat(. T(is i#,lies t(at &(an)e %as ne&essary* b$t (e s(o%s no &a$se o' t(e ne&essity. B$t yet so 'ar at least (e alone s,ea s &onsistently* 'or (e does not #a e so#e t(in)s ,eris(able and ot(ers i#,eris(able. b$t #a es all ,eris(able e1&e,t t(e ele#ents. T(e di''i&$lty %e are s,ea in) o' no% is. %(y so#e t(in)s are ,eris(able and ot(ers are not. i' t(ey &onsist o' t(e sa#e ,rin&i,les. "et t(is s$''i&e as ,roo' o' t(e 'a&t t(at t(e ,rin&i,les &annot be t(e sa#e. B$t i' t(ere are di''erent ,rin&i,les. one di''i&$lty is %(et(er t(ese also %ill be i#,eris(able or ,eris(able. -or i' t(ey are ,eris(able. e+idently t(ese also #$st &onsist o' &ertain ele#ents /'or all t(in)s t(at ,eris(. ,eris( by bein) resol+ed into t(e ele#ents o' %(i&( t(ey &onsist0* so t(at it 'ollo%s t(at ,rior to t(e ,rin&i,les t(ere are ot(er ,rin&i,les. B$t t(is is i#,ossible. %(et(er t(e ,ro&ess (as a li#it or ,ro&eeds to in'inity. -$rt(er. (o% %ill ,eris(able t(in)s e1ist. i' t(eir ,rin&i,les are to be ann$lled< B$t i' t(e ,rin&i,les are i#,eris(able. %(y %ill t(in)s &o#,osed o' so#e i#,eris(able ,rin&i,les be ,eris(able. %(ile t(ose &o#,osed o' t(e ot(ers are i#,eris(able< T(is is not ,robable. b$t is eit(er i#,ossible or needs #$&( ,roo'. -$rt(er. no one (as e+en tried to #aintain di''erent ,rin&i,les* t(ey #aintain t(e sa#e ,rin&i,les 'or all t(in)s. B$t t(ey s%allo% t(e di''i&$lty %e stated 'irst as i' t(ey too it to be so#et(in) tri'lin). /!!0 T(e in8$iry t(at is bot( t(e (ardest o' all and t(e #ost ne&essary 'or no%led)e o' t(e tr$t( is %(et(er bein) and $nity are t(e s$bstan&es o' t(in)s. and %(et(er ea&( o' t(e#. %it(o$t bein) anyt(in) else. is bein) or $nity res,e&ti+ely. or %e #$st in8$ire %(at bein) and $nity are. %it( t(e i#,li&ation t(at t(ey (a+e so#e ot(er

$nderlyin) nat$re. -or so#e ,eo,le t(in t(ey are o' t(e 'or#er. ot(ers t(in t(ey are o' t(e latter &(ara&ter. Plato and t(e Pyt(a)oreans t(o$)(t bein) and $nity %ere not(in) else. b$t t(is %as t(eir nat$re. t(eir essen&e bein) 4$st $nity and bein). B$t t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers ta e a di''erent line* e.). E#,edo&les5as t(o$)( red$&in) to so#et(in) #ore intelli)ible5says %(at $nity is* 'or (e %o$ld see# to say it is lo+e> at least. t(is is 'or all t(in)s t(e &a$se o' t(eir bein) one. ;t(ers say t(is $nity and bein). o' %(i&( t(in)s &onsist and (a+e been #ade. is 'ire. and ot(ers say it is air. A si#ilar +ie% is e1,ressed by t(ose %(o #a e t(e ele#ents #ore t(an one* 'or t(ese also #$st say t(at $nity and bein) are ,re&isely all t(e t(in)s %(i&( t(ey say are ,rin&i,les. /A0 I' %e do not s$,,ose $nity and bein) to be s$bstan&es. it 'ollo%s t(at none o' t(e ot(er $ni+ersals is a s$bstan&e* 'or t(ese are #ost $ni+ersal o' all. and i' t(ere is no $nity itsel' or bein)5itsel'. t(ere %ill s&ar&ely be in any ot(er &ase anyt(in) a,art 'ro# %(at are &alled t(e indi+id$als. -$rt(er. i' $nity is not a s$bstan&e. e+idently n$#ber also %ill not e1ist as an entity se,arate 'ro# t(e indi+id$al t(in)s* 'or n$#ber is $nits. and t(e $nit is ,re&isely a &ertain ind o' one. B$t /B0 i' t(ere is a $nity5itsel' and a bein) itsel'. $nity and bein) #$st be t(eir s$bstan&e* 'or it is not so#et(in) else t(at is ,redi&ated $ni+ersally o' t(e t(in)s t(at are and are one. b$t 4$st $nity and bein). B$t i' t(ere is to be a bein)5itsel' and a $nity5itsel'. t(ere is #$&( di''i&$lty in seein) (o% t(ere %ill be anyt(in) else besides t(ese.5I #ean. (o% t(in)s %ill be #ore t(an one in n$#ber. -or %(at is di''erent 'ro# bein) does not e1ist. so t(at it ne&essarily 'ollo%s. a&&ordin) to t(e ar)$#ent o' Par#enides. t(at all t(in)s t(at are are one and t(is is bein). T(ere are ob4e&tions to bot( +ie%s. -or %(et(er $nity is not a s$bstan&e or t(ere is a $nity5itsel'. n$#ber &annot be a s$bstan&e. We (a+e already said %(y t(is res$lt 'ollo%s i' $nity is not a s$bstan&e* and i' it is. t(e sa#e di''i&$lty arises as arose %it( re)ard to bein). -or %(en&e is t(ere to be anot(er one besides $nity5itsel'< It #$st be not5one* b$t all t(in)s are eit(er one or #any. and o' t(e #any ea&( is one. -$rt(er. i' $nity5itsel' is indi+isible. a&&ordin) to Deno3s ,ost$late it %ill be not(in). -or t(at %(i&( neit(er %(en added #a es a t(in) )reater nor %(en s$btra&ted #a es it less. (e asserts to (a+e no bein). e+idently ass$#in) t(at %(ate+er (as bein) is a s,atial #a)nit$de. And i' it is a #a)nit$de. it is &or,oreal* 'or t(e &or,oreal (as bein) in e+ery di#ension. %(ile t(e ot(er ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. e.). a ,lane or a line. added in one %ay %ill in&rease %(at t(ey are added to. b$t in anot(er %ay %ill not do so. and a ,oint or a $nit does so in no %ay. B$t. sin&e (is t(eory is o' a lo% order. and an indi+isible t(in) &an e1ist in s$&( a %ay as to (a+e a de'en&e e+en a)ainst (i# /'or t(e indi+isible %(en added %ill #a e t(e n$#ber. t(o$)( not t(e si6e. )reater0.5yet (o% &an a #a)nit$de ,ro&eed 'ro# one s$&( indi+isible or 'ro# #any< It is li e sayin) t(at t(e line is #ade o$t o' ,oints. B$t e+en i' ore s$,,oses t(e &ase to be s$&( t(at. as so#e say. n$#ber ,ro&eeds 'ro# $nity5itsel' and so#et(in) else %(i&( is not one. none t(e less %e #$st in8$ire %(y and (o% t(e ,rod$&t %ill be so#eti#es a n$#ber and so#eti#es a #a)nit$de. i' t(e not5one %as ine8$ality and %as t(e sa#e ,rin&i,le in eit(er &ase. -or it is not e+ident (o% #a)nit$des &o$ld ,ro&eed eit(er 'ro# t(e one and t(is ,rin&i,le. or 'ro# so#e n$#ber and t(is ,rin&i,le. 5 /!=0 A 8$estion &onne&ted %it( t(ese is %(et(er n$#bers and bodies and ,lanes and ,oints are s$bstan&es o' a ind. or not. I' t(ey are not. it ba''les $s to say %(at bein) is and %(at t(e s$bstan&es o' t(in)s are. -or #odi'i&ations and #o+e#ents and relations and dis,ositions and ratios do not see# to indi&ate t(e s$bstan&e o'

anyt(in)* 'or all are ,redi&ated o' a s$b4e&t. and none is a 3t(is3. And as to t(e t(in)s %(i&( #i)(t see# #ost o' all to indi&ate s$bstan&e. %ater and eart( and 'ire and air. o' %(i&( &o#,osite bodies &onsist. (eat and &old and t(e li e are #odi'i&ations o' t(ese. not s$bstan&es. and t(e body %(i&( is t($s #odi'ied alone ,ersists as so#et(in) real and as a s$bstan&e. B$t. on t(e ot(er (and. t(e body is s$rely less o' a s$bstan&e t(an t(e s$r'a&e. and t(e s$r'a&e t(an t(e line. and t(e line t(an t(e $nit and t(e ,oint. -or t(e body is bo$nded by t(ese* and t(ey are t(o$)(t to be &a,able o' e1istin) %it(o$t body. b$t body in&a,able o' e1istin) %it(o$t t(ese. T(is is %(y. %(ile #ost o' t(e ,(iloso,(ers and t(e earlier a#on) t(e# t(o$)(t t(at s$bstan&e and bein) %ere identi&al %it( body. and t(at all ot(er t(in)s %ere #odi'i&ations o' t(is. so t(at t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les o' t(e bodies %ere t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les o' bein). t(e #ore re&ent and t(ose %(o %ere (eld to be %iser t(o$)(t n$#bers %ere t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. As %e said. t(en. i' t(ese are not s$bstan&e. t(ere is no s$bstan&e and no bein) at all* 'or t(e a&&idents o' t(ese it &annot be ri)(t to &all bein)s. B$t i' t(is is ad#itted. t(at lines and ,oints are s$bstan&e #ore t(an bodies. b$t %e do not see to %(at sort o' bodies t(ese &o$ld belon) /'or t(ey &annot be in ,er&e,tible bodies0. t(ere &an be no s$bstan&e.5-$rt(er. t(ese are all e+idently di+isions o' body.5one in breadt(. anot(er in de,t(. anot(er in len)t(. Besides t(is. no sort o' s(a,e is ,resent in t(e solid #ore t(an any ot(er* so t(at i' t(e Her#es is not in t(e stone. neit(er is t(e (al' o' t(e &$be in t(e &$be as so#et(in) deter#inate* t(ere'ore t(e s$r'a&e is not in it eit(er* 'or i' any sort o' s$r'a&e %ere in it. t(e s$r'a&e %(i&( #ar s o'' t(e (al' o' t(e &$be %o$ld be in it too. And t(e sa#e a&&o$nt a,,lies to t(e line and to t(e ,oint and t(e $nit. T(ere'ore. i' on t(e one (and body is in t(e (i)(est de)ree s$bstan&e. and on t(e ot(er (and t(ese t(in)s are so #ore t(an body. b$t t(ese are not e+en instan&es o' s$bstan&e. it ba''les $s to say %(at bein) is and %(at t(e s$bstan&e o' t(in)s is.5-or besides %(at (as been said. t(e 8$estions o' )eneration and instr$&tion &on'ront $s %it( '$rt(er ,arado1es. -or i' s$bstan&e. not (a+in) e1isted be'ore. no% e1ists. or (a+in) e1isted be'ore. a'ter%ards does not e1ist. t(is &(an)e is t(o$)(t to be a&&o#,anied by a ,ro&ess o' be&o#in) or ,eris(in)* b$t ,oints and lines and s$r'a&es &annot be in ,ro&ess eit(er o' be&o#in) or o' ,eris(in). %(en t(ey at one ti#e e1ist and at anot(er do not. -or %(en bodies &o#e into &onta&t or are di+ided. t(eir bo$ndaries si#$ltaneo$sly be&o#e one in t(e one &ase %(en t(ey to$&(. and t%o in t(e ot(er5%(en t(ey are di+ided* so t(at %(en t(ey (a+e been ,$t to)et(er one bo$ndary does not e1ist b$t (as ,eris(ed. and %(en t(ey (a+e been di+ided t(e bo$ndaries e1ist %(i&( be'ore did not e1ist /'or it &annot be said t(at t(e ,oint. %(i&( is indi+isible. %as di+ided into t%o0. And i' t(e bo$ndaries &o#e into bein) and &ease to be. 'ro# %(at do t(ey &o#e into bein)< A si#ilar a&&o$nt #ay also be )i+en o' t(e 3no%3 in ti#e* 'or t(is also &annot be in ,ro&ess o' &o#in) into bein) or o' &easin) to be. b$t yet see#s to be al%ays di''erent. %(i&( s(o%s t(at it is not a s$bstan&e. And e+idently t(e sa#e is tr$e o' ,oints and lines and ,lanes* 'or t(e sa#e ar)$#ent a,,lies. sin&e t(ey are all ali e eit(er li#its or di+isions. @ In )eneral one #i)(t raise t(e 8$estion %(y a'ter all. besides ,er&e,tible t(in)s and t(e inter#ediates. %e (a+e to loo 'or anot(er &lass o' t(in)s. i.e. t(e -or#s %(i&( %e ,osit. I' it is 'or t(is reason. be&a$se t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. %(ile t(ey di''er 'ro# t(e t(in)s in t(is %orld in so#e ot(er res,e&t. di''er not at all in t(at t(ere are #any o' t(e sa#e ind. so t(at t(eir 'irst ,rin&i,les &annot be li#ited in n$#ber /4$st as t(e ele#ents o' all t(e lan)$a)e in t(is sensible %orld are not li#ited in n$#ber. b$t in ind. $nless one ta es t(e ele#ents o' t(is indi+id$al syllable

or o' t(is indi+id$al arti&$late so$nd5%(ose ele#ents %ill be li#ited e+en in n$#ber* so is it also in t(e &ase o' t(e inter#ediates* 'or t(ere also t(e #e#bers o' t(e sa#e ind are in'inite in n$#ber0. so t(at i' t(ere are not5besides ,er&e,tible and #at(e#ati&al ob4e&ts5ot(ers s$&( as so#e #aintain t(e -or#s to be. t(ere %ill be no s$bstan&e %(i&( is one in n$#ber. b$t only in ind. nor %ill t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les o' t(in)s be deter#inate in n$#ber. b$t only in ind>5i' t(en t(is #$st be so. t(e -or#s also #$st t(ere'ore be (eld to e1ist. E+en i' t(ose %(o s$,,ort t(is +ie% do not e1,ress it arti&$lately. still t(is is %(at t(ey #ean. and t(ey #$st be #aintainin) t(e -or#s 4$st be&a$se ea&( o' t(e -or#s is a s$bstan&e and none is by a&&ident. B$t i' %e are to s$,,ose bot( t(at t(e -or#s e1ist and t(at t(e ,rin&i,les are one in n$#ber. not in ind. %e (a+e #entioned t(e i#,ossible res$lts t(at ne&essarily 'ollo%. /!30 Closely &onne&ted %it( t(is is t(e 8$estion %(et(er t(e ele#ents e1ist ,otentially or in so#e ot(er #anner. I' in so#e ot(er %ay. t(ere %ill be so#et(in) else ,rior to t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les* 'or t(e ,oten&y is ,rior to t(e a&t$al &a$se. and it is not ne&essary 'or e+eryt(in) ,otential to be a&t$al.5B$t i' t(e ele#ents e1ist ,otentially. it is ,ossible t(at e+eryt(in) t(at is s(o$ld not be. -or e+en t(at %(i&( is not yet is &a,able o' bein)* 'or t(at %(i&( is not &o#es to be. b$t not(in) t(at is in&a,able o' bein) &o#es to be. /!70 We #$st not only raise t(ese 8$estions abo$t t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. b$t also as %(et(er t(ey are $ni+ersal or %(at %e &all indi+id$als. I' t(ey are $ni+ersal. t(ey %ill not be s$bstan&es* 'or e+eryt(in) t(at is &o##on indi&ates not a 3t(is3 b$t a 3s$&(3. b$t s$bstan&e is a 3t(is3. And i' %e are to be allo%ed to lay it do%n t(at a &o##on ,redi&ate is a 3t(is3 and a sin)le t(in). So&rates %ill be se+eral ani#als5(i#sel' and 3#an3 and 3ani#al3. i' ea&( o' t(ese indi&ates a 3t(is3 and a sin)le t(in). I'. t(en. t(e ,rin&i,les are $ni+ersals. t(ese $ni+ersal. T(ere'ore i' t(ere is to be res$lts 'ollo%* i' t(ey are not $ni+ersals b$t o' no%led)e o' t(e ,rin&i,les t(ere #$st be t(e nat$re o' indi+id$als. t(ey %ill not be ot(er ,rin&i,les ,rior to t(e#. na#ely t(ose no%able* 'or t(e no%led)e o' anyt(in) is t(at are $ni+ersally ,redi&ated o' t(e#. Boo IE ! THERE is a s&ien&e %(i&( in+esti)ates bein) as bein) and t(e attrib$tes %(i&( belon) to t(is in +irt$e o' its o%n nat$re. 2o% t(is is not t(e sa#e as any o' t(e so5&alled s,e&ial s&ien&es* 'or none o' t(ese ot(ers treats $ni+ersally o' bein) as bein). T(ey &$t o'' a ,art o' bein) and in+esti)ate t(e attrib$te o' t(is ,art* t(is is %(at t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es 'or instan&e do. 2o% sin&e %e are see in) t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les and t(e (i)(est &a$ses. &learly t(ere #$st be so#e t(in) to %(i&( t(ese belon) in +irt$e o' its o%n nat$re. I' t(en t(ose %(o so$)(t t(e ele#ents o' e1istin) t(in)s %ere see in) t(ese sa#e ,rin&i,les. it is ne&essary t(at t(e ele#ents #$st be ele#ents o' bein) not by a&&ident b$t 4$st be&a$se it is bein). T(ere'ore it is o' bein) as bein) t(at %e also #$st )ras, t(e 'irst &a$ses. 7 T(ere are #any senses in %(i&( a t(in) #ay be said to 3be3. b$t all t(at 3is3 is related to one &entral ,oint. one de'inite ind o' t(in). and is not said to 3be3 by a #ere a#bi)$ity. E+eryt(in) %(i&( is (ealt(y is related to (ealt(. one t(in) in t(e sense t(at it ,reser+es (ealt(. anot(er in t(e sense t(at it ,rod$&es it. anot(er in t(e sense t(at it is a sy#,to# o' (ealt(. anot(er be&a$se it is &a,able o' it. And t(at %(i&( is #edi&al is relati+e to t(e #edi&al art. one t(in) bein) &alled #edi&al be&a$se it ,ossesses it. anot(er

be&a$se it is nat$rally ada,ted to it. anot(er be&a$se it is a '$n&tion o' t(e #edi&al art. And %e s(all 'ind ot(er %ords $sed si#ilarly to t(ese. So. too. t(ere are #any senses in %(i&( a t(in) is said to be. b$t all re'er to one startin)5,oint* so#e t(in)s are said to be be&a$se t(ey are s$bstan&es. ot(ers be&a$se t(ey are a''e&tions o' s$bstan&e. ot(ers be&a$se t(ey are a ,ro&ess to%ards s$bstan&e. or destr$&tions or ,ri+ations or 8$alities o' s$bstan&e. or ,rod$&ti+e or )enerati+e o' s$bstan&e. or o' t(in)s %(i&( are relati+e to s$bstan&e. or ne)ations o' one o' t(ese t(in) o' s$bstan&e itsel'. It is 'or t(is reason t(at %e say e+en o' non5bein) t(at it is nonbein). As. t(en. t(ere is one s&ien&e %(i&( deals %it( all (ealt(y t(in)s. t(e sa#e a,,lies in t(e ot(er &ases also. -or not only in t(e &ase o' t(in)s %(i&( (a+e one &o##on notion does t(e in+esti)ation belon) to one s&ien&e. b$t also in t(e &ase o' t(in)s %(i&( are related to one &o##on nat$re* 'or e+en t(ese in a sense (a+e one &o##on notion. It is &lear t(en t(at it is t(e %or o' one s&ien&e also to st$dy t(e t(in)s t(at are. 8$a bein).5B$t e+ery%(ere s&ien&e deals &(ie'ly %it( t(at %(i&( is ,ri#ary. and on %(i&( t(e ot(er t(in)s de,end. and in +irt$e o' %(i&( t(ey )et t(eir na#es. I'. t(en. t(is is s$bstan&e. it %ill be o' s$bstan&es t(at t(e ,(iloso,(er #$st )ras, t(e ,rin&i,les and t(e &a$ses. 2o% 'or ea&( one &lass o' t(in)s. as t(ere is one ,er&e,tion. so t(ere is one s&ien&e. as 'or instan&e )ra##ar. bein) one s&ien&e. in+esti)ates all arti&$late so$nds. Hen&e to in+esti)ate all t(e s,e&ies o' bein) 8$a bein) is t(e %or o' a s&ien&e %(i&( is )eneri&ally one. and to in+esti)ate t(e se+eral s,e&ies is t(e %or o' t(e s,e&i'i& ,arts o' t(e s&ien&e. I'. no%. bein) and $nity are t(e sa#e and are one t(in) in t(e sense t(at t(ey are i#,lied in one anot(er as ,rin&i,le and &a$se are. not in t(e sense t(at t(ey are e1,lained by t(e sa#e de'inition /t(o$)( it #a es no di''eren&e e+en i' %e s$,,ose t(e# to be li e t(at5in 'a&t t(is %o$ld e+en stren)t(en o$r &ase0* 'or 3one #an3 and 3#an3 are t(e sa#e t(in). and so are 3e1istent #an3 and 3#an3. and t(e do$blin) o' t(e %ords in 3one #an and one e1istent #an3 does not e1,ress anyt(in) di''erent /it is &lear t(at t(e t%o t(in)s are not se,arated eit(er in &o#in) to be or in &easin) to be0* and si#ilarly 3one e1istent #an3 adds not(in) to 3e1istent #an3. and t(at it is ob+io$s t(at t(e addition in t(ese &ases #eans t(e sa#e t(in). and $nity is not(in) a,art 'ro# bein)* and i'. '$rt(er. t(e s$bstan&e o' ea&( t(in) is one in no #erely a&&idental %ay. and si#ilarly is 'ro# its +ery nat$re so#et(in) t(at is>5all t(is bein) so. t(ere #$st be e1a&tly as #any s,e&ies o' bein) as o' $nity. And to in+esti)ate t(e essen&e o' t(ese is t(e %or o' a s&ien&e %(i&( is )eneri&ally one5I #ean. 'or instan&e. t(e dis&$ssion o' t(e sa#e and t(e si#ilar and t(e ot(er &on&e,ts o' t(is sort* and nearly all &ontraries #ay be re'erred to t(is ori)in* let $s ta e t(e# as (a+in) been in+esti)ated in t(e 3Sele&tion o' Contraries3. And t(ere are as #any ,arts o' ,(iloso,(y as t(ere are inds o' s$bstan&e. so t(at t(ere #$st ne&essarily be a#on) t(e# a 'irst ,(iloso,(y and one %(i&( 'ollo%s t(is. -or bein) 'alls i##ediately into )enera* 'or %(i&( reason t(e s&ien&es too %ill &orres,ond to t(ese )enera. -or t(e ,(iloso,(er is li e t(e #at(e#ati&ian. as t(at %ord is $sed* 'or #at(e#ati&s also (as ,arts. and t(ere is a 'irst and a se&ond s&ien&e and ot(er s$&&essi+e ones %it(in t(e s,(ere o' #at(e#ati&s. 2o% sin&e it is t(e %or o' one s&ien&e to in+esti)ate o,,osites. and ,l$rality is o,,osed to $nity5and it belon)s to one s&ien&e to in+esti)ate t(e ne)ation and t(e ,ri+ation be&a$se in bot( &ases %e are really in+esti)atin) t(e one t(in) o' %(i&( t(e ne)ation or t(e ,ri+ation is a ne)ation or ,ri+ation /'or %e eit(er say si#,ly t(at t(at t(in) is not ,resent. or t(at it is not ,resent in so#e ,arti&$lar &lass* in t(e latter &ase di''eren&e is ,resent o+er and abo+e %(at is i#,lied in ne)ation* 'or ne)ation #eans 4$st t(e absen&e o' t(e t(in) in 8$estion. %(ile in ,ri+ation t(ere is also

e#,loyed an $nderlyin) nat$re o' %(i&( t(e ,ri+ation is asserted0>5in +ie% o' all t(ese 'a&ts. t(e &ontraries o' t(e &on&e,ts %e na#ed abo+e. t(e ot(er and t(e dissi#ilar and t(e $ne8$al. and e+eryt(in) else %(i&( is deri+ed eit(er 'ro# t(ese or 'ro# ,l$rality and $nity. #$st 'all %it(in t(e ,ro+in&e o' t(e s&ien&e abo+e na#ed. And &ontrariety is one o' t(ese &on&e,ts* 'or &ontrariety is a ind o' di''eren&e. and di''eren&e is a ind o' ot(erness. T(ere'ore. sin&e t(ere are #any senses in %(i&( a t(in) is said to be one. t(ese ter#s also %ill (a+e #any senses. b$t yet it belon)s to one s&ien&e to no% t(e# all* 'or a ter# belon)s to di''erent s&ien&es not i' it (as di''erent senses. b$t i' it (as not one #eanin) and its de'initions &annot be re'erred to one &entral #eanin). And sin&e all t(in)s are re'erred to t(at %(i&( is ,ri#ary. as 'or instan&e all t(in)s %(i&( are &alled one are re'erred to t(e ,ri#ary one. %e #$st say t(at t(is (olds )ood also o' t(e sa#e and t(e ot(er and o' &ontraries in )eneral* so t(at a'ter distin)$is(in) t(e +ario$s senses o' ea&(. %e #$st t(en e1,lain by re'eren&e to %(at is ,ri#ary in t(e &ase o' ea&( o' t(e ,redi&ates in 8$estion. sayin) (o% t(ey are related to it* 'or so#e %ill be &alled %(at t(ey are &alled be&a$se t(ey ,ossess it. ot(ers be&a$se t(ey ,rod$&e it. and ot(ers in ot(er s$&( %ays. It is e+ident. t(en. t(at it belon)s to one s&ien&e to be able to )i+e an a&&o$nt o' t(ese &on&e,ts as %ell as o' s$bstan&e /t(is %as one o' t(e 8$estions in o$r boo o' ,roble#s0. and t(at it is t(e '$n&tion o' t(e ,(iloso,(er to be able to in+esti)ate all t(in)s. -or i' it is not t(e '$n&tion o' t(e ,(iloso,(er. %(o is it %(o %ill in8$ire %(et(er So&rates and So&rates seated are t(e sa#e t(in). or %(et(er one t(in) (as one &ontrary. or %(at &ontrariety is. or (o% #any #eanin)s it (as< And si#ilarly %it( all ot(er s$&( 8$estions. Sin&e. t(en. t(ese are essential #odi'i&ations o' $nity 8$a $nity and o' bein) 8$a bein). not 8$a n$#bers or lines or 'ire. it is &lear t(at it belon)s to t(is s&ien&e to in+esti)ate bot( t(e essen&e o' t(ese &on&e,ts and t(eir ,ro,erties. And t(ose %(o st$dy t(ese ,ro,erties err not by lea+in) t(e s,(ere o' ,(iloso,(y. b$t by 'or)ettin) t(at s$bstan&e. o' %(i&( t(ey (a+e no &orre&t idea. is ,rior to t(ese ot(er t(in)s. -or n$#ber 8$a n$#ber (as ,e&$liar attrib$tes. s$&( as oddness and e+enness. &o##ens$rability and e8$ality. e1&ess and de'e&t. and t(ese belon) to n$#bers eit(er in t(e#sel+es or in relation to one anot(er. And si#ilarly t(e solid and t(e #otionless and t(at %(i&( is in #otion and t(e %ei)(tless and t(at %(i&( (as %ei)(t (a+e ot(er ,e&$liar ,ro,erties. So too t(ere are &ertain ,ro,erties ,e&$liar to bein) as s$&(. and it is abo$t t(ese t(at t(e ,(iloso,(er (as to in+esti)ate t(e tr$t(.5An indi&ation o' t(is #ay be #entioned> diale&ti&ians and so,(ists ass$#e t(e sa#e )$ise as t(e ,(iloso,(er. 'or so,(isti& is Wisdo# %(i&( e1ists only in se#blan&e. and diale&ti&ians e#bra&e all t(in)s in t(eir diale&ti&. and bein) is &o##on to all t(in)s* b$t e+idently t(eir diale&ti& e#bra&es t(ese s$b4e&ts be&a$se t(ese are ,ro,er to ,(iloso,(y.5-or so,(isti& and diale&ti& t$rn on t(e sa#e &lass o' t(in)s as ,(iloso,(y. b$t t(is di''ers 'ro# diale&ti& in t(e nat$re o' t(e 'a&$lty re8$ired and 'ro# so,(isti& in res,e&t o' t(e ,$r,ose o' t(e ,(iloso,(i& li'e. Diale&ti& is #erely &riti&al %(ere ,(iloso,(y &lai#s to no%. and so,(isti& is %(at a,,ears to be ,(iloso,(y b$t is not. A)ain. in t(e list o' &ontraries one o' t(e t%o &ol$#ns is ,ri+ati+e. and all &ontraries are red$&ible to bein) and non5bein). and to $nity and ,l$rality. as 'or instan&e rest belon)s to $nity and #o+e#ent to ,l$rality. And nearly all t(in ers a)ree t(at bein) and s$bstan&e are &o#,osed o' &ontraries* at least all na#e &ontraries as t(eir 'irst ,rin&i,les5so#e na#e odd and e+en. so#e (ot and &old. so#e li#it and t(e $nli#ited. so#e lo+e and stri'e. And all t(e ot(ers as %ell are e+idently red$&ible to $nity and ,l$rality /t(is red$&tion %e #$st ta e 'or )ranted0. and t(e ,rin&i,les stated by ot(er t(in ers 'all entirely $nder t(ese as t(eir )enera. It is ob+io$s t(en 'ro# t(ese &onsiderations too t(at it belon)s to one s&ien&e to e1a#ine

bein) 8$a bein). -or all t(in)s are eit(er &ontraries or &o#,osed o' &ontraries. and $nity and ,l$rality are t(e startin)5,oints o' all &ontraries. And t(ese belon) to one s&ien&e. %(et(er t(ey (a+e or (a+e not one sin)le #eanin). Probably t(e tr$t( is t(at t(ey (a+e not* yet e+en i' 3one3 (as se+eral #eanin)s. t(e ot(er #eanin)s %ill be related to t(e ,ri#ary #eanin) /and si#ilarly in t(e &ase o' t(e &ontraries0. e+en i' bein) or $nity is not a $ni+ersal and t(e sa#e in e+ery instan&e or is not se,arable 'ro# t(e ,arti&$lar instan&es /as in 'a&t it ,robably is not* t(e $nity is in so#e &ases t(at o' &o##on re'eren&e. in so#e &ases t(at o' serial s$&&ession0. And 'or t(is reason it does not belon) to t(e )eo#eter to in8$ire %(at is &ontrariety or &o#,leteness or $nity or bein) or t(e sa#e or t(e ot(er. b$t only to ,res$,,ose t(ese &on&e,ts and reason 'ro# t(is startin)5,oint.55;b+io$sly t(en it is t(e %or o' one s&ien&e to e1a#ine bein) 8$a bein). and t(e attrib$tes %(i&( belon) to it 8$a bein). and t(e sa#e s&ien&e %ill e1a#ine not only s$bstan&es b$t also t(eir attrib$tes. bot( t(ose abo+e na#ed and t(e &on&e,ts 3,rior3 and 3,osterior3. 3)en$s3 and 3s,e&ies3. 3%(ole3 and 3,art3. and t(e ot(ers o' t(is sort. 3 We #$st state %(et(er it belon)s to one or to di''erent s&ien&es to in8$ire into t(e tr$t(s %(i&( are in #at(e#ati&s &alled a1io#s. and into s$bstan&e. E+idently. t(e in8$iry into t(ese also belon)s to one s&ien&e. and t(at t(e s&ien&e o' t(e ,(iloso,(er* 'or t(ese tr$t(s (old )ood 'or e+eryt(in) t(at is. and not 'or so#e s,e&ial )en$s a,art 'ro# ot(ers. And all #en $se t(e#. be&a$se t(ey are tr$e o' bein) 8$a bein) and ea&( )en$s (as bein). B$t #en $se t(e# 4$st so 'ar as to satis'y t(eir ,$r,oses* t(at is. as 'ar as t(e )en$s to %(i&( t(eir de#onstrations re'er e1tends. T(ere'ore sin&e t(ese tr$t(s &learly (old )ood 'or all t(in)s 8$a bein) /'or t(is is %(at is &o##on to t(e#0. to (i# %(o st$dies bein) 8$a bein) belon)s t(e in8$iry into t(ese as %ell. And 'or t(is reason no one %(o is &ond$&tin) a s,e&ial in8$iry tries to say anyt(in) abo$t t(eir tr$t( or 'alsity.5neit(er t(e )eo#eter nor t(e arit(#eti&ian. So#e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers indeed (a+e done so. and t(eir ,ro&ed$re %as intelli)ible eno$)(* 'or t(ey t(o$)(t t(at t(ey alone %ere in8$irin) abo$t t(e %(ole o' nat$re and abo$t bein). B$t sin&e t(ere is one ind o' t(in er %(o is abo+e e+en t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(er /'or nat$re is only one ,arti&$lar )en$s o' bein)0. t(e dis&$ssion o' t(ese tr$t(s also %ill belon) to (i# %(ose in8$iry is $ni+ersal and deals %it( ,ri#ary s$bstan&e. P(ysi&s also is a ind o' Wisdo#. b$t it is not t(e 'irst ind.5And t(e atte#,ts o' so#e o' t(ose %(o dis&$ss t(e ter#s on %(i&( tr$t( s(o$ld be a&&e,ted. are d$e to a %ant o' trainin) in lo)i&* 'or t(ey s(o$ld no% t(ese t(in)s already %(en t(ey &o#e to a s,e&ial st$dy. and not be in8$irin) into t(e# %(ile t(ey are listenin) to le&t$res on it. E+idently t(en it belon)s to t(e ,(iloso,(er. i.e. to (i# %(o is st$dyin) t(e nat$re o' all s$bstan&e. to in8$ire also into t(e ,rin&i,les o' syllo)is#. B$t (e %(o no%s best abo$t ea&( )en$s #$st be able to state t(e #ost &ertain ,rin&i,les o' (is s$b4e&t. so t(at (e %(ose s$b4e&t is e1istin) t(in)s 8$a e1istin) #$st be able to state t(e #ost &ertain ,rin&i,les o' all t(in)s. T(is is t(e ,(iloso,(er. and t(e #ost &ertain ,rin&i,le o' all is t(at re)ardin) %(i&( it is i#,ossible to be #ista en* 'or s$&( a ,rin&i,le #$st be bot( t(e best no%n /'or all #en #ay be #ista en abo$t t(in)s %(i&( t(ey do not no%0. and non5(y,ot(eti&al. -or a ,rin&i,le %(i&( e+ery one #$st (a+e %(o $nderstands anyt(in) t(at is. is not a (y,ot(esis* and t(at %(i&( e+ery one #$st no% %(o no%s anyt(in). (e #$st already (a+e %(en (e &o#es to a s,e&ial st$dy. E+idently t(en s$&( a ,rin&i,le is t(e #ost &ertain o' all* %(i&( ,rin&i,le t(is is. let $s ,ro&eed to say. It is. t(at t(e sa#e attrib$te &annot at t(e sa#e ti#e belon) and not belon) to t(e sa#e s$b4e&t and in t(e sa#e res,e&t* %e #$st ,res$,,ose. to )$ard a)ainst diale&ti&al ob4e&tions. any '$rt(er

8$ali'i&ations %(i&( #i)(t be added. T(is. t(en. is t(e #ost &ertain o' all ,rin&i,les. sin&e it ans%ers to t(e de'inition )i+en abo+e. -or it is i#,ossible 'or any one to belie+e t(e sa#e t(in) to be and not to be. as so#e t(in Hera&lit$s says. -or %(at a #an says. (e does not ne&essarily belie+e* and i' it is i#,ossible t(at &ontrary attrib$tes s(o$ld belon) at t(e sa#e ti#e to t(e sa#e s$b4e&t /t(e $s$al 8$ali'i&ations #$st be ,res$,,osed in t(is ,re#iss too0. and i' an o,inion %(i&( &ontradi&ts anot(er is &ontrary to it. ob+io$sly it is i#,ossible 'or t(e sa#e #an at t(e sa#e ti#e to belie+e t(e sa#e t(in) to be and not to be* 'or i' a #an %ere #ista en on t(is ,oint (e %o$ld (a+e &ontrary o,inions at t(e sa#e ti#e. It is 'or t(is reason t(at all %(o are &arryin) o$t a de#onstration red$&e it to t(is as an $lti#ate belie'* 'or t(is is nat$rally t(e startin)5,oint e+en 'or all t(e ot(er a1io#s. = T(ere are so#e %(o. as %e said. bot( t(e#sel+es assert t(at it is ,ossible 'or t(e sa#e t(in) to be and not to be. and say t(at ,eo,le &an 4$d)e t(is to be t(e &ase. And a#on) ot(ers #any %riters abo$t nat$re $se t(is lan)$a)e. B$t %e (a+e no% ,osited t(at it is i#,ossible 'or anyt(in) at t(e sa#e ti#e to be and not to be. and by t(is #eans (a+e s(o%n t(at t(is is t(e #ost indis,$table o' all ,rin&i,les.5So#e indeed de#and t(at e+en t(is s(all be de#onstrated. b$t t(is t(ey do t(ro$)( %ant o' ed$&ation. 'or not to no% o' %(at t(in)s one s(o$ld de#and de#onstration. and o' %(at one s(o$ld not. ar)$es %ant o' ed$&ation. -or it is i#,ossible t(at t(ere s(o$ld be de#onstration o' absol$tely e+eryt(in) /t(ere %o$ld be an in'inite re)ress. so t(at t(ere %o$ld still be no de#onstration0* b$t i' t(ere are t(in)s o' %(i&( one s(o$ld not de#and de#onstration. t(ese ,ersons &o$ld not say %(at ,rin&i,le t(ey #aintain to be #ore sel'5e+ident t(an t(e ,resent one. We &an. (o%e+er. de#onstrate ne)ati+ely e+en t(at t(is +ie% is i#,ossible. i' o$r o,,onent %ill only say so#et(in)* and i' (e says not(in). it is abs$rd to see to )i+e an a&&o$nt o' o$r +ie%s to one %(o &annot )i+e an a&&o$nt o' anyt(in). in so 'ar as (e &annot do so. -or s$&( a #an. as s$&(. is 'ro# t(e start no better t(an a +e)etable. 2o% ne)ati+e de#onstration I distin)$is( 'ro# de#onstration ,ro,er. be&a$se in a de#onstration one #i)(t be t(o$)(t to be be))in) t(e 8$estion. b$t i' anot(er ,erson is res,onsible 'or t(e ass$#,tion %e s(all (a+e ne)ati+e ,roo'. not de#onstration. T(e startin)5,oint 'or all s$&( ar)$#ents is not t(e de#and t(at o$r o,,onent s(all say t(at so#et(in) eit(er is or is not /'or t(is one #i)(t ,er(a,s ta e to be a be))in) o' t(e 8$estion0. b$t t(at (e s(all say so#et(in) %(i&( is si)ni'i&ant bot( 'or (i#sel' and 'or anot(er* 'or t(is is ne&essary. i' (e really is to say anyt(in). -or. i' (e #eans not(in). s$&( a #an %ill not be &a,able o' reasonin). eit(er %it( (i#sel' or %it( anot(er. B$t i' any one )rants t(is. de#onstration %ill be ,ossible* 'or %e s(all already (a+e so#et(in) de'inite. T(e ,erson res,onsible 'or t(e ,roo'. (o%e+er. is not (e %(o de#onstrates b$t (e %(o listens* 'or %(ile diso%nin) reason (e listens to reason. And a)ain (e %(o ad#its t(is (as ad#itted t(at so#et(in) is tr$e a,art 'ro# de#onstration /so t(at not e+eryt(in) %ill be 3so and not so30. -irst t(en t(is at least is ob+io$sly tr$e. t(at t(e %ord 3be3 or 3not be3 (as a de'inite #eanin). so t(at not e+eryt(in) %ill be 3so and not so3. A)ain. i' 3#an3 (as one #eanin). let t(is be 3t%o5'ooted ani#al3* by (a+in) one #eanin) I $nderstand t(is>5i' 3#an3 #eans 3?3. t(en i' A is a #an 3?3 %ill be %(at 3bein) a #an3 #eans 'or (i#. /It #a es no di''eren&e e+en i' one %ere to say a %ord (as se+eral #eanin)s. i' only t(ey are li#ited in n$#ber* 'or to ea&( de'inition t(ere #i)(t be assi)ned a di''erent %ord. -or instan&e. %e #i)(t say t(at 3#an3 (as not one #eanin) b$t se+eral. one o' %(i&( %o$ld (a+e one de'inition. +i6. 3t%o5'ooted ani#al3. %(ile t(ere #i)(t be also se+eral ot(er de'initions i' only t(ey %ere li#ited in

n$#ber* 'or a ,e&$liar na#e #i)(t be assi)ned to ea&( o' t(e de'initions. I'. (o%e+er. t(ey %ere not li#ited b$t one %ere to say t(at t(e %ord (as an in'inite n$#ber o' #eanin)s. ob+io$sly reasonin) %o$ld be i#,ossible* 'or not to (a+e one #eanin) is to (a+e no #eanin). and i' %ords (a+e no #eanin) o$r reasonin) %it( one anot(er. and indeed %it( o$rsel+es. (as been anni(ilated* 'or it is i#,ossible to t(in o' anyt(in) i' %e do not t(in o' one t(in)* b$t i' t(is is ,ossible. one na#e #i)(t be assi)ned to t(is t(in).0 "et it be ass$#ed t(en. as %as said at t(e be)innin). t(at t(e na#e (as a #eanin) and (as one #eanin)* it is i#,ossible. t(en. t(at 3bein) a #an3 s(o$ld #ean ,re&isely 3not bein) a #an3. i' 3#an3 not only si)ni'ies so#et(in) abo$t one s$b4e&t b$t also (as one si)ni'i&an&e /'or %e do not identi'y 3(a+in) one si)ni'i&an&e3 %it( 3si)ni'yin) so#et(in) abo$t one s$b4e&t3. sin&e on t(at ass$#,tion e+en 3#$si&al3 and 3%(ite3 and 3#an3 %o$ld (a+e (ad one si)ni'i&an&e. so t(at all t(in)s %o$ld (a+e been one* 'or t(ey %o$ld all (a+e (ad t(e sa#e si)ni'i&an&e0. And it %ill not be ,ossible to be and not to be t(e sa#e t(in). e1&e,t in +irt$e o' an a#bi)$ity. 4$st as i' one %(o# %e &all 3#an3. ot(ers %ere to &all 3not5#an3* b$t t(e ,oint in 8$estion is not t(is. %(et(er t(e sa#e t(in) &an at t(e sa#e ti#e be and not be a #an in na#e. b$t %(et(er it &an in 'a&t. 2o% i' 3#an3 and 3not5#an3 #ean not(in) di''erent. ob+io$sly 3not bein) a #an3 %ill #ean not(in) di''erent 'ro# 3bein) a #an3* so t(at 3bein) a #an3 %ill be 3not bein) a #an3* 'or t(ey %ill be one. -or bein) one #eans t(is5bein) related as 3rai#ent3 and 3dress3 are. i' t(eir de'inition is one. And i' 3bein) a #an3 and 3bein) a not5#an3 are to be one. t(ey #$st #ean one t(in). B$t it %as s(o%n earlier3 t(at t(ey #ean di''erent t(in)s.5T(ere'ore. i' it is tr$e to say o' anyt(in) t(at it is a #an. it #$st be a t%o5'ooted ani#al /'or t(is %as %(at 3#an3 #eant0* and i' t(is is ne&essary. it is i#,ossible t(at t(e sa#e t(in) s(o$ld not at t(at ti#e be a t%o5'ooted ani#al* 'or t(is is %(at 3bein) ne&essary3 #eans5t(at it is i#,ossible 'or t(e t(in) not to be. It is. t(en. i#,ossible t(at it s(o$ld be at t(e sa#e ti#e tr$e to say t(e sa#e t(in) is a #an and is not a #an. T(e sa#e a&&o$nt (olds )ood %it( re)ard to 3not bein) a #an3. 'or 3bein) a #an3 and 3bein) a not5#an3 #ean di''erent t(in)s. sin&e e+en 3bein) %(ite3 and 3bein) a #an3 are di''erent* 'or t(e 'or#er ter#s are #$&( #ore di''erent so t(at t(ey #$st a 'ortiori #ean di''erent t(in)s. And i' any one says t(at 3%(ite3 #eans one and t(e sa#e t(in) as 3#an3. a)ain %e s(all say t(e sa#e as %(at %as said be'ore. t(at it %o$ld 'ollo% t(at all t(in)s are one. and not only o,,osites. B$t i' t(is is i#,ossible. t(en %(at %e (a+e #aintained %ill 'ollo%. i' o$r o,,onent %ill only ans%er o$r 8$estion. And i'. %(en one as s t(e 8$estion si#,ly. (e adds t(e &ontradi&tories. (e is not ans%erin) t(e 8$estion. -or t(ere is not(in) to ,re+ent t(e sa#e t(in) 'ro# bein) bot( a #an and %(ite and &o$ntless ot(er t(in)s> b$t still. i' one as s %(et(er it is or is not tr$e to say t(at t(is is a #an. o$r o,,onent #$st )i+e an ans%er %(i&( #eans one t(in). and not add t(at 3it is also %(ite and lar)e3. -or. besides ot(er reasons. it is i#,ossible to en$#erate its a&&idental attrib$tes. %(i&( are in'inite in n$#ber* let (i#. t(en. en$#erate eit(er all or none. Si#ilarly. t(ere'ore. e+en i' t(e sa#e t(in) is a t(o$sand ti#es a #an and a not5#an. (e #$st not. in ans%erin) t(e 8$estion %(et(er t(is is a #an. add t(at it is also at t(e sa#e ti#e a not5#an. $nless (e is bo$nd to add also all t(e ot(er a&&idents. all t(at t(e s$b4e&t is or is not* and i' (e does t(is. (e is not obser+in) t(e r$les o' ar)$#ent. And in )eneral t(ose %(o say t(is do a%ay %it( s$bstan&e and essen&e. -or t(ey #$st say t(at all attrib$tes are a&&idents. and t(at t(ere is no s$&( t(in) as 3bein) essentially a #an3 or 3an ani#al3. -or i' t(ere is to be any s$&( t(in) as 3bein) essentially a #an3 t(is %ill not be 3bein) a not5#an3 or 3not bein) a #an3 /yet t(ese are ne)ations o' it0* 'or t(ere %as one t(in) %(i&( it #eant. and t(is %as

t(e s$bstan&e o' so#et(in). And denotin) t(e s$bstan&e o' a t(in) #eans t(at t(e essen&e o' t(e t(in) is not(in) else. B$t i' its bein) essentially a #an is to be t(e sa#e as eit(er bein) essentially a not5#an or essentially not bein) a #an. t(en its essen&e %ill be so#et(in) else. T(ere'ore o$r o,,onents #$st say t(at t(ere &annot be s$&( a de'inition o' anyt(in). b$t t(at all attrib$tes are a&&idental* 'or t(is is t(e distin&tion bet%een s$bstan&e and a&&ident53%(ite3 is a&&idental to #an. be&a$se t(o$)( (e is %(ite. %(iteness is not (is essen&e. B$t i' all state#ents are a&&idental. t(ere %ill be not(in) ,ri#ary abo$t %(i&( t(ey are #ade. i' t(e a&&idental al%ays i#,lies ,redi&ation abo$t a s$b4e&t. T(e ,redi&ation. t(en. #$st )o on ad in'init$#. B$t t(is is i#,ossible* 'or not e+en #ore t(an t%o ter#s &an be &o#bined in a&&idental ,redi&ation. -or /!0 an a&&ident is not an a&&ident o' an a&&ident. $nless it be be&a$se bot( are a&&idents o' t(e sa#e s$b4e&t. I #ean. 'or instan&e. t(at t(e %(ite is #$si&al and t(e latter is %(ite. only be&a$se bot( are a&&idental to #an. B$t /70 So&rates is #$si&al. not in t(is sense. t(at bot( ter#s are a&&idental to so#et(in) else. Sin&e t(en so#e ,redi&ates are a&&idental in t(is and so#e in t(at sense. /a0 t(ose %(i&( are a&&idental in t(e latter sense. in %(i&( %(ite is a&&idental to So&rates. &annot 'or# an in'inite series in t(e $,%ard dire&tion* e.). So&rates t(e %(ite (as not yet anot(er a&&ident* 'or no $nity &an be )ot o$t o' s$&( a s$#. 2or a)ain /b0 %ill 3%(ite3 (a+e anot(er ter# a&&idental to it. e.). 3#$si&al3. -or t(is is no #ore a&&idental to t(at t(an t(at is to t(is* and at t(e sa#e ti#e %e (a+e dra%n t(e distin&tion. t(at %(ile so#e ,redi&ates are a&&idental in t(is sense. ot(ers are so in t(e sense in %(i&( 3#$si&al3 is a&&idental to So&rates* and t(e a&&ident is an a&&ident o' an a&&ident not in &ases o' t(e latter ind. b$t only in &ases o' t(e ot(er ind. so t(at not all ter#s %ill be a&&idental. T(ere #$st. t(en. e+en so be so#et(in) %(i&( denotes s$bstan&e. And i' t(is is so. it (as been s(o%n t(at &ontradi&tories &annot be ,redi&ated at t(e sa#e ti#e. A)ain. i' all &ontradi&tory state#ents are tr$e o' t(e sa#e s$b4e&t at t(e sa#e ti#e. e+idently all t(in)s %ill be one. -or t(e sa#e t(in) %ill be a trire#e. a %all. and a #an. i' o' e+eryt(in) it is ,ossible eit(er to a''ir# or to deny anyt(in) /and t(is ,re#iss #$st be a&&e,ted by t(ose %(o s(are t(e +ie%s o' Prota)oras0. -or i' any one t(in s t(at t(e #an is not a trire#e. e+idently (e is not a trire#e* so t(at (e also is a trire#e. i'. as t(ey say. &ontradi&tory state#ents are bot( tr$e. And %e t($s )et t(e do&trine o' Ana1a)oras. t(at all t(in)s are #i1ed to)et(er* so t(at not(in) really e1ists. T(ey see#. t(en. to be s,ea in) o' t(e indeter#inate. and. %(ile 'an&yin) t(e#sel+es to be s,ea in) o' bein). t(ey are s,ea in) abo$t non5bein)* 'or it is t(at %(i&( e1ists ,otentially and not in &o#,lete reality t(at is indeter#inate. B$t t(ey #$st ,redi&ate o' e+ery s$b4e&t t(e a''ir#ation or t(e ne)ation o' e+ery attrib$te. -or it is abs$rd i' o' ea&( s$b4e&t its o%n ne)ation is to be ,redi&able. %(ile t(e ne)ation o' so#et(in) else %(i&( &annot be ,redi&ated o' it is not to be ,redi&able o' it* 'or instan&e. i' it is tr$e to say o' a #an t(at (e is not a #an. e+idently it is also tr$e to say t(at (e is eit(er a trire#e or not a trire#e. I'. t(en. t(e a''ir#ati+e &an be ,redi&ated. t(e ne)ati+e #$st be ,redi&able too* and i' t(e a''ir#ati+e is not ,redi&able. t(e ne)ati+e. at least. %ill be #ore ,redi&able t(an t(e ne)ati+e o' t(e s$b4e&t itsel'. I'. t(en. e+en t(e latter ne)ati+e is ,redi&able. t(e ne)ati+e o' 3trire#e3 %ill be also ,redi&able* and. i' t(is is ,redi&able. t(e a''ir#ati+e %ill be so too. T(ose. t(en. %(o #aintain t(is +ie% are dri+en to t(is &on&l$sion. and to t(e '$rt(er &on&l$sion t(at it is not ne&essary eit(er to assert or to deny. -or i' it is tr$e t(at a t(in) is a #an and a not5#an. e+idently also it %ill be neit(er a #an nor a not5#an. -or to t(e t%o assertions t(ere ans%er t%o ne)ations. and i' t(e 'or#er is treated as a sin)le ,ro,osition &o#,o$nded o$t o' t%o. t(e latter also

is a sin)le ,ro,osition o,,osite to t(e 'or#er. A)ain. eit(er t(e t(eory is tr$e in all &ases. and a t(in) is bot( %(ite and not5%(ite. and e1istent and non5e1istent. and all ot(er assertions and ne)ations are si#ilarly &o#,atible or t(e t(eory is tr$e o' so#e state#ents and not o' ot(ers. And i' not o' all. t(e e1&e,tions %ill be &ontradi&tories o' %(i&( ad#ittedly only one is tr$e* b$t i' o' all. a)ain eit(er t(e ne)ation %ill be tr$e %(ere+er t(e assertion is. and t(e assertion tr$e %(ere+er t(e ne)ation is. or t(e ne)ation %ill be tr$e %(ere t(e assertion is. b$t t(e assertion not al%ays tr$e %(ere t(e ne)ation is. And /a0 in t(e latter &ase t(ere %ill be so#et(in) %(i&( 'i1edly is not. and t(is %ill be an indis,$table belie'* and i' non5bein) is so#et(in) indis,$table and no%able. t(e o,,osite assertion %ill be #ore no%able. B$t /b0 i' it is e8$ally ,ossible also to assert all t(at it is ,ossible to deny. one #$st eit(er be sayin) %(at is tr$e %(en one se,arates t(e ,redi&ates /and says. 'or instan&e. t(at a t(in) is %(ite. and a)ain t(at it is not5%(ite0. or not. And i' /i0 it is not tr$e to a,,ly t(e ,redi&ates se,arately. o$r o,,onent is not sayin) %(at (e ,ro'esses to say. and also not(in) at all e1ists* b$t (o% &o$ld non5e1istent t(in)s s,ea or %al . as (e does< Also all t(in)s %o$ld on t(is +ie% be one. as (as been already said. and #an and :od and trire#e and t(eir &ontradi&tories %ill be t(e sa#e. -or i' &ontradi&tories &an be ,redi&ated ali e o' ea&( s$b4e&t. one t(in) %ill in no %ise di''er 'ro# anot(er* 'or i' it di''er. t(is di''eren&e %ill be so#et(in) tr$e and ,e&$liar to it. And /ii0 i' one #ay %it( tr$t( a,,ly t(e ,redi&ates se,arately. t(e abo+e5#entioned res$lt 'ollo%s none t(e less. and. '$rt(er. it 'ollo%s t(at all %o$ld t(en be ri)(t and all %o$ld be in error. and o$r o,,onent (i#sel' &on'esses (i#sel' to be in error.5And at t(e sa#e ti#e o$r dis&$ssion %it( (i# is e+idently abo$t not(in) at all* 'or (e says not(in). -or (e says neit(er 3yes3 nor 3no3. b$t 3yes and no3* and a)ain (e denies bot( o' t(ese and says 3neit(er yes nor no3* 'or ot(er%ise t(ere %o$ld already be so#et(in) de'inite. A)ain i' %(en t(e assertion is tr$e. t(e ne)ation is 'alse. and %(en t(is is tr$e. t(e a''ir#ation is 'alse. it %ill not be ,ossible to assert and deny t(e sa#e t(in) tr$ly at t(e sa#e ti#e. B$t ,er(a,s t(ey #i)(t say t(is %as t(e +ery 8$estion at iss$e. A)ain. is (e in error %(o 4$d)es eit(er t(at t(e t(in) is so or t(at it is not so. and is (e ri)(t %(o 4$d)es bot(< I' (e is ri)(t. %(at &an t(ey #ean by sayin) t(at t(e nat$re o' e1istin) t(in)s is o' t(is ind< And i' (e is not ri)(t. b$t #ore ri)(t t(an (e %(o 4$d)es in t(e ot(er %ay. bein) %ill already be o' a de'inite nat$re. and t(is %ill be tr$e. and not at t(e sa#e ti#e also not tr$e. B$t i' all are ali e bot( %ron) and ri)(t. one %(o is in t(is &ondition %ill not be able eit(er to s,ea or to say anyt(in) intelli)ible* 'or (e says at t(e sa#e ti#e bot( 3yes3 and 3no.3 And i' (e #a es no 4$d)e#ent b$t 3t(in s3 and 3does not t(in 3. indi''erently. %(at di''eren&e %ill t(ere be bet%een (i# and a +e)etable<5T($s. t(en. it is in t(e (i)(est de)ree e+ident t(at neit(er any one o' t(ose %(o #aintain t(is +ie% nor any one else is really in t(is ,osition. -or %(y does a #an %al to Me)ara and not stay at (o#e. %(en (e t(in s (e o$)(t to be %al in) t(ere< W(y does (e not %al early so#e #ornin) into a %ell or o+er a ,re&i,i&e. i' one (a,,ens to be in (is %ay< W(y do %e obser+e (i# )$ardin) a)ainst t(is. e+idently be&a$se (e does not t(in t(at 'allin) in is ali e )ood and not )ood< E+idently. t(en. (e 4$d)es one t(in) to be better and anot(er %orse. And i' t(is is so. (e #$st also 4$d)e one t(in) to be a #an and anot(er to be not5a5#an. one t(in) to be s%eet and anot(er to be not5s%eet. -or (e does not ai# at and 4$d)e all t(in)s ali e. %(en. t(in in) it desirable to drin %ater or to see a #an. (e ,ro&eeds to ai# at t(ese t(in)s* yet (e o$)(t. i' t(e sa#e t(in) %ere ali e a #an and not5a5#an. B$t. as %as said. t(ere is no one %(o does not ob+io$sly a+oid so#e t(in)s and not ot(ers. T(ere'ore. as it see#s. all #en #a e $n8$ali'ied 4$d)e#ents. i' not abo$t all t(in)s. still

abo$t %(at is better and %orse. And i' t(is is not no%led)e b$t o,inion. t(ey s(o$ld be all t(e #ore an1io$s abo$t t(e tr$t(. as a si& #an s(o$ld be #ore an1io$s abo$t (is (ealt( t(an one %(o is (ealt(y* 'or (e %(o (as o,inions is. in &o#,arison %it( t(e #an %(o no%s. not in a (ealt(y state as 'ar as t(e tr$t( is &on&erned. A)ain. (o%e+er #$&( all t(in)s #ay be 3so and not so3. still t(ere is a #ore and a less in t(e nat$re o' t(in)s* 'or %e s(o$ld not say t(at t%o and t(ree are e8$ally e+en. nor is (e %(o t(in s 'o$r t(in)s are 'i+e e8$ally %ron) %it( (i# %(o t(in s t(ey are a t(o$sand. I' t(en t(ey are not e8$ally %ron). ob+io$sly one is less %ron) and t(ere'ore #ore ri)(t. I' t(en t(at %(i&( (as #ore o' any 8$ality is nearer t(e nor#. t(ere #$st be so#e tr$t( to %(i&( t(e #ore tr$e is nearer. And e+en i' t(ere is not. still t(ere is already so#et(in) better 'o$nded and li er t(e tr$t(. and %e s(all (a+e )ot rid o' t(e $n8$ali'ied do&trine %(i&( %o$ld ,re+ent $s 'ro# deter#inin) anyt(in) in o$r t(o$)(t. 5 -ro# t(e sa#e o,inion ,ro&eeds t(e do&trine o' Prota)oras. and bot( do&trines #$st be ali e tr$e or ali e $ntr$e. -or on t(e one (and. i' all o,inions and a,,earan&es are tr$e. all state#ents #$st be at t(e sa#e ti#e tr$e and 'alse. -or #any #en (old belie's in %(i&( t(ey &on'li&t %it( one anot(er. and t(in t(ose #ista en %(o (a+e not t(e sa#e o,inions as t(e#sel+es* so t(at t(e sa#e t(in) #$st bot( be and not be. And on t(e ot(er (and. i' t(is is so. all o,inions #$st be tr$e* 'or t(ose %(o are #ista en and t(ose %(o are ri)(t are o,,osed to one anot(er in t(eir o,inions* i'. t(en. reality is s$&( as t(e +ie% in 8$estion s$,,oses. all %ill be ri)(t in t(eir belie's. E+idently. t(en. bot( do&trines ,ro&eed 'ro# t(e sa#e %ay o' t(in in). B$t t(e sa#e #et(od o' dis&$ssion #$st not be $sed %it( all o,,onents* 'or so#e need ,ers$asion. and ot(ers &o#,$lsion. T(ose %(o (a+e been dri+en to t(is ,osition by di''i&$lties in t(eir t(in in) &an easily be &$red o' t(eir i)noran&e* 'or it is not t(eir e1,ressed ar)$#ent b$t t(eir t(o$)(t t(at one (as to #eet. B$t t(ose %(o ar)$e 'or t(e sa e o' ar)$#ent &an be &$red only by re'$tin) t(e ar)$#ent as e1,ressed in s,ee&( and in %ords. T(ose %(o really 'eel t(e di''i&$lties (a+e been led to t(is o,inion by obser+ation o' t(e sensible %orld. /!0 T(ey t(in t(at &ontradi&tories or &ontraries are tr$e at t(e sa#e ti#e. be&a$se t(ey see &ontraries &o#in) into e1isten&e o$t o' t(e sa#e t(in). I'. t(en. t(at %(i&( is not &annot &o#e to be. t(e t(in) #$st (a+e e1isted be'ore as bot( &ontraries ali e. as Ana1a)oras says all is #i1ed in all. and De#o&rit$s too* 'or (e says t(e +oid and t(e '$ll e1ist ali e in e+ery ,art. and yet one o' t(ese is bein). and t(e ot(er non5bein). To t(ose. t(en. %(ose belie' rests on t(ese )ro$nds. %e s(all say t(at in a sense t(ey s,ea ri)(tly and in a sense t(ey err. -or 3t(at %(i&( is3 (as t%o #eanin)s. so t(at in so#e sense a t(in) &an &o#e to be o$t o' t(at %(i&( is not. %(ile in so#e sense it &annot. and t(e sa#e t(in) &an at t(e sa#e ti#e be in bein) and not in bein)5b$t not in t(e sa#e res,e&t. -or t(e sa#e t(in) &an be ,otentially at t(e sa#e ti#e t%o &ontraries. b$t it &annot a&t$ally. And a)ain %e s(all as t(e# to belie+e t(at a#on) e1istin) t(in)s t(ere is also anot(er ind o' s$bstan&e to %(i&( neit(er #o+e#ent nor destr$&tion nor )eneration at all belon)s. And /70 si#ilarly so#e (a+e in'erred 'ro# obser+ation o' t(e sensible %orld t(e tr$t( o' a,,earan&es. -or t(ey t(in t(at t(e tr$t( s(o$ld not be deter#ined by t(e lar)e or s#all n$#ber o' t(ose %(o (old a belie'. and t(at t(e sa#e t(in) is t(o$)(t s%eet by so#e %(en t(ey taste it. and bitter by ot(ers. so t(at i' all %ere ill or all %ere #ad. and only t%o or t(ree %ere %ell or sane. t(ese %o$ld be t(o$)(t ill and #ad. and not t(e ot(ers. And a)ain. t(ey say t(at #any o' t(e ot(er ani#als re&ei+e i#,ressions &ontrary to o$rs* and t(at e+en to t(e senses o' ea&( indi+id$al. t(in)s do not al%ays see# t(e sa#e. W(i&(. t(en. o'

t(ese i#,ressions are tr$e and %(i&( are 'alse is not ob+io$s* 'or t(e one set is no #ore tr$e t(an t(e ot(er. b$t bot( are ali e. And t(is is %(y De#o&rit$s. at any rate. says t(at eit(er t(ere is no tr$t( or to $s at least it is not e+ident. And in )eneral it is be&a$se t(ese t(in ers s$,,ose no%led)e to be sensation. and t(is to be a ,(ysi&al alteration. t(at t(ey say t(at %(at a,,ears to o$r senses #$st be tr$e* 'or it is 'or t(ese reasons t(at bot( E#,edo&les and De#o&rit$s and. one #ay al#ost say. all t(e ot(ers (a+e 'allen +i&ti#s to o,inions o' t(is sort. -or E#,edo&les says t(at %(en #en &(an)e t(eir &ondition t(ey &(an)e t(eir no%led)e* -or %isdo# in&reases in #en a&&ordin) to %(at is be'ore t(e#. And else%(ere (e says t(at>5 So 'ar as t(eir nat$re &(an)ed. so 'ar to t(e# al%ays Ca#e &(an)ed t(o$)(ts into #ind. And Par#enides also e1,resses (i#sel' in t(e sa#e %ay> -or as at ea&( ti#e t(e #$&(5bent li#bs are &o#,osed. So is t(e #ind o' #en* 'or in ea&( and all #en 3Tis one t(in) t(in s5t(e s$bstan&e o' t(eir li#bs> -or t(at o' %(i&( t(ere is #ore is t(o$)(t. A sayin) o' Ana1a)oras to so#e o' (is 'riends is also related.5t(at t(in)s %o$ld be 'or t(e# s$&( as t(ey s$,,osed t(e# to be. And t(ey say t(at Ho#er also e+idently (ad t(is o,inion. be&a$se (e #ade He&tor. %(en (e %as $n&ons&io$s 'ro# t(e blo%. lie 3t(in in) ot(er t(o$)(ts3.5%(i&( i#,lies t(at e+en t(ose %(o are bere't o' t(o$)(t (a+e t(o$)(ts. t(o$)( not t(e sa#e t(o$)(ts. E+idently. t(en. i' bot( are 'or#s o' no%led)e. t(e real t(in)s also are at t(e sa#e ti#e 3bot( so and not so3. And it is in t(is dire&tion t(at t(e &onse8$en&es are #ost di''i&$lt. -or i' t(ose %(o (a+e seen #ost o' s$&( tr$t( as is ,ossible 'or $s /and t(ese are t(ose %(o see and lo+e it #ost05i' t(ese (a+e s$&( o,inions and e1,ress t(ese +ie%s abo$t t(e tr$t(. is it not nat$ral t(at be)inners in ,(iloso,(y s(o$ld lose (eart< -or to see t(e tr$t( %o$ld be to 'ollo% 'lyin) )a#e. B$t t(e reason %(y t(ese t(in ers (eld t(is o,inion is t(at %(ile t(ey %ere in8$irin) into t(e tr$t( o' t(at %(i&( is. t(ey t(o$)(t. 3t(at %(i&( is3 %as identi&al %it( t(e sensible %orld* in t(is. (o%e+er. t(ere is lar)ely ,resent t(e nat$re o' t(e indeter#inate5o' t(at %(i&( e1ists in t(e ,e&$liar sense %(i&( %e (a+e e1,lained* and t(ere'ore. %(ile t(ey s,ea ,la$sibly. t(ey do not say %(at is tr$e /'or it is 'ittin) to ,$t t(e #atter so rat(er t(an as E,i&(ar#$s ,$t it a)ainst ?eno,(anes0. And a)ain. be&a$se t(ey sa% t(at all t(is %orld o' nat$re is in #o+e#ent and t(at abo$t t(at %(i&( &(an)es no tr$e state#ent &an be #ade. t(ey said t(at o' &o$rse. re)ardin) t(at %(i&( e+ery%(ere in e+ery res,e&t is &(an)in). not(in) &o$ld tr$ly be a''ir#ed. It %as t(is belie' t(at blosso#ed into t(e #ost e1tre#e o' t(e +ie%s abo+e #entioned. t(at o' t(e ,ro'essed Hera&liteans. s$&( as %as (eld by Cratyl$s. %(o 'inally did not t(in it ri)(t to say anyt(in) b$t only #o+ed (is 'in)er. and &riti&i6ed Hera&lit$s 'or sayin) t(at it is i#,ossible to ste, t%i&e into t(e sa#e ri+er* 'or (e t(o$)(t one &o$ld not do it e+en on&e. B$t %e s(all say in ans%er to t(is ar)$#ent also t(at %(ile t(ere is so#e 4$sti'i&ation 'or t(eir t(in in) t(at t(e &(an)in). %(en it is &(an)in). does not e1ist. yet it is a'ter all dis,$table* 'or t(at %(i&( is losin) a 8$ality (as so#et(in) o' t(at %(i&( is bein) lost. and o' t(at %(i&( is &o#in) to be. so#et(in) #$st already be. And in )eneral i' a t(in) is ,eris(in). %ill be ,resent so#et(in) t(at

e1ists* and i' a t(in) is &o#in) to be. t(ere #$st be so#et(in) 'ro# %(i&( it &o#es to be and so#et(in) by %(i&( it is )enerated. and t(is ,ro&ess &annot )o on ad in'init$#.5B$t. lea+in) t(ese ar)$#ents. let $s insist on t(is. t(at it is not t(e sa#e t(in) to &(an)e in 8$antity and in 8$ality. :rant t(at in 8$antity a t(in) is not &onstant* still it is in res,e&t o' its 'or# t(at %e no% ea&( t(in).5And a)ain. it %o$ld be 'air to &riti&i6e t(ose %(o (old t(is +ie% 'or assertin) abo$t t(e %(ole #aterial $ni+erse %(at t(ey sa% only in a #inority e+en o' sensible t(in)s. -or only t(at re)ion o' t(e sensible %orld %(i&( i##ediately s$rro$nds $s is al%ays in ,ro&ess o' destr$&tion and )eneration* b$t t(is is5so to s,ea 5not e+en a 'ra&tion o' t(e %(ole. so t(at it %o$ld (a+e been 4$ster to a&8$it t(is ,art o' t(e %orld be&a$se o' t(e ot(er ,art. t(an to &onde#n t(e ot(er be&a$se o' t(is.5And a)ain. ob+io$sly %e s(all #a e to t(e# also t(e sa#e re,ly t(at %e #ade lon) a)o* %e #$st s(o% t(e# and ,ers$ade t(e# t(at t(ere is so#et(in) %(ose nat$re is &(an)eless. Indeed. t(ose %(o say t(at t(in)s at t(e sa#e ti#e are and are not. s(o$ld in &onse8$en&e say t(at all t(in)s are at rest rat(er t(an t(at t(ey are in #o+e#ent* 'or t(ere is not(in) into %(i&( t(ey &an &(an)e. sin&e all attrib$tes belon) already to all s$b4e&ts. Re)ardin) t(e nat$re o' tr$t(. %e #$st #aintain t(at not e+eryt(in) %(i&( a,,ears is tr$e* 'irstly. be&a$se e+en i' sensation5at least o' t(e ob4e&t ,e&$liar to t(e sense in 8$estion5is not 'alse. still a,,earan&e is not t(e sa#e as sensation.5A)ain. it is 'air to e1,ress s$r,rise at o$r o,,onents3 raisin) t(e 8$estion %(et(er #a)nit$des are as )reat. and &olo$rs are o' s$&( a nat$re. as t(ey a,,ear to ,eo,le at a distan&e. or as t(ey a,,ear to t(ose &lose at (and. and %(et(er t(ey are s$&( as t(ey a,,ear to t(e (ealt(y or to t(e si& . and %(et(er t(ose t(in)s are (ea+y %(i&( a,,ear so to t(e %ea or t(ose %(i&( a,,ear so to t(e stron). and t(ose t(in)s tr$e %(i&( a,,ear to t(e slee in) or to t(e %a in). -or ob+io$sly t(ey do not t(in t(ese to be o,en 8$estions* no one. at least. i' %(en (e is in "ibya (e (as 'an&ied one ni)(t t(at (e is in At(ens. starts 'or t(e &on&ert (all.5And a)ain %it( re)ard to t(e '$t$re. as Plato says. s$rely t(e o,inion o' t(e ,(ysi&ian and t(at o' t(e i)norant #an are not e8$ally %ei)(ty. 'or instan&e. on t(e 8$estion %(et(er a #an %ill )et %ell or not.5And a)ain. a#on) sensations t(e#sel+es t(e sensation o' a 'orei)n ob4e&t and t(at o' t(e a,,ro,riate ob4e&t. or t(at o' a indred ob4e&t and t(at o' t(e ob4e&t o' t(e sense in 8$estion. are not e8$ally a$t(oritati+e. b$t in t(e &ase o' &olo$r si)(t. not taste. (as t(e a$t(ority. and in t(e &ase o' 'la+o$r taste. not si)(t* ea&( o' %(i&( senses ne+er says at t(e sa#e ti#e o' t(e sa#e ob4e&t t(at it si#$ltaneo$sly is 3so and not so3.5B$t not e+en at di''erent ti#es does one sense disa)ree abo$t t(e 8$ality. b$t only abo$t t(at to %(i&( t(e 8$ality belon)s. I #ean. 'or instan&e. t(at t(e sa#e %ine #i)(t see#. i' eit(er it or one3s body &(an)ed. at one ti#e s%eet and at anot(er ti#e not s%eet* b$t at least t(e s%eet. s$&( as it is %(en it e1ists. (as ne+er yet &(an)ed. b$t one is al%ays ri)(t abo$t it. and t(at %(i&( is to be s%eet is o' ne&essity o' s$&( and s$&( a nat$re. Yet all t(ese +ie%s destroy t(is ne&essity. lea+in) not(in) to be o' ne&essity. as t(ey lea+e no essen&e o' anyt(in)* 'or t(e ne&essary &annot be in t(is %ay and also in t(at. so t(at i' anyt(in) is o' ne&essity. it %ill not be 3bot( so and not so3. And. in )eneral. i' only t(e sensible e1ists. t(ere %o$ld be not(in) i' ani#ate t(in)s %ere not* 'or t(ere %o$ld be no 'a&$lty o' sense. 2o% t(e +ie% t(at neit(er t(e sensible 8$alities nor t(e sensations %o$ld e1ist is do$btless tr$e /'or t(ey are a''e&tions o' t(e ,er&ei+er0. b$t t(at t(e s$bstrata %(i&( &a$se t(e sensation s(o$ld not e1ist e+en a,art 'ro# sensation is i#,ossible. -or sensation is s$rely not t(e sensation o' itsel'. b$t t(ere is so#et(in) beyond t(e sensation. %(i&( #$st be ,rior to t(e sensation* 'or t(at %(i&( #o+es is ,rior in nat$re to t(at %(i&( is #o+ed. and i' t(ey are &orrelati+e ter#s. t(is is no less t(e &ase.

@ T(ere are. bot( a#on) t(ose %(o (a+e t(ese &on+i&tions and a#on) t(ose %(o #erely ,ro'ess t(ese +ie%s. so#e %(o raise a di''i&$lty by as in). %(o is to be t(e 4$d)e o' t(e (ealt(y #an. and in )eneral %(o is li ely to 4$d)e ri)(tly on ea&( &lass o' 8$estions. B$t s$&( in8$iries are li e ,$66lin) o+er t(e 8$estion %(et(er %e are no% aslee, or a%a e. And all s$&( 8$estions (a+e t(e sa#e #eanin). T(ese ,eo,le de#and t(at a reason s(all be )i+en 'or e+eryt(in)* 'or t(ey see a startin)5,oint. and t(ey see to )et t(is by de#onstration. %(ile it is ob+io$s 'ro# t(eir a&tions t(at t(ey (a+e no &on+i&tion. B$t t(eir #ista e is %(at %e (a+e stated it to be* t(ey see a reason 'or t(in)s 'or %(i&( no reason &an be )i+en* 'or t(e startin)5,oint o' de#onstration is not de#onstration. T(ese. t(en. #i)(t be easily ,ers$aded o' t(is tr$t(. 'or it is not di''i&$lt to )ras,* b$t t(ose %(o see #erely &o#,$lsion in ar)$#ent see %(at is i#,ossible* 'or t(ey de#and to be allo%ed to &ontradi&t t(e#sel+es5a &lai# %(i&( &ontradi&ts itsel' 'ro# t(e +ery 'irst.5B$t i' not all t(in)s are relati+e. b$t so#e are sel'5e1istent. not e+eryt(in) t(at a,,ears %ill be tr$e* 'or t(at %(i&( a,,ears is a,,arent to so#e one* so t(at (e %(o says all t(in)s t(at a,,ear are tr$e. #a es all t(in)s relati+e. And. t(ere'ore. t(ose %(o as 'or an irresistible ar)$#ent. and at t(e sa#e ti#e de#and to be &alled to a&&o$nt 'or t(eir +ie%s. #$st )$ard t(e#sel+es by sayin) t(at t(e tr$t( is not t(at %(at a,,ears e1ists. b$t t(at %(at a,,ears e1ists 'or (i# to %(o# it a,,ears. and %(en. and to t(e sense to %(i&(. and $nder t(e &onditions $nder %(i&( it a,,ears. And i' t(ey )i+e an a&&o$nt o' t(eir +ie%. b$t do not )i+e it in t(is %ay. t(ey %ill soon 'ind t(e#sel+es &ontradi&tin) t(e#sel+es. -or it is ,ossible t(at t(e sa#e t(in) #ay a,,ear to be (oney to t(e si)(t. b$t not to t(e taste. and t(at. sin&e %e (a+e t%o eyes. t(in)s #ay not a,,ear t(e sa#e to ea&(. i' t(eir si)(t is $nli e. -or to t(ose %(o 'or t(e reasons na#ed so#e ti#e a)o say t(at %(at a,,ears is tr$e. and t(ere'ore t(at all t(in)s are ali e 'alse and tr$e. 'or t(in)s do not a,,ear eit(er t(e sa#e to all #en or al%ays t(e sa#e to t(e sa#e #an. b$t o'ten (a+e &ontrary a,,earan&es at t(e sa#e ti#e /'or to$&( says t(ere are t%o ob4e&ts %(en %e &ross o$r 'in)ers. %(ile si)(t says t(ere is one05to t(ese %e s(all say 3yes. b$t not to t(e sa#e sense and in t(e sa#e ,art o' it and $nder t(e sa#e &onditions and at t(e sa#e ti#e3. so t(at %(at a,,ears %ill be %it( t(ese 8$ali'i&ations tr$e. B$t ,er(a,s 'or t(is reason t(ose %(o ar)$e t($s not be&a$se t(ey 'eel a di''i&$lty b$t 'or t(e sa e o' ar)$#ent. s(o$ld say t(at t(is is not tr$e. b$t tr$e 'or t(is #an. And as (as been said be'ore. t(ey #$st #a e e+eryt(in) relati+e5relati+e to o,inion and ,er&e,tion. so t(at not(in) eit(er (as &o#e to be or %ill be %it(o$t so#e one3s 'irst t(in in) so. B$t i' t(in)s (a+e &o#e to be or %ill be. e+idently not all t(in)s %ill be relati+e to o,inion.5A)ain. i' a t(in) is one. it is in relation to one t(in) or to a de'inite n$#ber o' t(in)s* and i' t(e sa#e t(in) is bot( (al' and e8$al. it is not to t(e do$ble t(at t(e e8$al is &orrelati+e. I'. t(en. in relation to t(at %(i&( t(in s. #an and t(at %(i&( is t(o$)(t are t(e sa#e. #an %ill not be t(at %(i&( t(in s. b$t only t(at %(i&( is t(o$)(t. And i' ea&( t(in) is to be relati+e to t(at %(i&( t(in s. t(at %(i&( t(in s %ill be relati+e to an in'inity o' s,e&i'i&ally di''erent t(in)s. "et t(is. t(en. s$''i&e to s(o% /!0 t(at t(e #ost indis,$table o' all belie's is t(at &ontradi&tory state#ents are not at t(e sa#e ti#e tr$e. and /70 %(at &onse8$en&es 'ollo% 'ro# t(e assertion t(at t(ey are. and /30 %(y ,eo,le do assert t(is. 2o% sin&e it is i#,ossible t(at &ontradi&tories s(o$ld be at t(e sa#e ti#e tr$e o' t(e sa#e t(in). ob+io$sly &ontraries also &annot belon) at t(e sa#e ti#e to t(e sa#e t(in). -or o' &ontraries. one is a ,ri+ation no less t(an it is a &ontrary5and a ,ri+ation o' t(e essential nat$re* and ,ri+ation is t(e denial o' a ,redi&ate to a deter#inate )en$s. I'.

t(en. it is i#,ossible to a''ir# and deny tr$ly at t(e sa#e ti#e. it is also i#,ossible t(at &ontraries s(o$ld belon) to a s$b4e&t at t(e sa#e ti#e. $nless bot( belon) to it in ,arti&$lar relations. or one in a ,arti&$lar relation and one %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. A B$t on t(e ot(er (and t(ere &annot be an inter#ediate bet%een &ontradi&tories. b$t o' one s$b4e&t %e #$st eit(er a''ir# or deny any one ,redi&ate. T(is is &lear. in t(e 'irst ,la&e. i' %e de'ine %(at t(e tr$e and t(e 'alse are. To say o' %(at is t(at it is not. or o' %(at is not t(at it is. is 'alse. %(ile to say o' %(at is t(at it is. and o' %(at is not t(at it is not. is tr$e* so t(at (e %(o says o' anyt(in) t(at it is. or t(at it is not. %ill say eit(er %(at is tr$e or %(at is 'alse* b$t neit(er %(at is nor %(at is not is said to be or not to be.5A)ain. t(e inter#ediate bet%een t(e &ontradi&tories %ill be so eit(er in t(e %ay in %(i&( )rey is bet%een bla& and %(ite. or as t(at %(i&( is neit(er #an nor (orse is bet%een #an and (orse. /a0 I' it %ere o' t(e latter ind. it &o$ld not &(an)e into t(e e1tre#es /'or &(an)e is 'ro# not5)ood to )ood. or 'ro# )ood to not5)ood0. b$t as a #atter o' 'a&t %(en t(ere is an inter#ediate it is al%ays obser+ed to &(an)e into t(e e1tre#es. -or t(ere is no &(an)e e1&e,t to o,,osites and to t(eir inter#ediates. /b0 B$t i' it is really inter#ediate. in t(is %ay too t(ere %o$ld (a+e to be a &(an)e to %(ite. %(i&( %as not 'ro# not5%(ite* b$t as it is. t(is is ne+er seen.5A)ain. e+ery ob4e&t o' $nderstandin) or reason t(e $nderstandin) eit(er a''ir#s or denies5t(is is ob+io$s 'ro# t(e de'inition5%(ene+er it says %(at is tr$e or 'alse. W(en it &onne&ts in one %ay by assertion or ne)ation. it says %(at is tr$e. and %(en it does so in anot(er %ay. %(at is 'alse.5A)ain. t(ere #$st be an inter#ediate bet%een all &ontradi&tories. i' one is not ar)$in) #erely 'or t(e sa e o' ar)$#ent* so t(at it %ill be ,ossible 'or a #an to say %(at is neit(er tr$e nor $ntr$e. and t(ere %ill be a #iddle bet%een t(at %(i&( is and t(at %(i&( is not. so t(at t(ere %ill also be a ind o' &(an)e inter#ediate bet%een )eneration and destr$&tion.5A)ain. in all &lasses in %(i&( t(e ne)ation o' an attrib$te in+ol+es t(e assertion o' its &ontrary. e+en in t(ese t(ere %ill be an inter#ediate* 'or instan&e. in t(e s,(ere o' n$#bers t(ere %ill be n$#ber %(i&( is neit(er odd nor not5odd. B$t t(is is i#,ossible. as is ob+io$s 'ro# t(e de'inition.5A)ain. t(e ,ro&ess %ill )o on ad in'init$#. and t(e n$#ber o' realities %ill be not only (al' as )reat a)ain. b$t e+en )reater. -or a)ain it %ill be ,ossible to deny t(is inter#ediate %it( re'eren&e bot( to its assertion and to its ne)ation. and t(is ne% ter# %ill be so#e de'inite t(in)* 'or its essen&e is so#et(in) di''erent.5A)ain. %(en a #an. on bein) as ed %(et(er a t(in) is %(ite. says 3no3. (e (as denied not(in) e1&e,t t(at it is* and its not bein) is a ne)ation. So#e ,eo,le (a+e a&8$ired t(is o,inion as ot(er ,arado1i&al o,inions (a+e been a&8$ired* %(en #en &annot re'$te eristi&al ar)$#ents. t(ey )i+e in to t(e ar)$#ent and a)ree t(at t(e &on&l$sion is tr$e. T(is. t(en. is %(y so#e e1,ress t(is +ie%* ot(ers do so be&a$se t(ey de#and a reason 'or e+eryt(in). And t(e startin)5,oint in dealin) %it( all s$&( ,eo,le is de'inition. 2o% t(e de'inition rests on t(e ne&essity o' t(eir #eanin) so#et(in)* 'or t(e 'or# o' %ords o' %(i&( t(e %ord is a si)n %ill be its de'inition.5W(ile t(e do&trine o' Hera&lit$s. t(at all t(in)s are and are not. see#s to #a e e+eryt(in) tr$e. t(at o' Ana1a)oras. t(at t(ere is an inter#ediate bet%een t(e ter#s o' a &ontradi&tion. see#s to #a e e+eryt(in) 'alse* 'or %(en t(in)s are #i1ed. t(e #i1t$re is neit(er )ood nor not5)ood. so t(at one &annot say anyt(in) t(at is tr$e. B In +ie% o' t(ese distin&tions it is ob+io$s t(at t(e one5sided t(eories %(i&( so#e ,eo,le e1,ress abo$t all t(in)s &annot be +alid5on

t(e one (and t(e t(eory t(at not(in) is tr$e /'or. say t(ey. t(ere is not(in) to ,re+ent e+ery state#ent 'ro# bein) li e t(e state#ent 3t(e dia)onal o' a s8$are is &o##ens$rate %it( t(e side30. on t(e ot(er (and t(e t(eory t(at e+eryt(in) is tr$e. T(ese +ie%s are ,ra&ti&ally t(e sa#e as t(at o' Hera&lit$s* 'or (e %(o says t(at all t(in)s are tr$e and all are 'alse also #a es ea&( o' t(ese state#ents se,arately. so t(at sin&e t(ey are i#,ossible. t(e do$ble state#ent #$st be i#,ossible too.5A)ain. t(ere are ob+io$sly &ontradi&tories %(i&( &annot be at t(e sa#e ti#e tr$e5nor on t(e ot(er (and &an all state#ents be 'alse* yet t(is %o$ld see# #ore ,ossible in t(e li)(t o' %(at (as been said.5B$t a)ainst all s$&( +ie%s %e #$st ,ost$late. as %e said abo+e.3 not t(at so#et(in) is or is not. b$t t(at so#et(in) (as a #eanin). so t(at %e #$st ar)$e 'ro# a de'inition. +i6. by ass$#in) %(at 'alsity or tr$t( #eans. I' t(at %(i&( it is tr$e to a''ir# is not(in) ot(er t(an t(at %(i&( it is 'alse to deny. it is i#,ossible t(at all state#ents s(o$ld be 'alse* 'or one side o' t(e &ontradi&tion #$st be tr$e. A)ain. i' it is ne&essary %it( re)ard to e+eryt(in) eit(er to assert or to deny it. it is i#,ossible t(at bot( s(o$ld be 'alse* 'or it is one side o' t(e &ontradi&tion t(at is 'alse.5T(ere'ore all s$&( +ie%s are also e1,osed to t(e o'ten e1,ressed ob4e&tion. t(at t(ey destroy t(e#sel+es. -or (e %(o says t(at e+eryt(in) is tr$e #a es e+en t(e state#ent &ontrary to (is o%n tr$e. and t(ere'ore (is o%n not tr$e /'or t(e &ontrary state#ent denies t(at it is tr$e0. %(ile (e %(o says e+eryt(in) is 'alse #a es (i#sel' also 'alse.5And i' t(e 'or#er ,erson e1&e,ts t(e &ontrary state#ent. sayin) it alone is not tr$e. %(ile t(e latter e1&e,ts (is o%n as bein) not 'alse. none t(e less t(ey are dri+en to ,ost$late t(e tr$t( or 'alsity o' an in'inite n$#ber o' state#ents* 'or t(at %(i&( says t(e tr$e state#ent is tr$e is tr$e. and t(is ,ro&ess %ill )o on to in'inity. E+idently. a)ain. t(ose %(o say all t(in)s are at rest are not ri)(t. nor are t(ose %(o say all t(in)s are in #o+e#ent. -or i' all t(in)s are at rest. t(e sa#e state#ents %ill al%ays be tr$e and t(e sa#e al%ays 'alse.5b$t t(is ob+io$sly &(an)es* 'or (e %(o #a es a state#ent. (i#sel' at one ti#e %as not and a)ain %ill not be. And i' all t(in)s are in #otion. not(in) %ill be tr$e* e+eryt(in) t(ere'ore %ill be 'alse. B$t it (as been s(o%n t(at t(is is i#,ossible. A)ain. it #$st be t(at %(i&( is t(at &(an)es* 'or &(an)e is 'ro# so#et(in) to so#et(in). B$t a)ain it is not t(e &ase t(at all t(in)s are at rest or in #otion so#eti#es. and not(in) 'or e+er* 'or t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( al%ays #o+es t(e t(in)s t(at are in #otion. and t(e 'irst #o+er is itsel' $n#o+ed. Boo E ! 3BE:I22I2:3 #eans /!0 t(at ,art o' a t(in) 'ro# %(i&( one %o$ld start 'irst. e.) a line or a road (as a be)innin) in eit(er o' t(e &ontrary dire&tions. /70 T(at 'ro# %(i&( ea&( t(in) %o$ld best be ori)inated. e.). e+en in learnin) %e #$st so#eti#es be)in not 'ro# t(e 'irst ,oint and t(e be)innin) o' t(e s$b4e&t. b$t 'ro# t(e ,oint 'ro# %(i&( %e s(o$ld learn #ost easily. /=0 T(at 'ro# %(i&(. as an i##anent ,art. a t(in) 'irst &o#es to be. e.). as t(e eel o' a s(i, and t(e 'o$ndation o' a (o$se. %(ile in ani#als so#e s$,,ose t(e (eart. ot(ers t(e brain. ot(ers so#e ot(er ,art. to be o' t(is nat$re. /=0 T(at 'ro# %(i&(. not as an i##anent ,art. a t(in) 'irst &o#es to be. and 'ro# %(i&( t(e #o+e#ent or t(e &(an)e nat$rally 'irst be)ins. as a &(ild &o#es 'ro# its 'at(er and its #ot(er. and a 'i)(t 'ro# ab$si+e lan)$a)e. /50 T(at at %(ose %ill t(at %(i&( is #o+ed is #o+ed and t(at %(i&( &(an)es &(an)es. e.). t(e #a)istra&ies in &ities. and oli)ar&(ies and #onar&(ies and tyrannies. are &alled ar(&(ai. and so are t(e arts. and o' t(ese es,e&ially t(e ar&(ite&toni& arts. /@0 T(at 'ro# %(i&( a t(in) &an 'irst be no%n.5t(is also is &alled t(e be)innin) o' t(e t(in). e.). t(e (y,ot(eses are t(e be)innin)s o' de#onstrations. /Ca$ses are s,o en o' in an e8$al n$#ber o' senses*

'or all &a$ses are be)innin)s.0 It is &o##on. t(en. to all be)innin)s to be t(e 'irst ,oint 'ro# %(i&( a t(in) eit(er is or &o#es to be or is no%n* b$t o' t(ese so#e are i##anent in t(e t(in) and ot(ers are o$tside. Hen&e t(e nat$re o' a t(in) is a be)innin). and so is t(e ele#ent o' a t(in). and t(o$)(t and %ill. and essen&e. and t(e 'inal &a$se5'or t(e )ood and t(e bea$ti'$l are t(e be)innin) bot( o' t(e no%led)e and o' t(e #o+e#ent o' #any t(in)s. 7 3Ca$se3 #eans /!0 t(at 'ro# %(i&(. as i##anent #aterial. a t(in) &o#es into bein). e.). t(e bron6e is t(e &a$se o' t(e stat$e and t(e sil+er o' t(e sa$&er. and so are t(e &lasses %(i&( in&l$de t(ese. /70 T(e 'or# or ,attern. i.e. t(e de'inition o' t(e essen&e. and t(e &lasses %(i&( in&l$de t(is /e.). t(e ratio 7>! and n$#ber in )eneral are &a$ses o' t(e o&ta+e0. and t(e ,arts in&l$ded in t(e de'inition. /30 T(at 'ro# %(i&( t(e &(an)e or t(e restin) 'ro# &(an)e 'irst be)ins* e.). t(e ad+iser is a &a$se o' t(e a&tion. and t(e 'at(er a &a$se o' t(e &(ild. and in )eneral t(e #a er a &a$se o' t(e t(in) #ade and t(e &(an)e5,rod$&in) o' t(e &(an)in). /=0 T(e end. i.e. t(at 'or t(e sa e o' %(i&( a t(in) is* e.). (ealt( is t(e &a$se o' %al in). -or 3W(y does one %al <3 %e say* 3t(at one #ay be (ealt(y3* and in s,ea in) t($s %e t(in %e (a+e )i+en t(e &a$se. T(e sa#e is tr$e o' all t(e #eans t(at inter+ene be'ore t(e end. %(en so#et(in) else (as ,$t t(e ,ro&ess in #otion. as e.). t(innin) or ,$r)in) or dr$)s or instr$#ents inter+ene be'ore (ealt( is rea&(ed* 'or all t(ese are 'or t(e sa e o' t(e end. t(o$)( t(ey di''er 'ro# one anot(er in t(at so#e are instr$#ents and ot(ers are a&tions. T(ese. t(en. are ,ra&ti&ally all t(e senses in %(i&( &a$ses are s,o en o'. and as t(ey are s,o en o' in se+eral senses it 'ollo%s bot( t(at t(ere are se+eral &a$ses o' t(e sa#e t(in). and in no a&&idental sense /e.). bot( t(e art o' s&$l,t$re and t(e bron6e are &a$ses o' t(e stat$e not in res,e&t o' anyt(in) else b$t 8$a stat$e* not. (o%e+er. in t(e sa#e %ay. b$t t(e one as #atter and t(e ot(er as so$r&e o' t(e #o+e#ent0. and t(at t(in)s &an be &a$ses o' one anot(er /e.). e1er&ise o' )ood &ondition. and t(e latter o' e1er&ise* not. (o%e+er. in t(e sa#e %ay. b$t t(e one as end and t(e ot(er as so$r&e o' #o+e#ent0.5A)ain. t(e sa#e t(in) is t(e &a$se o' &ontraries* 'or t(at %(i&( %(en ,resent &a$ses a ,arti&$lar t(in). %e so#eti#es &(ar)e. %(en absent. %it( t(e &ontrary. e.). %e i#,$te t(e s(i,%re& to t(e absen&e o' t(e steers#an. %(ose ,resen&e %as t(e &a$se o' sa'ety* and bot(5t(e ,resen&e and t(e ,ri+ation5are &a$ses as so$r&es o' #o+e#ent. All t(e &a$ses no% #entioned 'all $nder 'o$r senses %(i&( are t(e #ost ob+io$s. -or t(e letters are t(e &a$se o' syllables. and t(e #aterial is t(e &a$se o' #an$'a&t$red t(in)s. and 'ire and eart( and all s$&( t(in)s are t(e &a$ses o' bodies. and t(e ,arts are &a$ses o' t(e %(ole. and t(e (y,ot(eses are &a$ses o' t(e &on&l$sion. in t(e sense t(at t(ey are t(at o$t o' %(i&( t(ese res,e&ti+ely are #ade* b$t o' t(ese so#e are &a$se as t(e s$bstrat$# /e.). t(e ,arts0. ot(ers as t(e essen&e /t(e %(ole. t(e synt(esis. and t(e 'or#0. T(e se#en. t(e ,(ysi&ian. t(e ad+iser. and in )eneral t(e a)ent. are all so$r&es o' &(an)e or o' rest. T(e re#ainder are &a$ses as t(e end and t(e )ood o' t(e ot(er t(in)s* 'or t(at 'or t(e sa e o' %(i&( ot(er t(in)s are tends to be t(e best and t(e end o' t(e ot(er t(in)s* let $s ta e it as #a in) no di''eren&e %(et(er %e &all it )ood or a,,arent )ood. T(ese. t(en. are t(e &a$ses. and t(is is t(e n$#ber o' t(eir inds. b$t t(e +arieties o' &a$ses are #any in n$#ber. t(o$)( %(en s$##ari6ed t(ese also are &o#,arati+ely 'e%. Ca$ses are s,o en o' in #any senses. and e+en o' t(ose %(i&( are o' t(e sa#e ind so#e are &a$ses in a ,rior and ot(ers in a ,osterior sense. e.). bot( 3t(e ,(ysi&ian3 and 3t(e ,ro'essional #an3 are &a$ses o' (ealt(. and bot( 3t(e ratio 7>!3 and 3n$#ber3 are &a$ses o' t(e o&ta+e. and t(e &lasses t(at in&l$de any ,arti&$lar &a$se are al%ays &a$ses o' t(e

,arti&$lar e''e&t. A)ain. t(ere are a&&idental &a$ses and t(e &lasses %(i&( in&l$de t(ese* e.). %(ile in one sense 3t(e s&$l,tor3 &a$ses t(e stat$e. in anot(er sense 3Poly&lit$s3 &a$ses it. be&a$se t(e s&$l,tor (a,,ens to be Poly&lit$s* and t(e &lasses t(at in&l$de t(e a&&idental &a$se are also &a$ses. e.). 3#an35or in )eneral 3ani#al35is t(e &a$se o' t(e stat$e. be&a$se Poly&lit$s is a #an. and #an is an ani#al. ;' a&&idental &a$ses also so#e are #ore re#ote or nearer t(an ot(ers. as. 'or instan&e. i' 3t(e %(ite3 and 3t(e #$si&al3 %ere &alled &a$ses o' t(e stat$e. and not only 3Poly&lit$s3 or 3#an3. B$t besides all t(ese +arieties o' &a$ses. %(et(er ,ro,er or a&&idental. so#e are &alled &a$ses as bein) able to a&t. ot(ers as a&tin)* e.). t(e &a$se o' t(e (o$se3s bein) b$ilt is a b$ilder. or a b$ilder %(o is b$ildin).5T(e sa#e +ariety o' lan)$a)e %ill be 'o$nd %it( re)ard to t(e e''e&ts o' &a$ses* e.). a t(in) #ay be &alled t(e &a$se o' t(is stat$e or o' a stat$e or in )eneral o' an i#a)e. and o' t(is bron6e or o' bron6e or o' #atter in )eneral* and si#ilarly in t(e &ase o' a&&idental e''e&ts. A)ain. bot( a&&idental and ,ro,er &a$ses #ay be s,o en o' in &o#bination* e.). %e #ay say not 3Poly&lit$s3 nor 3t(e s&$l,tor3 b$t 3Poly&lit$s t(e s&$l,tor3. Yet all t(ese are b$t si1 in n$#ber. %(ile ea&( is s,o en o' in t%o %ays* 'or /A0 t(ey are &a$ses eit(er as t(e indi+id$al. or as t(e )en$s. or as t(e a&&idental. or as t(e )en$s t(at in&l$des t(e a&&idental. and t(ese eit(er as &o#bined. or as ta en si#,ly* and /B0 all #ay be ta en as a&tin) or as (a+in) a &a,a&ity. B$t t(ey di''er inas#$&( as t(e a&tin) &a$ses. i.e. t(e indi+id$als. e1ist. or do not e1ist. si#$ltaneo$sly %it( t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ey are &a$ses. e.). t(is ,arti&$lar #an %(o is (ealin). %it( t(is ,arti&$lar #an %(o is re&o+erin) (ealt(. and t(is ,arti&$lar b$ilder %it( t(is ,arti&$lar t(in) t(at is bein) b$ilt* b$t t(e ,otential &a$ses are not al%ays in t(is &ase* 'or t(e (o$se does not ,eris( at t(e sa#e ti#e as t(e b$ilder. 3 3Ele#ent3 #eans /!0 t(e ,ri#ary &o#,onent i##anent in a t(in). and indi+isible in ind into ot(er inds* e.). t(e ele#ents o' s,ee&( are t(e ,arts o' %(i&( s,ee&( &onsists and into %(i&( it is $lti#ately di+ided. %(ile t(ey are no lon)er di+ided into ot(er 'or#s o' s,ee&( di''erent in ind 'ro# t(e#. I' t(ey are di+ided. t(eir ,arts are o' t(e sa#e ind. as a ,art o' %ater is %ater /%(ile a ,art o' t(e syllable is not a syllable0. Si#ilarly t(ose %(o s,ea o' t(e ele#ents o' bodies #ean t(e t(in)s into %(i&( bodies are $lti#ately di+ided. %(ile t(ey are no lon)er di+ided into ot(er t(in)s di''erin) in ind* and %(et(er t(e t(in)s o' t(is sort are one or #ore. t(ey &all t(ese ele#ents. T(e so5&alled ele#ents o' )eo#etri&al ,roo's. and in )eneral t(e ele#ents o' de#onstrations. (a+e a si#ilar &(ara&ter* 'or t(e ,ri#ary de#onstrations. ea&( o' %(i&( is i#,lied in #any de#onstrations. are &alled ele#ents o' de#onstrations* and t(e ,ri#ary syllo)is#s. %(i&( (a+e t(ree ter#s and ,ro&eed by #eans o' one #iddle. are o' t(is nat$re. /70 Peo,le also trans'er t(e %ord 3ele#ent3 'ro# t(is #eanin) and a,,ly it to t(at %(i&(. bein) one and s#all. is $se'$l 'or #any ,$r,oses* 'or %(i&( reason %(at is s#all and si#,le and indi+isible is &alled an ele#ent. Hen&e &o#e t(e 'a&ts t(at t(e #ost $ni+ersal t(in)s are ele#ents /be&a$se ea&( o' t(e# bein) one and si#,le is ,resent in a ,l$rality o' t(in)s. eit(er in all or in as #any as ,ossible0. and t(at $nity and t(e ,oint are t(o$)(t by so#e to be 'irst ,rin&i,les. 2o%. sin&e t(e so5&alled )enera are $ni+ersal and indi+isible /'or t(ere is no de'inition o' t(e#0. so#e say t(e )enera are ele#ents. and #ore so t(an t(e di''erentia. be&a$se t(e )en$s is #ore $ni+ersal* 'or %(ere t(e di''erentia is ,resent. t(e )en$s a&&o#,anies it. b$t %(ere t(e )en$s is ,resent. t(e di''erentia is not al%ays so. It is &o##on to all t(e #eanin)s t(at t(e ele#ent o' ea&( t(in) is t(e 'irst &o#,onent i##anent in ea&(. =

32at$re3 #eans /!0 t(e )enesis o' )ro%in) t(in)s5t(e #eanin) %(i&( %o$ld be s$))ested i' one %ere to ,rono$n&e t(e 3$3 in ,($sis lon). /70 T(at i##anent ,art o' a )ro%in) t(in). 'ro# %(i&( its )ro%t( 'irst ,ro&eeds. /30 T(e so$r&e 'ro# %(i&( t(e ,ri#ary #o+e#ent in ea&( nat$ral ob4e&t is ,resent in it in +irt$e o' its o%n essen&e. T(ose t(in)s are said to )ro% %(i&( deri+e in&rease 'ro# so#et(in) else by &onta&t and eit(er by or)ani& $nity. or by or)ani& ad(esion as in t(e &ase o' e#bryos. ;r)ani& $nity di''ers 'ro# &onta&t* 'or in t(e latter &ase t(ere need not be anyt(in) besides t(e &onta&t. b$t in or)ani& $nities t(ere is so#et(in) identi&al in bot( ,arts. %(i&( #a es t(e# )ro% to)et(er instead o' #erely to$&(in). and be one in res,e&t o' &ontin$ity and 8$antity. t(o$)( not o' 8$ality.5/=0 32at$re3 #eans t(e ,ri#ary #aterial o' %(i&( any nat$ral ob4e&t &onsists or o$t o' %(i&( it is #ade. %(i&( is relati+ely $ns(a,ed and &annot be &(an)ed 'ro# its o%n ,oten&y. as e.). bron6e is said to be t(e nat$re o' a stat$e and o' bron6e $tensils. and %ood t(e nat$re o' %ooden t(in)s* and so in all ot(er &ases* 'or %(en a ,rod$&t is #ade o$t o' t(ese #aterials. t(e 'irst #atter is ,reser+ed t(ro$)(o$t. -or it is in t(is %ay t(at ,eo,le &all t(e ele#ents o' nat$ral ob4e&ts also t(eir nat$re. so#e na#in) 'ire. ot(ers eart(. ot(ers air. ot(ers %ater. ot(ers so#et(in) else o' t(e sort. and so#e na#in) #ore t(an one o' t(ese. and ot(ers all o' t(e#.5/50 32at$re3 #eans t(e essen&e o' nat$ral ob4e&ts. as %it( t(ose %(o say t(e nat$re is t(e ,ri#ary #ode o' &o#,osition. or as E#,edo&les says>5 2ot(in) t(at is (as a nat$re. B$t only #i1in) and ,artin) o' t(e #i1ed. And nat$re is b$t a na#e )i+en t(e# by #en. Hen&e as re)ards t(e t(in)s t(at are or &o#e to be by nat$re. t(o$)( t(at 'ro# %(i&( t(ey nat$rally &o#e to be or are is already ,resent. %e say t(ey (a+e not t(eir nat$re yet. $nless t(ey (a+e t(eir 'or# or s(a,e. T(at %(i&( &o#,rises bot( o' t(ese e1ists by nat$re. e.). t(e ani#als and t(eir ,arts* and not only is t(e 'irst #atter nat$re /and t(is in t%o senses. eit(er t(e 'irst. &o$ntin) 'ro# t(e t(in). or t(e 'irst in )eneral* e.). in t(e &ase o' %or s in bron6e. bron6e is 'irst %it( re'eren&e to t(e#. b$t in )eneral ,er(a,s %ater is 'irst. i' all t(in)s t(at &an be #elted are %ater0. b$t also t(e 'or# or essen&e. %(i&( is t(e end o' t(e ,ro&ess o' be&o#in).5/@0 By an e1tension o' #eanin) 'ro# t(is sense o' 3nat$re3 e+ery essen&e in )eneral (as &o#e to be &alled a 3nat$re3. be&a$se t(e nat$re o' a t(in) is one ind o' essen&e. -ro# %(at (as been said. t(en. it is ,lain t(at nat$re in t(e ,ri#ary and stri&t sense is t(e essen&e o' t(in)s %(i&( (a+e in t(e#sel+es. as s$&(. a so$r&e o' #o+e#ent* 'or t(e #atter is &alled t(e nat$re be&a$se it is 8$ali'ied to re&ei+e t(is. and ,ro&esses o' be&o#in) and )ro%in) are &alled nat$re be&a$se t(ey are #o+e#ents ,ro&eedin) 'ro# t(is. And nat$re in t(is sense is t(e so$r&e o' t(e #o+e#ent o' nat$ral ob4e&ts. bein) ,resent in t(e# so#e(o%. eit(er ,otentially or in &o#,lete reality. 5 We &all 3ne&essary3 /!0 /a0 t(at %it(o$t %(i&(. as a &ondition. a t(in) &annot li+e* e.). breat(in) and 'ood are ne&essary 'or an ani#al* 'or it is in&a,able o' e1istin) %it(o$t t(ese* /b0 t(e &onditions %it(o$t %(i&( )ood &annot be or &o#e to be. or %it(o$t %(i&( %e &annot )et rid or be 'reed o' e+il* e.). drin in) t(e #edi&ine is ne&essary in order t(at %e #ay be &$red o' disease. and a #an3s sailin) to Ae)ina is ne&essary in order t(at (e #ay )et (is #oney.5/70 T(e &o#,$lsory and &o#,$lsion. i.e. t(at %(i&( i#,edes and tends to (inder. &ontrary to i#,$lse and ,$r,ose. -or t(e &o#,$lsory is &alled ne&essary /%(en&e t(e ne&essary is ,ain'$l. as E+en$s says> 3-or e+ery ne&essary t(in) is e+er ir so#e30. and

&o#,$lsion is a 'or# o' ne&essity. as So,(o&les says> 3B$t 'or&e ne&essitates #e to t(is a&t3. And ne&essity is (eld to be so#et(in) t(at &annot be ,ers$aded5and ri)(tly. 'or it is &ontrary to t(e #o+e#ent %(i&( a&&ords %it( ,$r,ose and %it( reasonin).5/30 We say t(at t(at %(i&( &annot be ot(er%ise is ne&essarily as it is. And 'ro# t(is sense o' 3ne&essary3 all t(e ot(ers are so#e(o% deri+ed* 'or a t(in) is said to do or s$''er %(at is ne&essary in t(e sense o' &o#,$lsory. only %(en it &annot a&t a&&ordin) to its i#,$lse be&a$se o' t(e &o#,ellin) 'or&es5%(i&( i#,lies t(at ne&essity is t(at be&a$se o' %(i&( a t(in) &annot be ot(er%ise* and si#ilarly as re)ards t(e &onditions o' li'e and o' )ood* 'or %(en in t(e one &ase )ood. in t(e ot(er li'e and bein). are not ,ossible %it(o$t &ertain &onditions. t(ese are ne&essary. and t(is ind o' &a$se is a sort o' ne&essity. A)ain. de#onstration is a ne&essary t(in) be&a$se t(e &on&l$sion &annot be ot(er%ise. i' t(ere (as been de#onstration in t(e $n8$ali'ied sense* and t(e &a$ses o' t(is ne&essity are t(e 'irst ,re#isses. i.e. t(e 'a&t t(at t(e ,ro,ositions 'ro# %(i&( t(e syllo)is# ,ro&eeds &annot be ot(er%ise. 2o% so#e t(in)s o%e t(eir ne&essity to so#et(in) ot(er t(an t(e#sel+es* ot(ers do not. b$t are t(e#sel+es t(e so$r&e o' ne&essity in ot(er t(in)s. T(ere'ore t(e ne&essary in t(e ,ri#ary and stri&t sense is t(e si#,le* 'or t(is does not ad#it o' #ore states t(an one. so t(at it &annot e+en be in one state and also in anot(er* 'or i' it did it %o$ld already be in #ore t(an one. I'. t(en. t(ere are any t(in)s t(at are eternal and $n#o+able. not(in) &o#,$lsory or a)ainst t(eir nat$re atta&(es to t(e#. @ 3;ne3 #eans /!0 t(at %(i&( is one by a&&ident. /70 t(at %(i&( is one by its o%n nat$re. /!0 Instan&es o' t(e a&&identally one are 3Coris&$s and %(at is #$si&al3. and 3#$si&al Coris&$s3 /'or it is t(e sa#e t(in) to say 3Coris&$s and %(at is #$si&al3. and 3#$si&al Coris&$s30. and 3%(at is #$si&al and %(at is 4$st3. and 3#$si&al Coris&$s and 4$st Coris&$s3. -or all o' t(ese are &alled one by +irt$e o' an a&&ident. 3%(at is 4$st and %(at is #$si&al3 be&a$se t(ey are a&&idents o' one s$bstan&e. 3%(at is #$si&al and Coris&$s3 be&a$se t(e one is an a&&ident o' t(e ot(er* and si#ilarly in a sense 3#$si&al Coris&$s3 is one %it( 3Coris&$s3 be&a$se one o' t(e ,arts o' t(e ,(rase is an a&&ident o' t(e ot(er. i.e. 3#$si&al3 is an a&&ident o' Coris&$s* and 3#$si&al Coris&$s3 is one %it( 34$st Coris&$s3 be&a$se one ,art o' ea&( is an a&&ident o' one and t(e sa#e s$b4e&t. T(e &ase is si#ilar i' t(e a&&ident is ,redi&ated o' a )en$s or o' any $ni+ersal na#e. e.). i' one says t(at #an is t(e sa#e as 3#$si&al #an3* 'or t(is is eit(er be&a$se 3#$si&al3 is an a&&ident o' #an. %(i&( is one s$bstan&e. or be&a$se bot( are a&&idents o' so#e indi+id$al. e.). Coris&$s. Bot(. (o%e+er. do not belon) to (i# in t(e sa#e %ay. b$t one ,res$#ably as )en$s and in&l$ded in (is s$bstan&e. t(e ot(er as a state or a''e&tion o' t(e s$bstan&e. T(e t(in)s. t(en. t(at are &alled one in +irt$e o' an a&&ident. are &alled so in t(is %ay. /70 ;' t(in)s t(at are &alled one in +irt$e o' t(eir o%n nat$re so#e /a0 are so &alled be&a$se t(ey are &ontin$o$s. e.). a b$ndle is #ade one by a band. and ,ie&es o' %ood are #ade one by )l$e* and a line. e+en i' it is bent. is &alled one i' it is &ontin$o$s. as ea&( ,art o' t(e body is. e.). t(e le) or t(e ar#. ;' t(ese t(e#sel+es. t(e &ontin$o$s by nat$re are #ore one t(an t(e &ontin$o$s by art. A t(in) is &alled &ontin$o$s %(i&( (as by its o%n nat$re one #o+e#ent and &annot (a+e any ot(er* and t(e #o+e#ent is one %(en it is indi+isible. and it is indi+isible in res,e&t o' ti#e. T(ose t(in)s are &ontin$o$s by t(eir o%n nat$re %(i&( are one not #erely by &onta&t* 'or i' yo$ ,$t ,ie&es o' %ood to$&(in) one anot(er. yo$ %ill not say t(ese are one ,ie&e o' %ood or one body or one &ontin$$# o' any ot(er sort. T(in)s. t(en. t(at are &ontin$o$s in any %ay &alled one. e+en i' t(ey ad#it o' bein) bent. and still #ore t(ose %(i&( &annot be bent* e.). t(e s(in or t(e t(i)( is #ore

one t(an t(e le). be&a$se t(e #o+e#ent o' t(e le) need not be one. And t(e strai)(t line is #ore one t(an t(e bent* b$t t(at %(i&( is bent and (as an an)le %e &all bot( one and not one. be&a$se its #o+e#ent #ay be eit(er si#$ltaneo$s or not si#$ltaneo$s* b$t t(at o' t(e strai)(t line is al%ays si#$ltaneo$s. and no ,art o' it %(i&( (as #a)nit$de rests %(ile anot(er #o+es. as in t(e bent line. /b0/i0 T(in)s are &alled one in anot(er sense be&a$se t(eir s$bstrat$# does not di''er in ind* it does not di''er in t(e &ase o' t(in)s %(ose ind is indi+isible to sense. T(e s$bstrat$# #eant is eit(er t(e nearest to. or t(e 'art(est 'ro#. t(e 'inal state. -or. one t(e one (and. %ine is said to be one and %ater is said to be one. 8$a indi+isible in ind* and. on t(e ot(er (and. all 4$i&es. e.). oil and %ine. are said to be one. and so are all t(in)s t(at &an be #elted. be&a$se t(e $lti#ate s$bstrat$# o' all is t(e sa#e* 'or all o' t(ese are %ater or air. /ii0 T(ose t(in)s also are &alled one %(ose )en$s is one t(o$)( distin)$is(ed by o,,osite di''erentiae5t(ese too are all &alled one be&a$se t(e )en$s %(i&( $nderlies t(e di''erentiae is one /e.). (orse. #an. and do) 'or# a $nity. be&a$se all are ani#als0. and indeed in a %ay si#ilar to t(at in %(i&( t(e #atter is one. T(ese are so#eti#es &alled one in t(is %ay. b$t so#eti#es it is t(e (i)(er )en$s t(at is said to be t(e sa#e /i' t(ey are in'i#ae s,e&ies o' t(eir )en$s05t(e )en$s abo+e t(e ,ro1i#ate )enera* e.). t(e isos&eles and t(e e8$ilateral are one and t(e sa#e 'i)$re be&a$se bot( are trian)les* b$t t(ey are not t(e sa#e trian)les. /&0 T%o t(in)s are &alled one. %(en t(e de'inition %(i&( states t(e essen&e o' one is indi+isible 'ro# anot(er de'inition %(i&( s(o%s $s t(e ot(er /t(o$)( in itsel' e+ery de'inition is di+isible0. T($s e+en t(at %(i&( (as in&reased or is di#inis(in) is one. be&a$se its de'inition is one. as. in t(e &ase o' ,lane 'i)$res. is t(e de'inition o' t(eir 'or#. In )eneral t(ose t(in)s t(e t(o$)(t o' %(ose essen&e is indi+isible. and &annot se,arate t(e# eit(er in ti#e or in ,la&e or in de'inition. are #ost o' all one. and o' t(ese es,e&ially t(ose %(i&( are s$bstan&es. -or in )eneral t(ose t(in)s t(at do not ad#it o' di+ision are &alled one in so 'ar as t(ey do not ad#it o' it* e.). i' t%o t(in)s are indistin)$is(able 8$a #an. t(ey are one ind o' #an* i' 8$a ani#al. one ind o' ani#al* i' 8$a #a)nit$de. one ind o' #a)nit$de.52o% #ost t(in)s are &alled one be&a$se t(ey eit(er do or (a+e or s$''er or are related to so#et(in) else t(at is one. b$t t(e t(in)s t(at are ,ri#arily &alled one are t(ose %(ose s$bstan&e is one.5and one eit(er in &ontin$ity or in 'or# or in de'inition* 'or %e &o$nt as #ore t(an one eit(er t(in)s t(at are not &ontin$o$s. or t(ose %(ose 'or# is not one. or t(ose %(ose de'inition is not one. W(ile in a sense %e &all anyt(in) one i' it is a 8$antity and &ontin$o$s. in a sense %e do not $nless it is a %(ole. i.e. $nless it (as $nity o' 'or#* e.). i' %e sa% t(e ,arts o' a s(oe ,$t to)et(er any(o% %e s(o$ld not &all t(e# one all t(e sa#e /$nless be&a$se o' t(eir &ontin$ity0* %e do t(is only i' t(ey are ,$t to)et(er so as to be a s(oe and to (a+e already a &ertain sin)le 'or#. T(is is %(y t(e &ir&le is o' all lines #ost tr$ly one. be&a$se it is %(ole and &o#,lete. /30 T(e essen&e o' %(at is one is to be so#e ind o' be)innin) o' n$#ber* 'or t(e 'irst #eas$re is t(e be)innin). sin&e t(at by %(i&( %e 'irst no% ea&( &lass is t(e 'irst #eas$re o' t(e &lass* t(e one. t(en. is t(e be)innin) o' t(e no%able re)ardin) ea&( &lass. B$t t(e one is not t(e sa#e in all &lasses. -or (ere it is a 8$arter5tone. and t(ere it is t(e +o%el or t(e &onsonant* and t(ere is anot(er $nit o' %ei)(t and anot(er o' #o+e#ent. B$t e+ery%(ere t(e one is indi+isible eit(er in 8$antity or in ind. 2o% t(at %(i&( is indi+isible in 8$antity is &alled a $nit i' it is not di+isible in any di#ension and is %it(o$t ,osition. a ,oint i' it is not di+isible in any di#ension and (as ,osition. a line i' it is di+isible in one di#ension. a ,lane i' in t%o. a body i' di+isible in 8$antity in

all55i.e. in t(ree55di#ensions. And. re+ersin) t(e order. t(at %(i&( is di+isible in t%o di#ensions is a ,lane. t(at %(i&( is di+isible in one a line. t(at %(i&( is in no %ay di+isible in 8$antity is a ,oint or a $nit.5t(at %(i&( (as not ,osition a $nit. t(at %(i&( (as ,osition a ,oint. A)ain. so#e t(in)s are one in n$#ber. ot(ers in s,e&ies. ot(ers in )en$s. ot(ers by analo)y* in n$#ber t(ose %(ose #atter is one. in s,e&ies t(ose %(ose de'inition is one. in )en$s t(ose to %(i&( t(e sa#e 'i)$re o' ,redi&ation a,,lies. by analo)y t(ose %(i&( are related as a t(ird t(in) is to a 'o$rt(. T(e latter inds o' $nity are al%ays 'o$nd %(en t(e 'or#er are* e.). t(in)s t(at are one in n$#ber are also one in s,e&ies. %(ile t(in)s t(at are one in s,e&ies are not all one in n$#ber* b$t t(in)s t(at are one in s,e&ies are all one in )en$s. %(ile t(in)s t(at are so in )en$s are not all one in s,e&ies b$t are all one by analo)y* %(ile t(in)s t(at are one by analo)y are not all one in )en$s. E+idently 3#any3 %ill (a+e #eanin)s o,,osite to t(ose o' 3one3* so#e t(in)s are #any be&a$se t(ey are not &ontin$o$s. ot(ers be&a$se t(eir #atter5eit(er t(e ,ro1i#ate #atter or t(e $lti#ate5is di+isible in ind. ot(ers be&a$se t(e de'initions %(i&( state t(eir essen&e are #ore t(an one. A T(in)s are said to 3be3 /!0 in an a&&idental sense. /70 by t(eir o%n nat$re. /!0 In an a&&idental sense. e.). %e say 3t(e ri)(teo$s doer is #$si&al3. and 3t(e #an is #$si&al3. and 3t(e #$si&ian is a #an3. 4$st as %e say 3t(e #$si&ian b$ilds3. be&a$se t(e b$ilder (a,,ens to be #$si&al or t(e #$si&ian to be a b$ilder* 'or (ere 3one t(in) is anot(er3 #eans 3one is an a&&ident o' anot(er3. So in t(e &ases %e (a+e #entioned* 'or %(en %e say 3t(e #an is #$si&al3 and 3t(e #$si&ian is a #an3. or 3(e %(o is ,ale is #$si&al3 or 3t(e #$si&ian is ,ale3. t(e last t%o #ean t(at bot( attrib$tes are a&&idents o' t(e sa#e t(in)* t(e 'irst t(at t(e attrib$te is an a&&ident o' t(at %(i&( is. %(ile 3t(e #$si&al is a #an3 #eans t(at 3#$si&al3 is an a&&ident o' a #an. /In t(is sense. too. t(e not5,ale is said to be. be&a$se t(at o' %(i&( it is an a&&ident is.0 T($s %(en one t(in) is said in an a&&idental sense to be anot(er. t(is is eit(er be&a$se bot( belon) to t(e sa#e t(in). and t(is is. or be&a$se t(at to %(i&( t(e attrib$te belon)s is. or be&a$se t(e s$b4e&t %(i&( (as as an attrib$te t(at o' %(i&( it is itsel' ,redi&ated. itsel' is. /70 T(e inds o' essential bein) are ,re&isely t(ose t(at are indi&ated by t(e 'i)$res o' ,redi&ation* 'or t(e senses o' 3bein)3 are 4$st as #any as t(ese 'i)$res. Sin&e. t(en. so#e ,redi&ates indi&ate %(at t(e s$b4e&t is. ot(ers its 8$ality. ot(ers 8$antity. ot(ers relation. ot(ers a&ti+ity or ,assi+ity. ot(ers its 3%(ere3. ot(ers its 3%(en3. 3bein)3 (as a #eanin) ans%erin) to ea&( o' t(ese. -or t(ere is no di''eren&e bet%een 3t(e #an is re&o+erin)3 and 3t(e #an re&o+ers3. nor bet%een 3t(e #an is %al in) or &$ttin)3 and 3t(e #an %al s3 or 3&$ts3* and si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. /30 A)ain. 3bein)3 and 3is3 #ean t(at a state#ent is tr$e. 3not bein)3 t(at it is not tr$e b$t 'alses5and t(is ali e in t(e &ase o' a''ir#ation and o' ne)ation* e.). 3So&rates is #$si&al3 #eans t(at t(is is tr$e. or 3So&rates is not5,ale3 #eans t(at t(is is tr$e* b$t 3t(e dia)onal o' t(e s8$are is not &o##ens$rate %it( t(e side3 #eans t(at it is 'alse to say it is. /=0 A)ain. 3bein)3 and 3t(at %(i&( is3 #ean t(at so#e o' t(e t(in)s %e (a+e #entioned 3are3 ,otentially. ot(ers in &o#,lete reality. -or %e say bot( o' t(at %(i&( sees ,otentially and o' t(at %(i&( sees a&t$ally. t(at it is 3seein)3. and bot( o' t(at %(i&( &an a&t$ali6e its no%led)e and o' t(at %(i&( is a&t$ali6in) it. t(at it no%s. and bot( o' t(at to %(i&( rest is already ,resent and o' t(at %(i&( &an rest. t(at it rests. And si#ilarly in t(e &ase o' s$bstan&es* %e say t(e Her#es is in t(e stone. and t(e (al' o' t(e

line is in t(e line. and %e say o' t(at %(i&( is not yet ri,e t(at it is &orn. W(en a t(in) is ,otential and %(en it is not yet ,otential #$st be e1,lained else%(ere. B We &all 3s$bstan&e3 /!0 t(e si#,le bodies. i.e. eart( and 'ire and %ater and e+eryt(in) o' t(e sort. and in )eneral bodies and t(e t(in)s &o#,osed o' t(e#. bot( ani#als and di+ine bein)s. and t(e ,arts o' t(ese. All t(ese are &alled s$bstan&e be&a$se t(ey are not ,redi&ated o' a s$b4e&t b$t e+eryt(in) else is ,redi&ated o' t(e#.5/70 T(at %(i&(. bein) ,resent in s$&( t(in)s as are not ,redi&ated o' a s$b4e&t. is t(e &a$se o' t(eir bein). as t(e so$l is o' t(e bein) o' an ani#al.5/30 T(e ,arts %(i&( are ,resent in s$&( t(in)s. li#itin) t(e# and #ar in) t(e# as indi+id$als. and by %(ose destr$&tion t(e %(ole is destroyed. as t(e body is by t(e destr$&tion o' t(e ,lane. as so#e say. and t(e ,lane by t(e destr$&tion o' t(e line* and in )eneral n$#ber is t(o$)(t by so#e to be o' t(is nat$re* 'or i' it is destroyed. t(ey say. not(in) e1ists. and it li#its all t(in)s.5/=0 T(e essen&e. t(e 'or#$la o' %(i&( is a de'inition. is also &alled t(e s$bstan&e o' ea&( t(in). It 'ollo%s. t(en. t(at 3s$bstan&e3 (as t%o senses. /A0 $lti#ate s$bstrat$#. %(i&( is no lon)er ,redi&ated o' anyt(in) else. and /B0 t(at %(i&(. bein) a 3t(is3. is also se,arable and o' t(is nat$re is t(e s(a,e or 'or# o' ea&( t(in). C 3T(e sa#e3 #eans /!0 t(at %(i&( is t(e sa#e in an a&&idental sense. e.). 3t(e ,ale3 and 3t(e #$si&al3 are t(e sa#e be&a$se t(ey are a&&idents o' t(e sa#e t(in). and 3a #an3 and 3#$si&al3 be&a$se t(e one is an a&&ident o' t(e ot(er* and 3t(e #$si&al3 is 3a #an3 be&a$se it is an a&&ident o' t(e #an. /T(e &o#,le1 entity is t(e sa#e as eit(er o' t(e si#,le ones and ea&( o' t(ese is t(e sa#e as it* 'or bot( 3t(e #an3 and 3t(e #$si&al3 are said to be t(e sa#e as 3t(e #$si&al #an3. and t(is t(e sa#e as t(ey.0 T(is is %(y all o' t(ese state#ents are #ade not $ni+ersally* 'or it is not tr$e to say t(at e+ery #an is t(e sa#e as 3t(e #$si&al3 /'or $ni+ersal attrib$tes belon) to t(in)s in +irt$e o' t(eir o%n nat$re. b$t a&&idents do not belon) to t(e# in +irt$e o' t(eir o%n nat$re0* b$t o' t(e indi+id$als t(e state#ents are #ade %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. -or 3So&rates3 and 3#$si&al So&rates3 are t(o$)(t to be t(e sa#e* b$t 3So&rates3 is not ,redi&able o' #ore t(an one s$b4e&t. and t(ere'ore %e do not say 3e+ery So&rates3 as %e say 3e+ery #an3. So#e t(in)s are said to be t(e sa#e in t(is sense. ot(ers /70 are t(e sa#e by t(eir o%n nat$re. in as #any senses as t(at %(i&( is one by its o%n nat$re is so* 'or bot( t(e t(in)s %(ose #atter is one eit(er in ind or in n$#ber. and t(ose %(ose essen&e is one. are said to be t(e sa#e. Clearly. t(ere'ore. sa#eness is a $nity o' t(e bein) eit(er o' #ore t(an one t(in) or o' one t(in) %(en it is treated as #ore t(an one. ie. %(en %e say a t(in) is t(e sa#e as itsel'* 'or %e treat it as t%o. T(in)s are &alled 3ot(er3 i' eit(er t(eir inds or t(eir #atters or t(e de'initions o' t(eir essen&e are #ore t(an one* and in )eneral 3ot(er3 (as #eanin)s o,,osite to t(ose o' 3t(e sa#e3. 3Di''erent3 is a,,lied /!0 to t(ose t(in)s %(i&( t(o$)( ot(er are t(e sa#e in so#e res,e&t. only not in n$#ber b$t eit(er in s,e&ies or in )en$s or by analo)y* /70 to t(ose %(ose )en$s is ot(er. and to &ontraries. and to an t(in)s t(at (a+e t(eir ot(erness in t(eir essen&e. T(ose t(in)s are &alled 3li e3 %(i&( (a+e t(e sa#e attrib$tes in e+ery res,e&t. and t(ose %(i&( (a+e #ore attrib$tes t(e sa#e t(an di''erent. and t(ose %(ose 8$ality is one* and t(at %(i&( s(ares %it( anot(er t(in) t(e )reater n$#ber or t(e #ore i#,ortant o' t(e attrib$tes /ea&( o' t(e# one o' t%o &ontraries0 in res,e&t o' %(i&( t(in)s are &a,able o' alterin). is li e t(at ot(er t(in). T(e senses

o' 3$nli e3 are o,,osite to t(ose o' 3li e3. !0 T(e ter# 3o,,osite3 is a,,lied to &ontradi&tories. and to &ontraries. and to relati+e ter#s. and to ,ri+ation and ,ossession. and to t(e e1tre#es 'ro# %(i&( and into %(i&( )eneration and dissol$tion ta e ,la&e* and t(e attrib$tes t(at &annot be ,resent at t(e sa#e ti#e in t(at %(i&( is re&e,ti+e o' bot(. are said to be o,,osed.5eit(er t(e#sel+es o' t(eir &onstit$ents. :rey and %(ite &olo$r do not belon) at t(e sa#e ti#e to t(e sa#e t(in)* (en&e t(eir &onstit$ents are o,,osed. T(e ter# 3&ontrary3 is a,,lied /!0 to t(ose attrib$tes di''erin) in )en$s %(i&( &annot belon) at t(e sa#e ti#e to t(e sa#e s$b4e&t. /70 to t(e #ost di''erent o' t(e t(in)s in t(e sa#e )en$s. /30 to t(e #ost di''erent o' t(e attrib$tes in t(e sa#e re&i,ient s$b4e&t. /=0 to t(e #ost di''erent o' t(e t(in)s t(at 'all $nder t(e sa#e 'a&$lty. /50 to t(e t(in)s %(ose di''eren&e is )reatest eit(er absol$tely or in )en$s or in s,e&ies. T(e ot(er t(in)s t(at are &alled &ontrary are so &alled. so#e be&a$se t(ey ,ossess &ontraries o' t(e abo+e ind. so#e be&a$se t(ey are re&e,ti+e o' s$&(. so#e be&a$se t(ey are ,rod$&ti+e o' or s$s&e,tible to s$&(. or are ,rod$&in) or s$''erin) t(e#. or are losses or a&8$isitions. or ,ossessions or ,ri+ations. o' s$&(. Sin&e 3one3 and 3bein)3 (a+e #any senses. t(e ot(er ter#s %(i&( are deri+ed 'ro# t(ese. and t(ere'ore 3sa#e3. 3ot(er3. and 3&ontrary3. #$st &orres,ond. so t(at t(ey #$st be di''erent 'or ea&( &ate)ory. T(e ter# 3ot(er in s,e&ies3 is a,,lied to t(in)s %(i&( bein) o' t(e sa#e )en$s are not s$bordinate t(e one to t(e ot(er. or %(i&( bein) in t(e sa#e )en$s (a+e a di''eren&e. or %(i&( (a+e a &ontrariety in t(eir s$bstan&e* and &ontraries are ot(er t(an one anot(er in s,e&ies /eit(er all &ontraries or t(ose %(i&( are so &alled in t(e ,ri#ary sense0. and so are t(ose t(in)s %(ose de'initions di''er in t(e in'i#a s,e&ies o' t(e )en$s /e.). #an and (orse are indi+isible in )en$s. b$t t(eir de'initions are di''erent0. and t(ose %(i&( bein) in t(e sa#e s$bstan&e (a+e a di''eren&e. 3T(e sa#e in s,e&ies3 (as t(e +ario$s #eanin)s o,,osite to t(ese. !! T(e %ords 3,rior3 and 3,osterior3 are a,,lied /!0 to so#e t(in)s /on t(e ass$#,tion t(at t(ere is a 'irst. i.e. a be)innin). in ea&( &lass0 be&a$se t(ey are nearer so#e be)innin) deter#ined eit(er absol$tely and by nat$re. or by re'eren&e to so#et(in) or in so#e ,la&e or by &ertain ,eo,le* e.). t(in)s are ,rior in ,la&e be&a$se t(ey are nearer eit(er to so#e ,la&e deter#ined by nat$re /e.). t(e #iddle or t(e last ,la&e0. or to so#e &(an&e ob4e&t* and t(at %(i&( is 'art(er is ,osterior.5;t(er t(in)s are ,rior in ti#e* so#e by bein) 'art(er 'ro# t(e ,resent. i.e. in t(e &ase o' ,ast e+ents /'or t(e Tro4an %ar is ,rior to t(e Persian. be&a$se it is 'art(er 'ro# t(e ,resent0. ot(ers by bein) nearer t(e ,resent. i.e. in t(e &ase o' '$t$re e+ents /'or t(e 2e#ean )a#es are ,rior to t(e Pyt(ian. i' %e treat t(e ,resent as be)innin) and 'irst ,oint. be&a$se t(ey are nearer t(e ,resent0.5;t(er t(in)s are ,rior in #o+e#ent* 'or t(at %(i&( is nearer t(e 'irst #o+er is ,rior /e.). t(e boy is ,rior to t(e #an0* and t(e ,ri#e #o+er also is a be)innin) absol$tely.5;t(ers are ,rior in ,o%er* 'or t(at %(i&( e1&eeds in ,o%er. i.e. t(e #ore ,o%er'$l. is ,rior* and s$&( is t(at a&&ordin) to %(ose %ill t(e ot(er5i.e. t(e ,osterior5#$st 'ollo%. so t(at i' t(e ,rior does not set it in #otion t(e ot(er does not #o+e. and i' it sets it in #otion it does #o+e* and (ere %ill is a be)innin).5;t(ers are ,rior in arran)e#ent* t(ese are t(e t(in)s t(at are ,la&ed at inter+als in re'eren&e to so#e one de'inite t(in) a&&ordin) to so#e r$le. e.). in t(e &(or$s t(e se&ond #an is ,rior to t(e t(ird. and in t(e lyre t(e se&ond lo%est strin) is ,rior to t(e lo%est* 'or in t(e one &ase t(e leader and in t(e ot(er t(e #iddle strin) is t(e be)innin).

T(ese. t(en. are &alled ,rior in t(is sense. b$t /70 in anot(er sense t(at %(i&( is ,rior 'or no%led)e is treated as also absol$tely ,rior* o' t(ese. t(e t(in)s t(at are ,rior in de'inition do not &oin&ide %it( t(ose t(at are ,rior in relation to ,er&e,tion. -or in de'inition $ni+ersals are ,rior. in relation to ,er&e,tion indi+id$als. And in de'inition also t(e a&&ident is ,rior to t(e %(ole. e.). 3#$si&al3 to 3#$si&al #an3. 'or t(e de'inition &annot e1ist as a %(ole %it(o$t t(e ,art* yet #$si&alness &annot e1ist $nless t(ere is so#e one %(o is #$si&al. /30 T(e attrib$tes o' ,rior t(in)s are &alled ,rior. e.). strai)(tness is ,rior to s#oot(ness* 'or one is an attrib$te o' a line as s$&(. and t(e ot(er o' a s$r'a&e. So#e t(in)s t(en are &alled ,rior and ,osterior in t(is sense. ot(ers /=0 in res,e&t o' nat$re and s$bstan&e. i.e. t(ose %(i&( &an be %it(o$t ot(er t(in)s. %(ile t(e ot(ers &annot be %it(o$t t(e#.5a distin&tion %(i&( Plato $sed. /I' %e &onsider t(e +ario$s senses o' 3bein)3. 'irstly t(e s$b4e&t is ,rior. so t(at s$bstan&e is ,rior* se&ondly. a&&ordin) as ,oten&y or &o#,lete reality is ta en into a&&o$nt. di''erent t(in)s are ,rior. 'or so#e t(in)s are ,rior in res,e&t o' ,oten&y. ot(ers in res,e&t o' &o#,lete reality. e.). in ,oten&y t(e (al' line is ,rior to t(e %(ole line. and t(e ,art to t(e %(ole. and t(e #atter to t(e &on&rete s$bstan&e. b$t in &o#,lete reality t(ese are ,osterior* 'or it is only %(en t(e %(ole (as been dissol+ed t(at t(ey %ill e1ist in &o#,lete reality.0 In a sense. t(ere'ore. all t(in)s t(at are &alled ,rior and ,osterior are so &alled %it( re'eren&e to t(is 'o$rt( sense* 'or so#e t(in)s &an e1ist %it(o$t ot(ers in res,e&t o' )eneration. e.). t(e %(ole %it(o$t t(e ,arts. and ot(ers in res,e&t o' dissol$tion. e.). t(e ,art %it(o$t t(e %(ole. And t(e sa#e is tr$e in all ot(er &ases. !7 3Poten&y3 #eans /!0 a so$r&e o' #o+e#ent or &(an)e. %(i&( is in anot(er t(in) t(an t(e t(in) #o+ed or in t(e sa#e t(in) 8$a ot(er* e.). t(e art o' b$ildin) is a ,oten&y %(i&( is not in t(e t(in) b$ilt. %(ile t(e art o' (ealin). %(i&( is a ,oten&y. #ay be in t(e #an (ealed. b$t not in (i# 8$a (ealed. 3Poten&y3 t(en #eans t(e so$r&e. in )eneral. o' &(an)e or #o+e#ent in anot(er t(in) or in t(e sa#e t(in) 8$a ot(er. and also /70 t(e so$r&e o' a t(in)3s bein) #o+ed by anot(er t(in) or by itsel' 8$a ot(er. -or in +irt$e o' t(at ,rin&i,le. in +irt$e o' %(i&( a ,atient s$''ers anyt(in). %e &all it 3&a,able3 o' s$''erin)* and t(is %e do so#eti#es i' it s$''ers anyt(in) at all. so#eti#es not in res,e&t o' e+eryt(in) it s$''ers. b$t only i' it s$''ers a &(an)e 'or t(e better55/30 T(e &a,a&ity o' ,er'or#in) t(is %ell or a&&ordin) to intention* 'or so#eti#es %e say o' t(ose %(o #erely &an %al or s,ea b$t not %ell or not as t(ey intend. t(at t(ey &annot s,ea or %al . So too /=0 in t(e &ase o' ,assi+ity55/50 T(e states in +irt$e o' %(i&( t(in)s are absol$tely i#,assi+e or $n&(an)eable. or not easily &(an)ed 'or t(e %orse. are &alled ,oten&ies* 'or t(in)s are bro en and &r$s(ed and bent and in )eneral destroyed not by (a+in) a ,oten&y b$t by not (a+in) one and by la& in) so#et(in). and t(in)s are i#,assi+e %it( res,e&t to s$&( ,ro&esses i' t(ey are s&ar&ely and sli)(tly a''e&ted by t(e#. be&a$se o' a 3,oten&y3 and be&a$se t(ey 3&an3 do so#et(in) and are in so#e ,ositi+e state. 3Poten&y3 (a+in) t(is +ariety o' #eanin)s. so too t(e 3,otent3 or 3&a,able3 in one sense %ill #ean t(at %(i&( &an be)in a #o+e#ent /or a &(an)e in )eneral. 'or e+en t(at %(i&( &an brin) t(in)s to rest is a 3,otent3 t(in)0 in anot(er t(in) or in itsel' 8$a ot(er* and in one sense t(at o+er %(i&( so#et(in) else (as s$&( a ,oten&y* and in one sense t(at %(i&( (as a ,oten&y o' &(an)in) into so#et(in). %(et(er 'or t(e %orse or 'or t(e better /'or e+en t(at %(i&( ,eris(es is t(o$)(t to be 3&a,able3 o' ,eris(in). 'or it %o$ld not (a+e ,eris(ed i' it (ad not been &a,able o' it* b$t. as a #atter o' 'a&t. it (as a &ertain dis,osition and &a$se and ,rin&i,le %(i&( 'its it to s$''er

t(is* so#eti#es it is t(o$)(t to be o' t(is sort be&a$se it (as so#et(in). so#eti#es be&a$se it is de,ri+ed o' so#et(in)* b$t i' ,ri+ation is in a sense 3(a+in)3 or 3(abit3. e+eryt(in) %ill be &a,able by (a+in) so#et(in). so t(at t(in)s are &a,able bot( by (a+in) a ,ositi+e (abit and ,rin&i,le. and by (a+in) t(e ,ri+ation o' t(is. i' it is ,ossible to (a+e a ,ri+ation* and i' ,ri+ation is not in a sense 3(abit3. 3&a,able3 is $sed in t%o distin&t senses0* and a t(in) is &a,able in anot(er sense be&a$se neit(er any ot(er t(in). nor itsel' 8$a ot(er. (as a ,oten&y or ,rin&i,le %(i&( &an destroy it. A)ain. all o' t(ese are &a,able eit(er #erely be&a$se t(e t(in) #i)(t &(an&e to (a,,en or not to (a,,en. or be&a$se it #i)(t do so %ell. T(is sort o' ,oten&y is 'o$nd e+en in li'eless t(in)s. e.). in instr$#ents* 'or %e say one lyre &an s,ea . and anot(er &annot s,ea at all. i' it (as not a )ood tone. In&a,a&ity is ,ri+ation o' &a,a&ity5i.e. o' s$&( a ,rin&i,le as (as been des&ribed eit(er in )eneral or in t(e &ase o' so#et(in) t(at %o$ld nat$rally (a+e t(e &a,a&ity. or e+en at t(e ti#e %(en it %o$ld nat$rally already (a+e it* 'or t(e senses in %(i&( %e s(o$ld &all a boy and a #an and a e$n$&( 3in&a,able o' be)ettin)3 are distin&t.5A)ain. to eit(er ind o' &a,a&ity t(ere is an o,,osite in&a,a&ity5bot( to t(at %(i&( only &an ,rod$&e #o+e#ent and to t(at %(i&( &an ,rod$&e it %ell. So#e t(in)s. t(en. are &alled ad$nata in +irt$e o' t(is ind o' in&a,a&ity. %(ile ot(ers are so in anot(er sense* i.e. bot( d$naton and ad$naton are $sed as 'ollo%s. T(e i#,ossible is t(at o' %(i&( t(e &ontrary is o' ne&essity tr$e. e.). t(at t(e dia)onal o' a s8$are is &o##ens$rate %it( t(e side is i#,ossible. be&a$se s$&( a state#ent is a 'alsity o' %(i&( t(e &ontrary is not only tr$e b$t also ne&essary* t(at it is &o##ens$rate. t(en. is not only 'alse b$t also o' ne&essity 'alse. T(e &ontrary o' t(is. t(e ,ossible. is 'o$nd %(en it is not ne&essary t(at t(e &ontrary is 'alse. e.). t(at a #an s(o$ld be seated is ,ossible* 'or t(at (e is not seated is not o' ne&essity 'alse. T(e ,ossible. t(en. in one sense. as (as been said. #eans t(at %(i&( is not o' ne&essity 'alse* in one. t(at %(i&( is tr$e* in one. t(at %(i&( #ay be tr$e.5A 3,oten&y3 or 3,o%er3 in )eo#etry is so &alled by a &(an)e o' #eanin).5T(ese senses o' 3&a,able3 or 3,ossible3 in+ol+e no re'eren&e to ,oten&y. B$t t(e senses %(i&( in+ol+e a re'eren&e to ,oten&y all re'er to t(e ,ri#ary ind o' ,oten&y* and t(is is a so$r&e o' &(an)e in anot(er t(in) or in t(e sa#e t(in) 8$a ot(er. -or ot(er t(in)s are &alled 3&a,able3. so#e be&a$se so#et(in) else (as s$&( a ,oten&y o+er t(e#. so#e be&a$se it (as not. so#e be&a$se it (as it in a ,arti&$lar %ay. T(e sa#e is tr$e o' t(e t(in)s t(at are in&a,able. T(ere'ore t(e ,ro,er de'inition o' t(e ,ri#ary ind o' ,oten&y %ill be 3a so$r&e o' &(an)e in anot(er t(in) or in t(e sa#e t(in) 8$a ot(er3. !3 3F$ant$#3 #eans t(at %(i&( is di+isible into t%o or #ore &onstit$ent ,arts o' %(i&( ea&( is by nat$re a 3one3 and a 3t(is3. A 8$ant$# is a ,l$rality i' it is n$#erable. a #a)nit$de i' it is a #eas$rable. 3Pl$rality3 #eans t(at %(i&( is di+isible ,otentially into non5&ontin$o$s ,arts. 3#a)nit$de3 t(at %(i&( is di+isible into &ontin$o$s ,arts* o' #a)nit$de. t(at %(i&( is &ontin$o$s in one di#ension is len)t(* in t%o breadt(. in t(ree de,t(. ;' t(ese. li#ited ,l$rality is n$#ber. li#ited len)t( is a line. breadt( a s$r'a&e. de,t( a solid. A)ain. so#e t(in)s are &alled 8$anta in +irt$e o' t(eir o%n nat$re. ot(ers in&identally* e.). t(e line is a 8$ant$# by its o%n nat$re. t(e #$si&al is one in&identally. ;' t(e t(in)s t(at are 8$anta by t(eir o%n nat$re so#e are so as s$bstan&es. e.). t(e line is a 8$ant$# /'or 3a &ertain ind o' 8$ant$#3 is ,resent in t(e de'inition %(i&( states %(at it is0. and ot(ers are #odi'i&ations and states o' t(is ind o' s$bstan&e. e.). #$&( and little. lon) and s(ort. broad and narro%. dee, and s(allo%. (ea+y and li)(t. and all

ot(er s$&( attrib$tes. And also )reat and s#all. and )reater and s#aller. bot( in t(e#sel+es and %(en ta en relati+ely to ea&( ot(er. are by t(eir o%n nat$re attrib$tes o' %(at is 8$antitati+e* b$t t(ese na#es are trans'erred to ot(er t(in)s also. ;' t(in)s t(at are 8$anta in&identally. so#e are so &alled in t(e sense in %(i&( it %as said t(at t(e #$si&al and t(e %(ite %ere 8$anta. +i6. be&a$se t(at to %(i&( #$si&alness and %(iteness belon) is a 8$ant$#. and so#e are 8$anta in t(e %ay in %(i&( #o+e#ent and ti#e are so* 'or t(ese also are &alled 8$anta o' a sort and &ontin$o$s be&a$se t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ese are attrib$tes are di+isible. I #ean not t(at %(i&( is #o+ed. b$t t(e s,a&e t(ro$)( %(i&( it is #o+ed* 'or be&a$se t(at is a 8$ant$# #o+e#ent also is a 8$ant$#. and be&a$se t(is is a 8$ant$# ti#e is one. != 3F$ality3 #eans /!0 t(e di''erentia o' t(e essen&e. e.). #an is an ani#al o' a &ertain 8$ality be&a$se (e is t%o5'ooted. and t(e (orse is so be&a$se it is 'o$r5'ooted* and a &ir&le is a 'i)$re o' ,arti&$lar 8$ality be&a$se it is %it(o$t an)les.5%(i&( s(o%s t(at t(e essential di''erentia is a 8$ality.5T(is. t(en. is one #eanin) o' 8$ality5t(e di''erentia o' t(e essen&e. b$t /70 t(ere is anot(er sense in %(i&( it a,,lies to t(e $n#o+able ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. t(e sense in %(i&( t(e n$#bers (a+e a &ertain 8$ality. e.). t(e &o#,osite n$#bers %(i&( are not in one di#ension only. b$t o' %(i&( t(e ,lane and t(e solid are &o,ies /t(ese are t(ose %(i&( (a+e t%o or t(ree 'a&tors0* and in )eneral t(at %(i&( e1ists in t(e essen&e o' n$#bers besides 8$antity is 8$ality* 'or t(e essen&e o' ea&( is %(at it is on&e. e.). t(at o' is not %(at it is t%i&e or t(ri&e. b$t %(at it is on&e* 'or @ is on&e @. /30 All t(e #odi'i&ations o' s$bstan&es t(at #o+e /e.). (eat and &old. %(iteness and bla& ness. (ea+iness and li)(tness. and t(e ot(ers o' t(e sort0 in +irt$e o' %(i&(. %(en t(ey &(an)e. bodies are said to alter. /=0 F$ality in res,e&t o' +irt$e and +i&e. and in )eneral. o' e+il and )ood. F$ality. t(en. see#s to (a+e ,ra&ti&ally t%o #eanin)s. and one o' t(ese is t(e #ore ,ro,er. T(e ,ri#ary 8$ality is t(e di''erentia o' t(e essen&e. and o' t(is t(e 8$ality in n$#bers is a ,art* 'or it is a di''erentia o' essen&es. b$t eit(er not o' t(in)s t(at #o+e or not o' t(e# 8$a #o+in). Se&ondly. t(ere are t(e #odi'i&ations o' t(in)s t(at #o+e. 8$a #o+in). and t(e di''erentiae o' #o+e#ents. Eirt$e and +i&e 'all a#on) t(ese #odi'i&ations* 'or t(ey indi&ate di''erentiae o' t(e #o+e#ent or a&ti+ity. a&&ordin) to %(i&( t(e t(in)s in #otion a&t or are a&ted on %ell or badly* 'or t(at %(i&( &an be #o+ed or a&t in one %ay is )ood. and t(at %(i&( &an do so in anot(er55t(e &ontrary55%ay is +i&io$s. :ood and e+il indi&ate 8$ality es,e&ially in li+in) t(in)s. and a#on) t(ese es,e&ially in t(ose %(i&( (a+e ,$r,ose. !5 T(in)s are 3relati+e3 /!0 as do$ble to (al'. and treble to a t(ird. and in )eneral t(at %(i&( &ontains so#et(in) else #any ti#es to t(at %(i&( is &ontained #any ti#es in so#et(in) else. and t(at %(i&( e1&eeds to t(at %(i&( is e1&eeded* /70 as t(at %(i&( &an (eat to t(at %(i&( &an be (eated. and t(at %(i&( &an &$t to t(at %(i&( &an be &$t. and in )eneral t(e a&ti+e to t(e ,assi+e* /30 as t(e #eas$rable to t(e #eas$re. and t(e no%able to no%led)e. and t(e ,er&e,tible to ,er&e,tion. /!0 Relati+e ter#s o' t(e 'irst ind are n$#eri&ally related eit(er inde'initely or de'initely. to n$#bers t(e#sel+es or to !. E.). t(e do$ble is in a de'inite n$#eri&al relation to !. and t(at %(i&( is 3#any ti#es as )reat3 is in a n$#eri&al. b$t not a de'inite. relation to !. i.e. not in t(is or in t(at n$#eri&al relation to it* t(e relation o' t(at %(i&( is (al' as bi) a)ain as so#et(in) else to t(at so#et(in) is a de'inite n$#eri&al relation to a n$#ber* t(at %(i&( is nGIHn ti#es so#et(in) else is in an inde'inite relation to t(at so#et(in). as t(at %(i&( is 3#any ti#es as )reat3 is in an inde'inite relation to !* t(e relation o' t(at %(i&( e1&eeds to t(at

%(i&( is e1&eeded is n$#eri&ally 8$ite inde'inite* 'or n$#ber is al%ays &o##ens$rate. and 3n$#ber3 is not ,redi&ated o' t(at %(i&( is not &o##ens$rate. b$t t(at %(i&( e1&eeds is. in relation to t(at %(i&( is e1&eeded. so #$&( and so#et(in) #ore* and t(is so#et(in) is inde'inite* 'or it &an. indi''erently. be eit(er e8$al or not e8$al to t(at %(i&( is e1&eeded.5All t(ese relations. t(en. are n$#eri&ally e1,ressed and are deter#inations o' n$#ber. and so in anot(er %ay are t(e e8$al and t(e li e and t(e sa#e. -or all re'er to $nity. T(ose t(in)s are t(e sa#e %(ose s$bstan&e is one* t(ose are li e %(ose 8$ality is one* t(ose are e8$al %(ose 8$antity is one* and ! is t(e be)innin) and #eas$re o' n$#ber. so t(at all t(ese relations i#,ly n$#ber. t(o$)( not in t(e sa#e %ay. /70 T(in)s t(at are a&ti+e or ,assi+e i#,ly an a&ti+e or a ,assi+e ,oten&y and t(e a&t$ali6ations o' t(e ,oten&ies* e.). t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' (eatin) is related to t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' bein) (eated. be&a$se it &an (eat it. and. a)ain. t(at %(i&( (eats is related to t(at %(i&( is (eated and t(at %(i&( &$ts to t(at %(i&( is &$t. in t(e sense t(at t(ey a&t$ally do t(ese t(in)s. B$t n$#eri&al relations are not a&t$ali6ed e1&e,t in t(e sense %(i&( (as been else%(ere stated* a&t$ali6ations in t(e sense o' #o+e#ent t(ey (a+e not. ;' relations %(i&( i#,ly ,oten&y so#e '$rt(er i#,ly ,arti&$lar ,eriods o' ti#e. e.). t(at %(i&( (as #ade is relati+e to t(at %(i&( (as been #ade. and t(at %(i&( %ill #a e to t(at %(i&( %ill be #ade. -or it is in t(is %ay t(at a 'at(er is &alled t(e 'at(er o' (is son* 'or t(e one (as a&ted and t(e ot(er (as been a&ted on in a &ertain %ay. -$rt(er. so#e relati+e ter#s i#,ly ,ri+ation o' ,oten&y. i.e. 3in&a,able3 and ter#s o' t(is sort. e.). 3in+isible3. Relati+e ter#s %(i&( i#,ly n$#ber or ,oten&y. t(ere'ore. are all relati+e be&a$se t(eir +ery essen&e in&l$des in its nat$re a re'eren&e to so#et(in) else. not be&a$se so#et(in) else in+ol+es a re'eren&e to it* b$t /30 t(at %(i&( is #eas$rable or no%able or t(in able is &alled relati+e be&a$se so#et(in) else in+ol+es a re'eren&e to it. -or 3t(at %(i&( is t(in able3 i#,lies t(at t(e t(o$)(t o' it is ,ossible. b$t t(e t(o$)(t is not relati+e to 3t(at o' %(i&( it is t(e t(o$)(t3* 'or %e s(o$ld t(en (a+e said t(e sa#e t(in) t%i&e. Si#ilarly si)(t is t(e si)(t o' so#et(in). not 3o' t(at o' %(i&( it is t(e si)(t3 /t(o$)( o' &o$rse it is tr$e to say t(is0* in 'a&t it is relati+e to &olo$r or to so#et(in) else o' t(e sort. B$t a&&ordin) to t(e ot(er %ay o' s,ea in) t(e sa#e t(in) %o$ld be said t%i&e.53t(e si)(t is o' t(at o' %(i&( it is.3 T(in)s t(at are by t(eir o%n nat$re &alled relati+e are &alled so so#eti#es in t(ese senses. so#eti#es i' t(e &lasses t(at in&l$de t(e# are o' t(is sort* e.). #edi&ine is a relati+e ter# be&a$se its )en$s. s&ien&e. is t(o$)(t to be a relati+e ter#. -$rt(er. t(ere are t(e ,ro,erties in +irt$e o' %(i&( t(e t(in)s t(at (a+e t(e# are &alled relati+e. e.). e8$ality is relati+e be&a$se t(e e8$al is. and li eness be&a$se t(e li e is. ;t(er t(in)s are relati+e by a&&ident* e.). a #an is relati+e be&a$se (e (a,,ens to be do$ble o' so#et(in) and do$ble is a relati+e ter#* or t(e %(ite is relati+e. i' t(e sa#e t(in) (a,,ens to be do$ble and %(ite. !@ W(at is &alled 3&o#,lete3 is /!0 t(at o$tside %(i&( it is not ,ossible to 'ind any. e+en one. o' its ,arts* e.). t(e &o#,lete ti#e o' ea&( t(in) is t(at o$tside %(i&( it is not ,ossible to 'ind any ti#e %(i&( is a ,art ,ro,er to it.5/70 T(at %(i&( in res,e&t o' e1&ellen&e and )oodness &annot be e1&elled in its ind* e.). %e (a+e a &o#,lete do&tor or a &o#,lete 'l$te5,layer. %(en t(ey la& not(in) in res,e&t o' t(e 'or# o' t(eir ,ro,er e1&ellen&e. And t($s. trans'errin) t(e %ord to bad t(in)s. %e s,ea o' a &o#,lete s&andal5#on)er and a &o#,lete t(ie'* indeed %e e+en &all t(e# )ood. i.e. a )ood t(ie' and a )ood s&andal5#on)er. And e1&ellen&e is a &o#,letion* 'or ea&( t(in) is &o#,lete and e+ery s$bstan&e is &o#,lete. %(en in res,e&t o' t(e 'or# o' its ,ro,er e1&ellen&e it

la& s no ,art o' its nat$ral #a)nit$de.5/30 T(e t(in)s %(i&( (a+e attained t(eir end. t(is bein) )ood. are &alled &o#,lete* 'or t(in)s are &o#,lete in +irt$e o' (a+in) attained t(eir end. T(ere'ore. sin&e t(e end is so#et(in) $lti#ate. %e trans'er t(e %ord to bad t(in)s and say a t(in) (as been &o#,letely s,oilt. and &o#,letely destroyed. %(en it in no %ise 'alls s(ort o' destr$&tion and badness. b$t is at its last ,oint. T(is is %(y deat(. too. is by a 'i)$re o' s,ee&( &alled t(e end. be&a$se bot( are last t(in)s. B$t t(e $lti#ate ,$r,ose is also an end.5T(in)s. t(en. t(at are &alled &o#,lete in +irt$e o' t(eir o%n nat$re are so &alled in all t(ese senses. so#e be&a$se in res,e&t o' )oodness t(ey la& not(in) and &annot be e1&elled and no ,art ,ro,er to t(e# &an be 'o$nd o$tside t(e#. ot(ers in )eneral be&a$se t(ey &annot be e1&eeded in t(eir se+eral &lasses and no ,art ,ro,er to t(e# is o$tside t(e#* t(e ot(ers ,res$,,ose t(ese 'irst t%o inds. and are &alled &o#,lete be&a$se t(ey eit(er #a e or (a+e so#et(in) o' t(e sort or are ada,ted to it or in so#e %ay or ot(er in+ol+e a re'eren&e to t(e t(in)s t(at are &alled &o#,lete in t(e ,ri#ary sense. !A 3"i#it3 #eans /!0 t(e last ,oint o' ea&( t(in). i.e. t(e 'irst ,oint beyond %(i&( it is not ,ossible to 'ind any ,art. and t(e 'irst ,oint %it(in %(i&( e+ery ,art is* /70 t(e 'or#. %(ate+er it #ay be. o' a s,atial #a)nit$de or o' a t(in) t(at (as #a)nit$de* /30 t(e end o' ea&( t(in) /and o' t(is nat$re is t(at to%ards %(i&( t(e #o+e#ent and t(e a&tion are. not t(at 'ro# %(i&( t(ey are5t(o$)( so#eti#es it is bot(. t(at 'ro# %(i&( and t(at to %(i&( t(e #o+e#ent is. i.e. t(e 'inal &a$se0* /=0 t(e s$bstan&e o' ea&( t(in). and t(e essen&e o' ea&(* 'or t(is is t(e li#it o' no%led)e* and i' o' no%led)e. o' t(e ob4e&t also. E+idently. t(ere'ore. 3li#it3 (as as #any senses as 3be)innin)3. and yet #ore* 'or t(e be)innin) is a li#it. b$t not e+ery li#it is a be)innin). !B 3T(at in +irt$e o' %(i&(3 (as se+eral #eanin)s>5/!0 t(e 'or# or s$bstan&e o' ea&( t(in). e.). t(at in +irt$e o' %(i&( a #an is )ood is t(e )ood itsel'. /70 t(e ,ro1i#ate s$b4e&t in %(i&( it is t(e nat$re o' an attrib$te to be 'o$nd. e.). &olo$r in a s$r'a&e. 3T(at in +irt$e o' %(i&(3. t(en. in t(e ,ri#ary sense is t(e 'or#. and in a se&ondary sense t(e #atter o' ea&( t(in) and t(e ,ro1i#ate s$bstrat$# o' ea&(.5In )eneral 3t(at in +irt$e o' %(i&(3 %ill 'o$nd in t(e sa#e n$#ber o' senses as 3&a$se3* 'or %e say indi''erently /30 in +irt$e o' %(at (as (e &o#e<3 or 3'or %(at end (as (e &o#e<3* and /=0 in +irt$e o' %(at (as (e in'erred %ron)ly. or in'erred<3 or 3%(at is t(e &a$se o' t(e in'eren&e. or o' t(e %ron) in'eren&e<35-$rt(er /50 Iat(3 d is $sed in re'eren&e to ,osition. e.). 3at %(i&( (e stands3 or 3alon) %(i&( (e %al s* 'or all s$&( ,(rases indi&ate ,la&e and ,osition. T(ere'ore 3in +irt$e o' itsel'3 #$st li e%ise (a+e se+eral #eanin)s. T(e 'ollo%in) belon) to a t(in) in +irt$e o' itsel'>5/!0 t(e essen&e o' ea&( t(in). e.). Callias is in +irt$e o' (i#sel' Callias and %(at it %as to be Callias*5/70 %(ate+er is ,resent in t(e 3%(at3. e.). Callias is in +irt$e o' (i#sel' an ani#al. -or 3ani#al3 is ,resent in (is de'inition* Callias is a ,arti&$lar ani#al.5/30 W(ate+er attrib$te a t(in) re&ei+es in itsel' dire&tly or in one o' its ,arts* e.). a s$r'a&e is %(ite in +irt$e o' itsel'. and a #an is ali+e in +irt$e o' (i#sel'* 'or t(e so$l. in %(i&( li'e dire&tly resides. is a ,art o' t(e #an.5/=0 T(at %(i&( (as no &a$se ot(er t(an itsel'* #an (as #ore t(an one &a$se55ani#al. t%o5'ooted55b$t yet #an is #an in +irt$e o' (i#sel'.5/50 W(ate+er attrib$tes belon) to a t(in) alone. and in so 'ar as t(ey belon) to it #erely by +irt$e o' itsel' &onsidered a,art by itsel'. !C

3Dis,osition3 #eans t(e arran)e#ent o' t(at %(i&( (as ,arts. in res,e&t eit(er o' ,la&e or o' ,oten&y or o' ind* 'or t(ere #$st be a &ertain ,osition. as e+en t(e %ord 3dis,osition3 s(o%s. 70 3Ha+in)3 #eans /!0 a ind o' a&ti+ity o' t(e (a+er and o' %(at (e (as5so#et(in) li e an a&tion or #o+e#ent. -or %(en one t(in) #a es and one is #ade. bet%een t(e# t(ere is a #a in)* so too bet%een (i# %(o (as a )ar#ent and t(e )ar#ent %(i&( (e (as t(ere is a (a+in). T(is sort o' (a+in). t(en. e+idently %e &annot (a+e* 'or t(e ,ro&ess %ill )o on to in'inity. i' it is to be ,ossible to (a+e t(e (a+in) o' %(at %e (a+e.5/70 3Ha+in)3 or 3(abit3 #eans a dis,osition a&&ordin) to %(i&( t(at %(i&( is dis,osed is eit(er %ell or ill dis,osed. and eit(er in itsel' or %it( re'eren&e to so#et(in) else* e.). (ealt( is a 3(abit3* 'or it is s$&( a dis,osition.5/30 We s,ea o' a 3(abit3 i' t(ere is a ,ortion o' s$&( a dis,osition* and so e+en t(e e1&ellen&e o' t(e ,arts is a 3(abit3 o' t(e %(ole t(in). 7! 3A''e&tion3 #eans /!0 a 8$ality in res,e&t o' %(i&( a t(in) &an be altered. e.). %(ite and bla& . s%eet and bitter. (ea+iness and li)(tness. and all ot(ers o' t(e ind.5/70 T(e a&t$ali6ation o' t(ese5t(e already a&&o#,lis(ed alterations.5/30 Es,e&ially. in4$rio$s alterations and #o+e#ents. and. abo+e all ,ain'$l in4$ries.5/=0 Mis'ort$nes and ,ain'$l e1,erien&es %(en on a lar)e s&ale are &alled a''e&tions. 77 We s,ea o' 3,ri+ation3 /!0 i' so#et(in) (as not one o' t(e attrib$tes %(i&( a t(in) #i)(t nat$rally (a+e. e+en i' t(is t(in) itsel' %o$ld not nat$rally (a+e it* e.). a ,lant is said to be 3de,ri+ed3 o' eyes.5/70 I'. t(o$)( eit(er t(e t(in) itsel' or its )en$s %o$ld nat$rally (a+e an attrib$te. it (as it not* e.). a blind #an and a #ole are in di''erent senses 3de,ri+ed3 o' si)(t* t(e latter in &ontrast %it( its )en$s. t(e 'or#er in &ontrast %it( (is o%n nor#al nat$re.5/30 I'. t(o$)( it %o$ld nat$rally (a+e t(e attrib$te. and %(en it %o$ld nat$rally (a+e it. it (as it not* 'or blindness is a ,ri+ation. b$t one is not 3blind3 at any and e+ery a)e. b$t only i' one (as not si)(t at t(e a)e at %(i&( one %o$ld nat$rally (a+e it. Si#ilarly a t(in) is &alled blind i' it (as not si)(t in t(e #edi$# in %(i&(. and in res,e&t o' t(e or)an in res,e&t o' %(i&(. and %it( re'eren&e to t(e ob4e&t %it( re'eren&e to %(i&(. and in t(e &ir&$#stan&es in %(i&(. it %o$ld nat$rally (a+e it.5/=0 T(e +iolent ta in) a%ay o' anyt(in) is &alled ,ri+ation. Indeed t(ere are 4$st as #any inds o' ,ri+ations as t(ere are o' %ords %it( ne)ati+e ,re'i1es* 'or a t(in) is &alled $ne8$al be&a$se it (as not e8$ality t(o$)( it %o$ld nat$rally (a+e it. and in+isible eit(er be&a$se it (as no &olo$r at all or be&a$se it (as a ,oor &olo$r. and a,odo$s eit(er be&a$se it (as no 'eet at all or be&a$se it (as i#,er'e&t 'eet. A)ain. a ,ri+ati+e ter# #ay be $sed be&a$se t(e t(in) (as little o' t(e attrib$te /and t(is #eans (a+in) it in a sense i#,er'e&tly0. e.). 3 ernel5less3* or be&a$se it (as it not easily or not %ell /e.). %e &all a t(in) $n&$ttable not only i' it &annot be &$t b$t also i' it &annot be &$t easily or %ell0* or be&a$se it (as not t(e attrib$te at all* 'or it is not t(e one5eyed #an b$t (e %(o is si)(tless in bot( eyes t(at is &alled blind. T(is is %(y not e+ery #an is 3)ood3 or 3bad3. 34$st3 or 3$n4$st3. b$t t(ere is also an inter#ediate state. 73 To 3(a+e3 or 3(old3 #eans #any t(in)s>5/!0 to treat a t(in) a&&ordin) to one3s o%n nat$re or a&&ordin) to one3s o%n i#,$lse* so t(at 'e+er is said to (a+e a #an. and tyrants to (a+e t(eir &ities. and ,eo,le to (a+e t(e &lot(es t(ey %ear.5/70 T(at in %(i&( a t(in) is

,resent as in so#et(in) re&e,ti+e o' it is said to (a+e t(e t(in)* e.). t(e bron6e (as t(e 'or# o' t(e stat$e. and t(e body (as t(e disease.5/30 As t(at %(i&( &ontains (olds t(e t(in)s &ontained* 'or a t(in) is said to be (eld by t(at in %(i&( it is as in a &ontainer* e.). %e say t(at t(e +essel (olds t(e li8$id and t(e &ity (olds #en and t(e s(i, sailors* and so too t(at t(e %(ole (olds t(e ,arts.5/=0 T(at %(i&( (inders a t(in) 'ro# #o+in) or a&tin) a&&ordin) to its o%n i#,$lse is said to (old it. as ,illars (old t(e in&$#bent %ei)(ts. and as t(e ,oets #a e Atlas (old t(e (ea+ens. i#,lyin) t(at ot(er%ise t(ey %o$ld &olla,se on t(e eart(. as so#e o' t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers also say. In t(is %ay also t(at %(i&( (olds t(in)s to)et(er is said to (old t(e t(in)s it (olds to)et(er. sin&e t(ey %o$ld ot(er%ise se,arate. ea&( a&&ordin) to its o%n i#,$lse. 3Bein) in so#et(in)3 (as si#ilar and &orres,ondin) #eanin)s to 3(oldin)3 or 3(a+in)3. 7= 3To &o#e 'ro# so#et(in)3 #eans /!0 to &o#e 'ro# so#et(in) as 'ro# #atter. and t(is in t%o senses. eit(er in res,e&t o' t(e (i)(est )en$s or in res,e&t o' t(e lo%est s,e&ies* e.). in a sense all t(in)s t(at &an be #elted &o#e 'ro# %ater. b$t in a sense t(e stat$e &o#es 'ro# bron6e.5/70 As 'ro# t(e 'irst #o+in) ,rin&i,le* e.). 3%(at did t(e 'i)(t &o#e 'ro#<3 -ro# ab$si+e lan)$a)e. be&a$se t(is %as t(e ori)in o' t(e 'i)(t.5/30 -ro# t(e &o#,o$nd o' #atter and s(a,e. as t(e ,arts &o#e 'ro# t(e %(ole. and t(e +erse 'ro# t(e Iliad. and t(e stones 'ro# t(e (o$se* /in e+ery s$&( &ase t(e %(ole is a &o#,o$nd o' #atter and s(a,e.0 'or t(e s(a,e is t(e end. and only t(at %(i&( attains an end is &o#,lete.5/=0 As t(e 'or# 'ro# its ,art. e.). #an 'ro# 3t%o5'ooted3and syllable 'ro# 3letter3* 'or t(is is a di''erent sense 'ro# t(at in %(i&( t(e stat$e &o#es 'ro# bron6e* 'or t(e &o#,osite s$bstan&e &o#es 'ro# t(e sensible #atter. b$t t(e 'or# also &o#es 'ro# t(e #atter o' t(e 'or#.5So#e t(in)s. t(en. are said to &o#e 'ro# so#et(in) else in t(ese senses* b$t /50 ot(ers are so des&ribed i' one o' t(ese senses is a,,li&able to a ,art o' t(at ot(er t(in)* e.). t(e &(ild &o#es 'ro# its 'at(er and #ot(er. and ,lants &o#e 'ro# t(e eart(. be&a$se t(ey &o#e 'ro# a ,art o' t(ose t(in)s.5/@0 It #eans &o#in) a'ter a t(in) in ti#e. e.). ni)(t &o#es 'ro# day and stor# 'ro# 'ine %eat(er. be&a$se t(e one &o#es a'ter t(e ot(er. ;' t(ese t(in)s so#e are so des&ribed be&a$se t(ey ad#it o' &(an)e into one anot(er. as in t(e &ases no% #entioned* so#e #erely be&a$se t(ey are s$&&essi+e in ti#e. e.). t(e +oya)e too ,la&e 3'ro#3 t(e e8$ino1. be&a$se it too ,la&e a'ter t(e e8$ino1. and t(e 'esti+al o' t(e T(ar)elia &o#es 3'ro#3 t(e Dionysia. be&a$se a'ter t(e Dionysia. 75 3Part3 #eans /!0 /a0 t(at into %(i&( a 8$ant$# &an in any %ay be di+ided* 'or t(at %(i&( is ta en 'ro# a 8$ant$# 8$a 8$ant$# is al%ays &alled a ,art o' it. e.). t%o is &alled in a sense a ,art o' t(ree. It #eans /b0. o' t(e ,arts in t(e 'irst sense. only t(ose %(i&( #eas$re t(e %(ole* t(is is %(y t%o. t(o$)( in one sense it is. in anot(er is not. &alled a ,art o' t(ree.5/70 T(e ele#ents into %(i&( a ind #i)(t be di+ided a,art 'ro# t(e 8$antity are also &alled ,arts o' it* 'or %(i&( reason %e say t(e s,e&ies are ,arts o' t(e )en$s.5/30 T(e ele#ents into %(i&( a %(ole is di+ided. or o' %(i&( it &onsists5t(e 3%(ole3 #eanin) eit(er t(e 'or# or t(at %(i&( (as t(e 'or#* e.). o' t(e bron6e s,(ere or o' t(e bron6e &$be bot( t(e bron6e5i.e. t(e #atter in %(i&( t(e 'or# is5and t(e &(ara&teristi& an)le are ,arts.5/=0 T(e ele#ents in t(e de'inition %(i&( e1,lains a t(in) are also ,arts o' t(e %(ole* t(is is %(y t(e )en$s is &alled a ,art o' t(e s,e&ies. t(o$)( in anot(er sense t(e s,e&ies is ,art o' t(e )en$s. 7@

3A %(ole3 #eans /!0 t(at 'ro# %(i&( is absent none o' t(e ,arts o' %(i&( it is said to be nat$rally a %(ole. and /70 t(at %(i&( so &ontains t(e t(in)s it &ontains t(at t(ey 'or# a $nity* and t(is in t%o senses5eit(er as bein) ea&( se+erally one sin)le t(in). or as #a in) $, t(e $nity bet%een t(e#. -or /a0 t(at %(i&( is tr$e o' a %(ole &lass and is said to (old )ood as a %(ole /%(i&( i#,lies t(at it is a ind %(ole0 is tr$e o' a %(ole in t(e sense t(at it &ontains #any t(in)s by bein) ,redi&ated o' ea&(. and by all o' t(e#. e.). #an. (orse. )od. bein) se+erally one sin)le t(in). be&a$se all are li+in) t(in)s. B$t /b0 t(e &ontin$o$s and li#ited is a %(ole. %(en it is a $nity &onsistin) o' se+eral ,arts. es,e&ially i' t(ey are ,resent only ,otentially. b$t. 'ailin) t(is. e+en i' t(ey are ,resent a&t$ally. ;' t(ese t(in)s t(e#sel+es. t(ose %(i&( are so by nat$re are %(oles in a (i)(er de)ree t(an t(ose %(i&( are so by art. as %e said in t(e &ase o' $nity also. %(oleness bein) in 'a&t a sort o' oneness. A)ain /30 o' 8$anta t(at (a+e a be)innin) and a #iddle and an end. t(ose to %(i&( t(e ,osition does not #a e a di''eren&e are &alled totals. and t(ose to %(i&( it does. %(oles. T(ose %(i&( ad#it o' bot( des&ri,tions are bot( %(oles and totals. T(ese are t(e t(in)s %(ose nat$re re#ains t(e sa#e a'ter trans,osition. b$t %(ose 'or# does not. e.). %a1 or a &oat* t(ey are &alled bot( %(oles and totals* 'or t(ey (a+e bot( &(ara&teristi&s. Water and all li8$ids and n$#ber are &alled totals. b$t 3t(e %(ole n$#ber3 or 3t(e %(ole %ater3 one does not s,ea o'. e1&e,t by an e1tension o' #eanin). To t(in)s. to %(i&( 8$a one t(e ter# 3total3 is a,,lied. t(e ter# 3all3 is a,,lied %(en t(ey are treated as se,arate* 3t(is total n$#ber.3 3all t(ese $nits.3 7A It is not any &(an&e 8$antitati+e t(in) t(at &an be said to be 3#$tilated3* it #$st be a %(ole as %ell as di+isible. -or not only is t%o not 3#$tilated3 i' one o' t(e t%o ones is ta en a%ay /'or t(e ,art re#o+ed by #$tilation is ne+er e8$al to t(e re#ainder0. b$t in )eneral no n$#ber is t($s #$tilated* 'or it is also ne&essary t(at t(e essen&e re#ain* i' a &$, is #$tilated. it #$st still be a &$,* b$t t(e n$#ber is no lon)er t(e sa#e. -$rt(er. e+en i' t(in)s &onsist o' $nli e ,arts. not e+en t(ese t(in)s &an all be said to be #$tilated. 'or in a sense a n$#ber (as $nli e ,arts /e.). t%o and t(ree0 as %ell as li e* b$t in )eneral o' t(e t(in)s to %(i&( t(eir ,osition #a es no di''eren&e. e.). %ater or 'ire. none &an be #$tilated* to be #$tilated. t(in)s #$st be s$&( as in +irt$e o' t(eir essen&e (a+e a &ertain ,osition. A)ain. t(ey #$st be &ontin$o$s* 'or a #$si&al s&ale &onsists o' $nli e ,arts and (as ,osition. b$t &annot be&o#e #$tilated. Besides. not e+en t(e t(in)s t(at are %(oles are #$tilated by t(e ,ri+ation o' any ,art. -or t(e ,arts re#o+ed #$st be neit(er t(ose %(i&( deter#ine t(e essen&e nor any &(an&e ,arts. irres,e&ti+e o' t(eir ,osition* e.). a &$, is not #$tilated i' it is bored t(ro$)(. b$t only i' t(e (andle or a ,ro4e&tin) ,art is re#o+ed. and a #an is #$tilated not i' t(e 'les( or t(e s,leen is re#o+ed. b$t i' an e1tre#ity is. and t(at not e+ery e1tre#ity b$t one %(i&( %(en &o#,letely re#o+ed &annot )ro% a)ain. T(ere'ore baldness is not a #$tilation. 7B T(e ter# 3ra&e3 or 3)en$s3 is $sed /!0 i' )eneration o' t(in)s %(i&( (a+e t(e sa#e 'or# is &ontin$o$s. e.). 3%(ile t(e ra&e o' #en lasts3 #eans 3%(ile t(e )eneration o' t(e# )oes on &ontin$o$sly3.5/70 It is $sed %it( re'eren&e to t(at %(i&( 'irst bro$)(t t(in)s into e1isten&e* 'or it is t($s t(at so#e are &alled Hellenes by ra&e and ot(ers Ionians. be&a$se t(e 'or#er ,ro&eed 'ro# Hellen and t(e latter 'ro# Ion as t(eir 'irst be)etter. And t(e %ord is $sed in re'eren&e to t(e be)etter #ore t(an to t(e #atter. t(o$)( ,eo,le also )et a ra&e5na#e 'ro# t(e 'e#ale. e.). 3t(e des&endants o' Pyrr(a3.5/30 T(ere is )en$s in t(e sense in %(i&( 3,lane3 is t(e )en$s o' ,lane 'i)$res and solid3 o' solids* 'or ea&( o' t(e 'i)$res

is in t(e one &ase a ,lane o' s$&( and s$&( a ind. and in t(e ot(er a solid o' s$&( and s$&( a ind* and t(is is %(at $nderlies t(e di''erentiae. A)ain /=0 in de'initions t(e 'irst &onstit$ent ele#ent. %(i&( is in&l$ded in t(e 3%(at3. is t(e )en$s. %(ose di''erentiae t(e 8$alities are said to be 3:en$s3 t(en is $sed in all t(ese %ays. /!0 in re'eren&e to &ontin$o$s )eneration o' t(e sa#e ind. /70 in re'eren&e to t(e 'irst #o+er %(i&( is o' t(e sa#e ind as t(e t(in)s it #o+es. /30 as #atter* 'or t(at to %(i&( t(e di''erentia or 8$ality belon)s is t(e s$bstrat$#. %(i&( %e &all #atter. T(ose t(in)s are said to be 3ot(er in )en$s3 %(ose ,ro1i#ate s$bstrat$# is di''erent. and %(i&( are not analysed t(e one into t(e ot(er nor bot( into t(e sa#e t(in) /e.). 'or# and #atter are di''erent in )en$s0* and t(in)s %(i&( belon) to di''erent &ate)ories o' bein) /'or so#e o' t(e t(in)s t(at are said to 3be3 si)ni'y essen&e. ot(ers a 8$ality. ot(ers t(e ot(er &ate)ories %e (a+e be'ore distin)$is(ed0* t(ese also are not analysed eit(er into one anot(er or into so#e one t(in). 7C 3T(e 'alse3 #eans /!0 t(at %(i&( is 'alse as a t(in). and t(at /a0 be&a$se it is not ,$t to)et(er or &annot be ,$t to)et(er. e.). 3t(at t(e dia)onal o' a s8$are is &o##ens$rate %it( t(e side3 or 3t(at yo$ are sittin)3* 'or one o' t(ese is 'alse al%ays. and t(e ot(er so#eti#es* it is in t(ese t%o senses t(at t(ey are non5e1istent. /b0 T(ere are t(in)s %(i&( e1ist. b$t %(ose nat$re it is to a,,ear eit(er not to be s$&( as t(ey are or to be t(in)s t(at do not e1ist. e.). a s et&( or a drea#* 'or t(ese are so#et(in). b$t are not t(e t(in)s t(e a,,earan&e o' %(i&( t(ey ,rod$&e in $s. We &all t(in)s 'alse in t(is %ay. t(en.5eit(er be&a$se t(ey t(e#sel+es do not e1ist. or be&a$se t(e a,,earan&e %(i&( res$lts 'ro# t(e# is t(at o' so#et(in) t(at does not e1ist. /70 A 'alse a&&o$nt is t(e a&&o$nt o' non5e1istent ob4e&ts. in so 'ar as it is 'alse. Hen&e e+ery a&&o$nt is 'alse %(en a,,lied to so#et(in) ot(er t(an t(at o' %(i&( it is tr$e* e.). t(e a&&o$nt o' a &ir&le is 'alse %(en a,,lied to a trian)le. In a sense t(ere is one a&&o$nt o' ea&( t(in). i.e. t(e a&&o$nt o' its essen&e. b$t in a sense t(ere are #any. sin&e t(e t(in) itsel' and t(e t(in) itsel' %it( an attrib$te are in a sense t(e sa#e. e.). So&rates and #$si&al So&rates /a 'alse a&&o$nt is not t(e a&&o$nt o' anyt(in). e1&e,t in a 8$ali'ied sense0. Hen&e Antist(enes %as too si#,le5#inded %(en (e &lai#ed t(at not(in) &o$ld be des&ribed e1&e,t by t(e a&&o$nt ,ro,er to it.5one ,redi&ate to one s$b4e&t* 'ro# %(i&( t(e &on&l$sion $sed to be dra%n t(at t(ere &o$ld be no &ontradi&tion. and al#ost t(at t(ere &o$ld be no error. B$t it is ,ossible to des&ribe ea&( t(in) not only by t(e a&&o$nt o' itsel'. b$t also by t(at o' so#et(in) else. T(is #ay be done alto)et(er 'alsely indeed. b$t t(ere is also a %ay in %(i&( it #ay be done tr$ly* e.). ei)(t #ay be des&ribed as a do$ble n$#ber by t(e $se o' t(e de'inition o' t%o. T(ese t(in)s. t(en. are &alled 'alse in t(ese senses. b$t /30 a 'alse #an is one %(o is ready at and 'ond o' s$&( a&&o$nts. not 'or any ot(er reason b$t 'or t(eir o%n sa e. and one %(o is )ood at i#,ressin) s$&( a&&o$nts on ot(er ,eo,le. 4$st as %e say t(in)s are %(i&( ,rod$&e a 'alse a,,earan&e. T(is is %(y t(e ,roo' in t(e Hi,,ias t(at t(e sa#e #an is 'alse and tr$e is #isleadin). -or it ass$#es t(at (e is 'alse %(o &an de&ei+e /i.e. t(e #an %(o no%s and is %ise0* and '$rt(er t(at (e %(o is %illin)ly bad is better. T(is is a 'alse res$lt o' ind$&tion5'or a #an %(o li#,s %illin)ly is better t(an one %(o does so $n%illin)ly5by 3li#,in)3 Plato #eans 3#i#i& in) a li#,3. 'or i' t(e #an %ere la#e %illin)ly. (e %o$ld ,res$#ably be %orse in t(is &ase as in t(e &orres,ondin) &ase o' #oral &(ara&ter. 30

3A&&ident3 #eans /!0 t(at %(i&( atta&(es to so#et(in) and &an be tr$ly asserted. b$t neit(er o' ne&essity nor $s$ally. e.). i' so#e one in di))in) a (ole 'or a ,lant (as 'o$nd treas$re. T(is5t(e 'indin) o' treas$re5is 'or t(e #an %(o d$) t(e (ole an a&&ident* 'or neit(er does t(e one &o#e o' ne&essity 'ro# t(e ot(er or a'ter t(e ot(er. nor. i' a #an ,lants. does (e $s$ally 'ind treas$re. And a #$si&al #an #i)(t be ,ale* b$t sin&e t(is does not (a,,en o' ne&essity nor $s$ally. %e &all it an a&&ident. T(ere'ore sin&e t(ere are attrib$tes and t(ey atta&( to s$b4e&ts. and so#e o' t(e# atta&( to t(ese only in a ,arti&$lar ,la&e and at a ,arti&$lar ti#e. %(ate+er atta&(es to a s$b4e&t. b$t not be&a$se it %as t(is s$b4e&t. or t(e ti#e t(is ti#e. or t(e ,la&e t(is ,la&e. %ill be an a&&ident. T(ere'ore. too. t(ere is no de'inite &a$se 'or an a&&ident. b$t a &(an&e &a$se. i.e. an inde'inite one. :oin) to Ae)ina %as an a&&ident 'or a #an. i' (e %ent not in order to )et t(ere. b$t be&a$se (e %as &arried o$t o' (is %ay by a stor# or &a,t$red by ,irates. T(e a&&ident (as (a,,ened or e1ists.5not in +irt$e o' t(e s$b4e&t3s nat$re. (o%e+er. b$t o' so#et(in) else* 'or t(e stor# %as t(e &a$se o' (is &o#in) to a ,la&e 'or %(i&( (e %as not sailin). and t(is %as Ae)ina. 3A&&ident3 (as also /70 anot(er #eanin). i.e. all t(at atta&(es to ea&( t(in) in +irt$e o' itsel' b$t is not in its essen&e. as (a+in) its an)les e8$al to t%o ri)(t an)les atta&(es to t(e trian)le. And a&&idents o' t(is sort #ay be eternal. b$t no a&&ident o' t(e ot(er sort is. T(is is e1,lained else%(ere. Boo EI ! WE are see in) t(e ,rin&i,les and t(e &a$ses o' t(e t(in)s t(at are. and ob+io$sly o' t(e# 8$a bein). -or. %(ile t(ere is a &a$se o' (ealt( and o' )ood &ondition. and t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s (a+e 'irst ,rin&i,les and ele#ents and &a$ses. and in )eneral e+ery s&ien&e %(i&( is ratio&inati+e or at all in+ol+es reasonin) deals %it( &a$ses and ,rin&i,les. #ore or less ,re&ise. all t(ese s&ien&es #ar o'' so#e ,arti&$lar bein)5so#e )en$s. and in8$ire into t(is. b$t not into bein) si#,ly nor 8$a bein). nor do t(ey o''er any dis&$ssion o' t(e essen&e o' t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ey treat* b$t startin) 'ro# t(e essen&e5so#e #a in) it ,lain to t(e senses. ot(ers ass$#in) it as a (y,ot(esis5t(ey t(en de#onstrate. #ore or less &o)ently. t(e essential attrib$tes o' t(e )en$s %it( %(i&( t(ey deal. It is ob+io$s. t(ere'ore. t(at s$&( an ind$&tion yields no de#onstration o' s$bstan&e or o' t(e essen&e. b$t so#e ot(er %ay o' e1(ibitin) it. And si#ilarly t(e s&ien&es o#it t(e 8$estion %(et(er t(e )en$s %it( %(i&( t(ey deal e1ists or does not e1ist. be&a$se it belon)s to t(e sa#e ind o' t(in in) to s(o% %(at it is and t(at it is. And sin&e nat$ral s&ien&e. li e ot(er s&ien&es. is in 'a&t abo$t one &lass o' bein). i.e. to t(at sort o' s$bstan&e %(i&( (as t(e ,rin&i,le o' its #o+e#ent and rest ,resent in itsel'. e+idently it is neit(er ,ra&ti&al nor ,rod$&ti+e. -or in t(e &ase o' t(in)s #ade t(e ,rin&i,le is in t(e #a er5it is eit(er reason or art or so#e 'a&$lty. %(ile in t(e &ase o' t(in)s done it is in t(e doer5+i6. %ill. 'or t(at %(i&( is done and t(at %(i&( is %illed are t(e sa#e. T(ere'ore. i' all t(o$)(t is eit(er ,ra&ti&al or ,rod$&ti+e or t(eoreti&al. ,(ysi&s #$st be a t(eoreti&al s&ien&e. b$t it %ill t(eori6e abo$t s$&( bein) as ad#its o' bein) #o+ed. and abo$t s$bstan&e5as5de'ined 'or t(e #ost ,art only as not se,arable 'ro# #atter. 2o%. %e #$st not 'ail to noti&e t(e #ode o' bein) o' t(e essen&e and o' its de'inition. 'or. %it(o$t t(is. in8$iry is b$t idle. ;' t(in)s de'ined. i.e. o' 3%(ats3. so#e are li e 3sn$b3. and so#e li e 3&on&a+e3. And t(ese di''er be&a$se 3sn$b3 is bo$nd $, %it( #atter /'or %(at is sn$b is a &on&a+e nose0. %(ile &on&a+ity is inde,endent o' ,er&e,tible #atter. I' t(en all nat$ral t(in)s are a analo)o$s to t(e sn$b in t(eir nat$re* e.). nose. eye. 'a&e. 'les(. bone. and. in )eneral. ani#al* lea'. root. bar . and. in )eneral.

,lant /'or none o' t(ese &an be de'ined %it(o$t re'eren&e to #o+e#ent5t(ey al%ays (a+e #atter0. it is &lear (o% %e #$st see and de'ine t(e 3%(at3 in t(e &ase o' nat$ral ob4e&ts. and also t(at it belon)s to t(e st$dent o' nat$re to st$dy e+en so$l in a &ertain sense. i.e. so #$&( o' it as is not inde,endent o' #atter. T(at ,(ysi&s. t(en. is a t(eoreti&al s&ien&e. is ,lain 'ro# t(ese &onsiderations. Mat(e#ati&s also. (o%e+er. is t(eoreti&al* b$t %(et(er its ob4e&ts are i##o+able and se,arable 'ro# #atter. is not at ,resent &lear* still. it is &lear t(at so#e #at(e#ati&al t(eore#s &onsider t(e# 8$a i##o+able and 8$a se,arable 'ro# #atter. B$t i' t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( is eternal and i##o+able and se,arable. &learly t(e no%led)e o' it belon)s to a t(eoreti&al s&ien&e.5not. (o%e+er. to ,(ysi&s /'or ,(ysi&s deals %it( &ertain #o+able t(in)s0 nor to #at(e#ati&s. b$t to a s&ien&e ,rior to bot(. -or ,(ysi&s deals %it( t(in)s %(i&( e1ist se,arately b$t are not i##o+able. and so#e ,arts o' #at(e#ati&s deal %it( t(in)s %(i&( are i##o+able b$t ,res$#ably do not e1ist se,arately. b$t as e#bodied in #atter* %(ile t(e 'irst s&ien&e deals %it( t(in)s %(i&( bot( e1ist se,arately and are i##o+able. 2o% all &a$ses #$st be eternal. b$t es,e&ially t(ese* 'or t(ey are t(e &a$ses t(at o,erate on so #$&( o' t(e di+ine as a,,ears to $s. T(ere #$st. t(en. be t(ree t(eoreti&al ,(iloso,(ies. #at(e#ati&s. ,(ysi&s. and %(at %e #ay &all t(eolo)y. sin&e it is ob+io$s t(at i' t(e di+ine is ,resent any%(ere. it is ,resent in t(in)s o' t(is sort. And t(e (i)(est s&ien&e #$st deal %it( t(e (i)(est )en$s. T($s. %(ile t(e t(eoreti&al s&ien&es are #ore to be desired t(an t(e ot(er s&ien&es. t(is is #ore to be desired t(an t(e ot(er t(eoreti&al s&ien&es. -or one #i)(t raise t(e 8$estion %(et(er 'irst ,(iloso,(y is $ni+ersal. or deals %it( one )en$s. i.e. so#e one ind o' bein)* 'or not e+en t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es are all ali e in t(is res,e&t.5)eo#etry and astrono#y deal %it( a &ertain ,arti&$lar ind o' t(in). %(ile $ni+ersal #at(e#ati&s a,,lies ali e to all. We ans%er t(at i' t(ere is no s$bstan&e ot(er t(an t(ose %(i&( are 'or#ed by nat$re. nat$ral s&ien&e %ill be t(e 'irst s&ien&e* b$t i' t(ere is an i##o+able s$bstan&e. t(e s&ien&e o' t(is #$st be ,rior and #$st be 'irst ,(iloso,(y. and $ni+ersal in t(is %ay. be&a$se it is 'irst. And it %ill belon) to t(is to &onsider bein) 8$a bein)5bot( %(at it is and t(e attrib$tes %(i&( belon) to it 8$a bein). 7 B$t sin&e t(e $n8$ali'ied ter# 3bein)3 (as se+eral #eanin)s. o' %(i&( one %as seen3 to be t(e a&&idental. and anot(er t(e tr$e /3non5bein)3 bein) t(e 'alse0. %(ile besides t(ese t(ere are t(e 'i)$res o' ,redi&ation /e.). t(e 3%(at3. 8$ality. 8$antity. ,la&e. ti#e. and any si#ilar #eanin)s %(i&( 3bein)3 #ay (a+e0. and a)ain besides all t(ese t(ere is t(at %(i&( 3is3 ,otentially or a&t$ally>5sin&e 3bein)3 (as #any #eanin)s. %e #$st say re)ardin) t(e a&&idental. t(at t(ere &an be no s&ienti'i& treat#ent o' it. T(is is &on'ir#ed by t(e 'a&t t(at no s&ien&e ,ra&ti&al. ,rod$&ti+e. or t(eoreti&al tro$bles itsel' abo$t it. -or on t(e one (and (e %(o ,rod$&es a (o$se does not ,rod$&e all t(e attrib$tes t(at &o#e into bein) alon) %it( t(e (o$se* 'or t(ese are inn$#erable* t(e (o$se t(at (as been #ade #ay 8$ite %ell be ,leasant 'or so#e ,eo,le. ($rt'$l 'or so#e. and $se'$l to ot(ers. and di''erent5to ,$t it s(ortly 'ro# all t(in)s t(at are* and t(e s&ien&e o' b$ildin) does not ai# at ,rod$&in) any o' t(ese attrib$tes. And in t(e sa#e %ay t(e )eo#eter does not &onsider t(e attrib$tes %(i&( atta&( t($s to 'i)$res. nor %(et(er 3trian)le3 is di''erent 'ro# 3trian)le %(ose an)les are e8$al to t%o ri)(t an)les3.5And t(is (a,,ens nat$rally eno$)(* 'or t(e a&&idental is ,ra&ti&ally a #ere na#e. And so Plato %as in a sense not %ron) in ran in) so,(isti& as dealin) %it( t(at %(i&( is not. -or t(e ar)$#ents o' t(e so,(ists deal. %e #ay say. abo+e all %it( t(e a&&idental* e.). t(e 8$estion %(et(er 3#$si&al3 and 3lettered3 are di''erent or t(e sa#e. and %(et(er 3#$si&al Coris&$s3 and 3Coris&$s3 are t(e sa#e. and %(et(er 3e+eryt(in) %(i&( is. b$t is not eternal.

(as &o#e to be3. %it( t(e ,arado1i&al &on&l$sion t(at i' one %(o %as #$si&al (as &o#e to be lettered. (e #$st also (a+e been lettered and (a+e &o#e to be #$si&al. and all t(e ot(er ar)$#ents o' t(is sort* t(e a&&idental is ob+io$sly a in to non5bein). And t(is is &lear also 'ro# ar)$#ents s$&( as t(e 'ollo%in)> t(in)s %(i&( are in anot(er sense &o#e into bein) and ,ass o$t o' bein) by a ,ro&ess. b$t t(in)s %(i&( are a&&identally do not. B$t still %e #$st. as 'ar as %e &an. say '$rt(er. re)ardin) t(e a&&idental. %(at its nat$re is and 'ro# %(at &a$se it ,ro&eeds* 'or it %ill ,er(a,s at t(e sa#e ti#e be&o#e &lear %(y t(ere is no s&ien&e o' it. Sin&e. a#on) t(in)s %(i&( are. so#e are al%ays in t(e sa#e state and are o' ne&essity /not ne&essity in t(e sense o' &o#,$lsion b$t t(at %(i&( %e assert o' t(in)s be&a$se t(ey &annot be ot(er%ise0. and so#e are not o' ne&essity nor al%ays. b$t 'or t(e #ost ,art. t(is is t(e ,rin&i,le and t(is t(e &a$se o' t(e e1isten&e o' t(e a&&idental* 'or t(at %(i&( is neit(er al%ays nor 'or t(e #ost ,art. %e &all a&&idental. -or instan&e. i' in t(e do)5days t(ere is %intry and &old %eat(er. %e say t(is is an a&&ident. b$t not i' t(ere is s$ltry (eat. be&a$se t(e latter is al%ays or 'or t(e #ost ,art so. b$t not t(e 'or#er. And it is an a&&ident t(at a #an is ,ale /'or t(is is neit(er al%ays nor 'or t(e #ost ,art so0. b$t it is not by a&&ident t(at (e is an ani#al. And t(at t(e b$ilder ,rod$&es (ealt( is an a&&ident. be&a$se it is t(e nat$re not o' t(e b$ilder b$t o' t(e do&tor to do t(is.5b$t t(e b$ilder (a,,ened to be a do&tor. A)ain. a &on'e&tioner. ai#in) at )i+in) ,leas$re. #ay #a e so#et(in) %(oleso#e. b$t not in +irt$e o' t(e &on'e&tioner3s art* and t(ere'ore %e say 3it %as an a&&ident3. and %(ile t(ere is a sense in %(i&( (e #a es it. in t(e $n8$ali'ied sense (e does not. -or to ot(er t(in)s ans%er 'a&$lties ,rod$&ti+e o' t(e#. b$t to a&&idental res$lts t(ere &orres,onds no deter#inate art nor 'a&$lty* 'or o' t(in)s %(i&( are or &o#e to be by a&&ident. t(e &a$se also is a&&idental. T(ere'ore. sin&e not all t(in)s eit(er are or &o#e to be o' ne&essity and al%ays. b$t. t(e #a4ority o' t(in)s are 'or t(e #ost ,art. t(e a&&idental #$st e1ist* 'or instan&e a ,ale #an is not al%ays nor 'or t(e #ost ,art #$si&al. b$t sin&e t(is so#eti#es (a,,ens. it #$st be a&&idental /i' not. e+eryt(in) %ill be o' ne&essity0. T(e #atter. t(ere'ore. %(i&( is &a,able o' bein) ot(er%ise t(an as it $s$ally is. #$st be t(e &a$se o' t(e a&&idental. And %e #$st ta e as o$r startin)5,oint t(e 8$estion %(et(er t(ere is not(in) t(at is neit(er al%ays nor 'or t(e #ost ,art. S$rely t(is is i#,ossible. T(ere is. t(en. besides t(ese so#et(in) %(i&( is 'ort$ito$s and a&&idental. B$t %(ile t(e $s$al e1ists. &an not(in) be said to be al%ays. or are t(ere eternal t(in)s< T(is #$st be &onsidered later.3 b$t t(at t(ere is no s&ien&e o' t(e a&&idental is ob+io$s* 'or all s&ien&e is eit(er o' t(at %(i&( is al%ays or o' t(at %(i&( is 'or t(e #ost ,art. /-or (o% else is one to learn or to tea&( anot(er< T(e t(in) #$st be deter#ined as o&&$rrin) eit(er al%ays or 'or t(e #ost ,art. e.). t(at (oney5%ater is $se'$l 'or a ,atient in a 'e+er is tr$e 'or t(e #ost ,art.0 B$t t(at %(i&( is &ontrary to t(e $s$al la% s&ien&e %ill be $nable to state. i.e. %(en t(e t(in) does not (a,,en. e.).3on t(e day o' ne% #oon3* 'or e+en t(at %(i&( (a,,ens on t(e day o' ne% #oon (a,,ens t(en eit(er al%ays or 'or t(e #ost ,art* b$t t(e a&&idental is &ontrary to s$&( la%s. We (a+e stated. t(en. %(at t(e a&&idental is. and 'ro# %(at &a$se it arises. and t(at t(ere is no s&ien&e %(i&( deals %it( it. 3 T(at t(ere are ,rin&i,les and &a$ses %(i&( are )enerable and destr$&tible %it(o$t e+er bein) in &o$rse o' bein) )enerated or destroyed. is ob+io$s. -or ot(er%ise all t(in)s %ill be o' ne&essity. sin&e t(at %(i&( is bein) )enerated or destroyed #$st (a+e a &a$se %(i&( is not a&&identally its &a$se. Will A e1ist or not< It %ill i' B (a,,ens* and i' not. not. And B %ill e1ist i' C (a,,ens. And t($s i' ti#e is &onstantly s$btra&ted 'ro# a li#ited e1tent o' ti#e. one %ill ob+io$sly &o#e to t(e ,resent. T(is #an.

t(en. %ill die by +iolen&e. i' (e )oes o$t* and (e %ill do t(is i' (e )ets t(irsty* and (e %ill )et t(irsty i' so#et(in) else (a,,ens* and t($s %e s(all &o#e to t(at %(i&( is no% ,resent. or to so#e ,ast e+ent. -or instan&e. (e %ill )o o$t i' (e )ets t(irsty* and (e %ill )et t(irsty i' (e is eatin) ,$n)ent 'ood* and t(is is eit(er t(e &ase or not* so t(at (e %ill o' ne&essity die. or o' ne&essity not die. And si#ilarly i' one 4$#,s o+er to ,ast e+ents. t(e sa#e a&&o$nt %ill (old )ood* 'or t(is5I #ean t(e ,ast &ondition5is already ,resent in so#et(in). E+eryt(in). t(ere'ore. t(at %ill be. %ill be o' ne&essity* e.). it is ne&essary t(at (e %(o li+es s(all one day die* 'or already so#e &ondition (as &o#e into e1isten&e. e.). t(e ,resen&e o' &ontraries in t(e sa#e body. B$t %(et(er (e is to die by disease or by +iolen&e is not yet deter#ined. b$t de,ends on t(e (a,,enin) o' so#et(in) else. Clearly t(en t(e ,ro&ess )oes ba& to a &ertain startin)5,oint. b$t t(is no lon)er ,oints to so#et(in) '$rt(er. T(is t(en %ill be t(e startin)5,oint 'or t(e 'ort$ito$s. and %ill (a+e not(in) else as &a$se o' its &o#in) to be. B$t to %(at sort o' startin)5,oint and %(at sort o' &a$se %e t($s re'er t(e 'ort$ito$s5%(et(er to #atter or to t(e ,$r,ose or to t(e #oti+e ,o%er. #$st be &are'$lly &onsidered. = "et $s dis#iss a&&idental bein)* 'or %e (a+e s$''i&iently deter#ined its nat$re. B$t sin&e t(at %(i&( is in t(e sense o' bein) tr$e. or is not in t(e sense o' bein) 'alse. de,ends on &o#bination and se,aration. and tr$t( and 'alsity to)et(er de,end on t(e allo&ation o' a ,air o' &ontradi&tory 4$d)e#ents /'or t(e tr$e 4$d)e#ent a''ir#s %(ere t(e s$b4e&t and ,redi&ate really are &o#bined. and denies %(ere t(ey are se,arated. %(ile t(e 'alse 4$d)e#ent (as t(e o,,osite o' t(is allo&ation* it is anot(er 8$estion. (o% it (a,,ens t(at %e t(in t(in)s to)et(er or a,art* by 3to)et(er3 and 3a,art3 I #ean t(in in) t(e# so t(at t(ere is no s$&&ession in t(e t(o$)(ts b$t t(ey be&o#e a $nity0* 'or 'alsity and tr$t( are not in t(in)s5it is not as i' t(e )ood %ere tr$e. and t(e bad %ere in itsel' 'alse5b$t in t(o$)(t* %(ile %it( re)ard to si#,le &on&e,ts and 3%(ats3 'alsity and tr$t( do not e1ist e+en in t(o$)(t55t(is bein) so. %e #$st &onsider later %(at (as to be dis&$ssed %it( re)ard to t(at %(i&( is or is not in t(is sense. B$t sin&e t(e &o#bination and t(e se,aration are in t(o$)(t and not in t(e t(in)s. and t(at %(i&( is in t(is sense is a di''erent sort o' 3bein)3 'ro# t(e t(in)s t(at are in t(e '$ll sense /'or t(e t(o$)(t atta&(es or re#o+es eit(er t(e s$b4e&t3s 3%(at3 or its (a+in) a &ertain 8$ality or 8$antity or so#et(in) else0. t(at %(i&( is a&&identally and t(at %(i&( is in t(e sense o' bein) tr$e #$st be dis#issed. -or t(e &a$se o' t(e 'or#er is indeter#inate. and t(at o' t(e latter is so#e a''e&tion o' t(e t(o$)(t. and bot( are related to t(e re#ainin) )en$s o' bein). and do not indi&ate t(e e1isten&e o' any se,arate &lass o' bein). T(ere'ore let t(ese be dis#issed. and let $s &onsider t(e &a$ses and t(e ,rin&i,les o' bein) itsel'. 8$a bein). /It %as &lear in o$r dis&$ssion o' t(e +ario$s #eanin)s o' ter#s. t(at 3bein)3 (as se+eral #eanin)s.0 Boo EII ! THERE are se+eral senses in %(i&( a t(in) #ay be said to 3be3. as %e ,ointed o$t ,re+io$sly in o$r boo on t(e +ario$s senses o' %ords*3 'or in one sense t(e 3bein)3 #eant is 3%(at a t(in) is3 or a 3t(is3. and in anot(er sense it #eans a 8$ality or 8$antity or one o' t(e ot(er t(in)s t(at are ,redi&ated as t(ese are. W(ile 3bein)3 (as all t(ese senses. ob+io$sly t(at %(i&( 3is3 ,ri#arily is t(e 3%(at3. %(i&( indi&ates t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e t(in). -or %(en %e say o' %(at 8$ality a t(in) is. %e say t(at it is )ood or bad. not t(at it is t(ree &$bits lon) or t(at it is a #an* b$t %(en %e say %(at it is. %e do not say 3%(ite3 or 3(ot3 or 3t(ree &$bits lon)3. b$t 3a #an3

or 3a 3)od3. And all ot(er t(in)s are said to be be&a$se t(ey are. so#e o' t(e#. 8$antities o' t(at %(i&( is in t(is ,ri#ary sense. ot(ers 8$alities o' it. ot(ers a''e&tions o' it. and ot(ers so#e ot(er deter#ination o' it. And so one #i)(t e+en raise t(e 8$estion %(et(er t(e %ords 3to %al 3. 3to be (ealt(y3. 3to sit3 i#,ly t(at ea&( o' t(ese t(in)s is e1istent. and si#ilarly in any ot(er &ase o' t(is sort* 'or none o' t(e# is eit(er sel'5s$bsistent or &a,able o' bein) se,arated 'ro# s$bstan&e. b$t rat(er. i' anyt(in). it is t(at %(i&( %al s or sits or is (ealt(y t(at is an e1istent t(in). 2o% t(ese are seen to be #ore real be&a$se t(ere is so#et(in) de'inite %(i&( $nderlies t(e# /i.e. t(e s$bstan&e or indi+id$al0. %(i&( is i#,lied in s$&( a ,redi&ate* 'or %e ne+er $se t(e %ord 3)ood3 or 3sittin)3 %it(o$t i#,lyin) t(is. Clearly t(en it is in +irt$e o' t(is &ate)ory t(at ea&( o' t(e ot(ers also is. T(ere'ore t(at %(i&( is ,ri#arily. i.e. not in a 8$ali'ied sense b$t %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. #$st be s$bstan&e. 2o% t(ere are se+eral senses in %(i&( a t(in) is said to be 'irst* yet s$bstan&e is 'irst in e+ery sense5/!0 in de'inition. /70 in order o' no%led)e. /30 in ti#e. -or /30 o' t(e ot(er &ate)ories none &an e1ist inde,endently. b$t only s$bstan&e. And /!0 in de'inition also t(is is 'irst* 'or in t(e de'inition o' ea&( ter# t(e de'inition o' its s$bstan&e #$st be ,resent. And /70 %e t(in %e no% ea&( t(in) #ost '$lly. %(en %e no% %(at it is. e.). %(at #an is or %(at 'ire is. rat(er t(an %(en %e no% its 8$ality. its 8$antity. or its ,la&e* sin&e %e no% ea&( o' t(ese ,redi&ates also. only %(en %e no% %(at t(e 8$antity or t(e 8$ality is. And indeed t(e 8$estion %(i&( %as raised o' old and is raised no% and al%ays. and is al%ays t(e s$b4e&t o' do$bt. +i6. %(at bein) is. is 4$st t(e 8$estion. %(at is s$bstan&e< -or it is t(is t(at so#e assert to be one. ot(ers #ore t(an one. and t(at so#e assert to be li#ited in n$#ber. ot(ers $nli#ited. And so %e also #$st &onsider &(ie'ly and ,ri#arily and al#ost e1&l$si+ely %(at t(at is %(i&( is in t(is sense. 7 S$bstan&e is t(o$)(t to belon) #ost ob+io$sly to bodies* and so %e say t(at not only ani#als and ,lants and t(eir ,arts are s$bstan&es. b$t also nat$ral bodies s$&( as 'ire and %ater and eart( and e+eryt(in) o' t(e sort. and all t(in)s t(at are eit(er ,arts o' t(ese or &o#,osed o' t(ese /eit(er o' ,arts or o' t(e %(ole bodies0. e.). t(e ,(ysi&al $ni+erse and its ,arts. stars and #oon and s$n. B$t %(et(er t(ese alone are s$bstan&es. or t(ere are also ot(ers. or only so#e o' t(ese. or ot(ers as %ell. or none o' t(ese b$t only so#e ot(er t(in)s. are s$bstan&es. #$st be &onsidered. So#e t(in t(e li#its o' body. i.e. s$r'a&e. line. ,oint. and $nit. are s$bstan&es. and #ore so t(an body or t(e solid. -$rt(er. so#e do not t(in t(ere is anyt(in) s$bstantial besides sensible t(in)s. b$t ot(ers t(in t(ere are eternal s$bstan&es %(i&( are #ore in n$#ber and #ore real* e.). Plato ,osited t%o inds o' s$bstan&e5t(e -or#s and ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s5as %ell as a t(ird ind. +i6. t(e s$bstan&e o' sensible bodies. And S,e$si,,$s #ade still #ore inds o' s$bstan&e. be)innin) %it( t(e ;ne. and ass$#in) ,rin&i,les 'or ea&( ind o' s$bstan&e. one 'or n$#bers. anot(er 'or s,atial #a)nit$des. and t(en anot(er 'or t(e so$l* and by )oin) on in t(is %ay (e #$lti,lies t(e inds o' s$bstan&e. And so#e say -or#s and n$#bers (a+e t(e sa#e nat$re. and t(e ot(er t(in)s &o#e a'ter t(e#5lines and ,lanes5$ntil %e &o#e to t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e #aterial $ni+erse and to sensible bodies. Re)ardin) t(ese #atters. t(en. %e #$st in8$ire %(i&( o' t(e &o##on state#ents are ri)(t and %(i&( are not ri)(t. and %(at s$bstan&es t(ere are. and %(et(er t(ere are or are not any besides sensible s$bstan&es. and (o% sensible s$bstan&es e1ist. and %(et(er t(ere is a s$bstan&e &a,able o' se,arate e1isten&e /and i' so %(y and (o%0 or no s$&( s$bstan&e. a,art 'ro# sensible s$bstan&es* and %e #$st 'irst

s et&( t(e nat$re o' s$bstan&e.

T(e %ord 3s$bstan&e3 is a,,lied. i' not in #ore senses. still at least to 'o$r #ain ob4e&ts* 'or bot( t(e essen&e and t(e $ni+ersal and t(e )en$s. are t(o$)(t to be t(e s$bstan&e o' ea&( t(in). and 'o$rt(ly t(e s$bstrat$#. 2o% t(e s$bstrat$# is t(at o' %(i&( e+eryt(in) else is ,redi&ated. %(ile it is itsel' not ,redi&ated o' anyt(in) else. And so %e #$st 'irst deter#ine t(e nat$re o' t(is* 'or t(at %(i&( $nderlies a t(in) ,ri#arily is t(o$)(t to be in t(e tr$est sense its s$bstan&e. And in one sense #atter is said to be o' t(e nat$re o' s$bstrat$#. in anot(er. s(a,e. and in a t(ird. t(e &o#,o$nd o' t(ese. /By t(e #atter I #ean. 'or instan&e. t(e bron6e. by t(e s(a,e t(e ,attern o' its 'or#. and by t(e &o#,o$nd o' t(ese t(e stat$e. t(e &on&rete %(ole.0 T(ere'ore i' t(e 'or# is ,rior to t(e #atter and #ore real. it %ill be ,rior also to t(e &o#,o$nd o' bot(. 'or t(e sa#e reason. We (a+e no% o$tlined t(e nat$re o' s$bstan&e. s(o%in) t(at it is t(at %(i&( is not ,redi&ated o' a strat$#. b$t o' %(i&( all else is ,redi&ated. B$t %e #$st not #erely state t(e #atter t($s* 'or t(is is not eno$)(. T(e state#ent itsel' is obs&$re. and '$rt(er. on t(is +ie%. #atter be&o#es s$bstan&e. -or i' t(is is not s$bstan&e. it ba''les $s to say %(at else is. W(en all else is stri,,ed o'' e+idently not(in) b$t #atter re#ains. -or %(ile t(e rest are a''e&tions. ,rod$&ts. and ,oten&ies o' bodies. len)t(. breadt(. and de,t( are 8$antities and not s$bstan&es /'or a 8$antity is not a s$bstan&e0. b$t t(e s$bstan&e is rat(er t(at to %(i&( t(ese belon) ,ri#arily. B$t %(en len)t( and breadt( and de,t( are ta en a%ay %e see not(in) le't $nless t(ere is so#et(in) t(at is bo$nded by t(ese* so t(at to t(ose %(o &onsider t(e 8$estion t($s #atter alone #$st see# to be s$bstan&e. By #atter I #ean t(at %(i&( in itsel' is neit(er a ,arti&$lar t(in) nor o' a &ertain 8$antity nor assi)ned to any ot(er o' t(e &ate)ories by %(i&( bein) is deter#ined. -or t(ere is so#et(in) o' %(i&( ea&( o' t(ese is ,redi&ated. %(ose bein) is di''erent 'ro# t(at o' ea&( o' t(e ,redi&ates /'or t(e ,redi&ates ot(er t(an s$bstan&e are ,redi&ated o' s$bstan&e. %(ile s$bstan&e is ,redi&ated o' #atter0. T(ere'ore t(e $lti#ate s$bstrat$# is o' itsel' neit(er a ,arti&$lar t(in) nor o' a ,arti&$lar 8$antity nor ot(er%ise ,ositi+ely &(ara&teri6ed* nor yet is it t(e ne)ations o' t(ese. 'or ne)ations also %ill belon) to it only by a&&ident. I' %e ado,t t(is ,oint o' +ie%. t(en. it 'ollo%s t(at #atter is s$bstan&e. B$t t(is is i#,ossible* 'or bot( se,arability and 3t(isness3 are t(o$)(t to belon) &(ie'ly to s$bstan&e. And so 'or# and t(e &o#,o$nd o' 'or# and #atter %o$ld be t(o$)(t to be s$bstan&e. rat(er t(an #atter. T(e s$bstan&e &o#,o$nded o' bot(. i.e. o' #atter and s(a,e. #ay be dis#issed* 'or it is ,osterior and its nat$re is ob+io$s. And #atter also is in a sense #ani'est. B$t %e #$st in8$ire into t(e t(ird ind o' s$bstan&e* 'or t(is is t(e #ost ,er,le1in). So#e o' t(e sensible s$bstan&es are )enerally ad#itted to be s$bstan&es. so t(at %e #$st loo 'irst a#on) t(ese. -or it is an ad+anta)e to ad+an&e to t(at %(i&( is #ore no%able. -or learnin) ,ro&eeds 'or all in t(is %ay5t(ro$)( t(at %(i&( is less no%able by nat$re to t(at %(i&( is #ore no%able* and 4$st as in &ond$&t o$r tas is to start 'ro# %(at is )ood 'or ea&( and #a e %(at is %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation )ood )ood 'or ea&(. so it is o$r tas to start 'ro# %(at is #ore no%able to onesel' and #a e %(at is no%able by nat$re no%able to onesel'. 2o% %(at is no%able and ,ri#ary 'or ,arti&$lar sets o' ,eo,le is o'ten no%able to a +ery s#all e1tent. and (as little or not(in) o' reality. B$t yet one #$st start 'ro# t(at %(i&( is barely no%able b$t no%able to onesel'. and try to no% %(at is no%able %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. ,assin). as (as been said. by %ay o' t(ose +ery t(in)s %(i&( one does no%. = Sin&e at t(e start %e distin)$is(ed t(e +ario$s #ar s by %(i&(

%e deter#ine s$bstan&e. and one o' t(ese %as t(o$)(t to be t(e essen&e. %e #$st in+esti)ate t(is. And 'irst let $s #a e so#e lin)$isti& re#ar s abo$t it. T(e essen&e o' ea&( t(in) is %(at it is said to be ,ro,ter se. -or bein) yo$ is not bein) #$si&al. sin&e yo$ are not by yo$r +ery nat$re #$si&al. W(at. t(en. yo$ are by yo$r +ery nat$re is yo$r essen&e. 2or yet is t(e %(ole o' t(is t(e essen&e o' a t(in)* not t(at %(i&( is ,ro,ter se as %(ite is to a s$r'a&e. be&a$se bein) a s$r'a&e is not identi&al %it( bein) %(ite. B$t a)ain t(e &o#bination o' bot(53bein) a %(ite s$r'a&e35is not t(e essen&e o' s$r'a&e. be&a$se 3s$r'a&e3 itsel' is added. T(e 'or#$la. t(ere'ore. in %(i&( t(e ter# itsel' is not ,resent b$t its #eanin) is e1,ressed. t(is is t(e 'or#$la o' t(e essen&e o' ea&( t(in). T(ere'ore i' to be a %(ite s$r'a&e is to be a s#oot( s$r'a&e. to be %(ite and to be s#oot( are one and t(e sa#e. B$t sin&e t(ere are also &o#,o$nds ans%erin) to t(e ot(er &ate)ories /'or t(ere is a s$bstrat$# 'or ea&( &ate)ory. e.). 'or 8$ality. 8$antity. ti#e. ,la&e. and #otion0. %e #$st in8$ire %(et(er t(ere is a 'or#$la o' t(e essen&e o' ea&( o' t(e#. i.e. %(et(er to t(ese &o#,o$nds also t(ere belon)s an essen&e. e.). 3%(ite #an3. "et t(e &o#,o$nd be denoted by 3&loa 3. W(at is t(e essen&e o' &loa < B$t. it #ay be said. t(is also is not a ,ro,ter se e1,ression. We re,ly t(at t(ere are 4$st t%o %ays in %(i&( a ,redi&ate #ay 'ail to be tr$e o' a s$b4e&t ,ro,ter se. and one o' t(ese res$lts 'ro# t(e addition. and t(e ot(er 'ro# t(e o#ission. o' a deter#inant. ;ne ind o' ,redi&ate is not ,ro,ter se be&a$se t(e ter# t(at is bein) de'ined is &o#bined %it( anot(er deter#inant. e.). i' in de'inin) t(e essen&e o' %(ite one %ere to state t(e 'or#$la o' %(ite #an* t(e ot(er be&a$se in t(e s$b4e&t anot(er deter#inant is &o#bined %it( t(at %(i&( is e1,ressed in t(e 'or#$la. e.). i' 3&loa 3 #eant 3%(ite #an3. and one %ere to de'ine &loa as %(ite* %(ite #an is %(ite indeed. b$t its essen&e is not to be %(ite. B$t is bein)5a5&loa an essen&e at all< Probably not. -or t(e essen&e is ,re&isely %(at so#et(in) is* b$t %(en an attrib$te is asserted o' a s$b4e&t ot(er t(an itsel'. t(e &o#,le1 is not ,re&isely %(at so#e 3t(is3 is. e.). %(ite #an is not ,re&isely %(at so#e 3t(is3 is. sin&e t(isness belon)s only to s$bstan&es. T(ere'ore t(ere is an essen&e only o' t(ose t(in)s %(ose 'or#$la is a de'inition. B$t %e (a+e a de'inition not %(ere %e (a+e a %ord and a 'or#$la identi&al in #eanin) /'or in t(at &ase all 'or#$lae or sets o' %ords %o$ld be de'initions* 'or t(ere %ill be so#e na#e 'or any set o' %ords %(ate+er. so t(at e+en t(e Iliad %ill be a de'inition0. b$t %(ere t(ere is a 'or#$la o' so#et(in) ,ri#ary* and ,ri#ary t(in)s are t(ose %(i&( do not i#,ly t(e ,redi&ation o' one ele#ent in t(e# o' anot(er ele#ent. 2ot(in). t(en. %(i&( is not a s,e&ies o' a )en$s %ill (a+e an essen&e5only s,e&ies %ill (a+e it. 'or t(ese are t(o$)(t to i#,ly not #erely t(at t(e s$b4e&t ,arti&i,ates in t(e attrib$te and (as it as an a''e&tion. or (as it by a&&ident* b$t 'or e+er t(in) else as %ell. i' it (as a na#e. t(ere be a 'or#$la o' its #eanin)5+i6. t(at t(is attrib$te belon)s to t(is s$b4e&t* or instead o' a si#,le 'or#$la %e s(all be able to )i+e a #ore a&&$rate one* b$t t(ere %ill be no de'inition nor essen&e. ;r (as 3de'inition3. li e 3%(at a t(in) is3. se+eral #eanin)s< 3W(at a t(in) is3 in one sense #eans s$bstan&e and t(e 3t(is3. in anot(er one or ot(er o' t(e ,redi&ates. 8$antity. 8$ality. and t(e li e. -or as 3is3 belon)s to all t(in)s. not (o%e+er in t(e sa#e sense. b$t to one sort o' t(in) ,ri#arily and to ot(ers in a se&ondary %ay. so too 3%(at a t(in) is3 belon)s in t(e si#,le sense to s$bstan&e. b$t in a li#ited sense to t(e ot(er &ate)ories. -or e+en o' a 8$ality %e #i)(t as %(at it is. so t(at 8$ality also is a 3%(at a t(in) is3.5not in t(e si#,le sense. (o%e+er. b$t 4$st as. in t(e &ase o' t(at %(i&( is not. so#e say. e#,(asi6in) t(e lin)$isti& 'or#. t(at t(at is %(i&( is not is5not is si#,ly. b$t is non5e1istent* so too %it( 8$ality.

We #$st no do$bt in8$ire (o% %e s(o$ld e1,ress o$rsel+es on ea&( ,oint. b$t &ertainly not #ore t(an (o% t(e 'a&ts a&t$ally stand. And so no% also. sin&e it is e+ident %(at lan)$a)e %e $se. essen&e %ill belon). 4$st as 3%(at a t(in) is3 does. ,ri#arily and in t(e si#,le sense to s$bstan&e. and in a se&ondary %ay to t(e ot(er &ate)ories also.5not essen&e in t(e si#,le sense. b$t t(e essen&e o' a 8$ality or o' a 8$antity. -or it #$st be eit(er by an e8$i+o&ation t(at %e say t(ese are. or by addin) to and ta in) 'ro# t(e #eanin) o' 3are3 /in t(e %ay in %(i&( t(at %(i&( is not no%n #ay be said to be no%n0.5t(e tr$t( bein) t(at %e $se t(e %ord neit(er a#bi)$o$sly nor in t(e sa#e sense. b$t 4$st as %e a,,ly t(e %ord 3#edi&al3 by +irt$e o' a re'eren&e to one and t(e sa#e t(in). not #eanin) one and t(e sa#e t(in). nor yet s,ea in) a#bi)$o$sly* 'or a ,atient and an o,eration and an instr$#ent are &alled #edi&al neit(er by an a#bi)$ity nor %it( a sin)le #eanin). b$t %it( re'eren&e to a &o##on end. B$t it does not #atter at all in %(i&( o' t(e t%o %ays one li es to des&ribe t(e 'a&ts* t(is is e+ident. t(at de'inition and essen&e in t(e ,ri#ary and si#,le sense belon) to s$bstan&es. Still t(ey belon) to ot(er t(in)s as %ell. only not in t(e ,ri#ary sense. -or i' %e s$,,ose t(is it does not 'ollo% t(at t(ere is a de'inition o' e+ery %ord %(i&( #eans t(e sa#e as any 'or#$la* it #$st #ean t(e sa#e as a ,arti&$lar ind o' 'or#$la* and t(is &ondition is satis'ied i' it is a 'or#$la o' so#et(in) %(i&( is one. not by &ontin$ity li e t(e Iliad or t(e t(in)s t(at are one by bein) bo$nd to)et(er. b$t in one o' t(e #ain senses o' 3one3. %(i&( ans%er to t(e senses o' 3is3* no% 3t(at %(i&( is3 in one sense denotes a 3t(is3. in anot(er a 8$antity. in anot(er a 8$ality. And so t(ere &an be a 'or#$la or de'inition e+en o' %(ite #an. b$t not in t(e sense in %(i&( t(ere is a de'inition eit(er o' %(ite or o' a s$bstan&e. 5 It is a di''i&$lt 8$estion. i' one denies t(at a 'or#$la %it( an added deter#inant is a de'inition. %(et(er any o' t(e ter#s t(at are not si#,le b$t &o$,led %ill be de'inable. -or %e #$st e1,lain t(e# by addin) a deter#inant. E.). t(ere is t(e nose. and &on&a+ity. and sn$bness. %(i&( is &o#,o$nded o$t o' t(e t%o by t(e ,resen&e o' t(e one in t(e ot(er. and it is not by a&&ident t(at t(e nose (as t(e attrib$te eit(er o' &on&a+ity or o' sn$bness. b$t in +irt$e o' its nat$re* nor do t(ey atta&( to it as %(iteness does to Callias. or to #an /be&a$se Callias. %(o (a,,ens to be a #an. is %(ite0. b$t as 3#ale3 atta&(es to ani#al and 3e8$al3 to 8$antity. and as all so5&alled 3attrib$tes ,ro,ter se3 atta&( to t(eir s$b4e&ts. And s$&( attrib$tes are t(ose in %(i&( is in+ol+ed eit(er t(e 'or#$la or t(e na#e o' t(e s$b4e&t o' t(e ,arti&$lar attrib$te. and %(i&( &annot be e1,lained %it(o$t t(is* e.). %(ite &an be e1,lained a,art 'ro# #an. b$t not 'e#ale a,art 'ro# ani#al. T(ere'ore t(ere is eit(er no essen&e and de'inition o' any o' t(ese t(in)s. or i' t(ere is. it is in anot(er sense. as %e (a+e said. B$t t(ere is also a se&ond di''i&$lty abo$t t(e#. -or i' sn$b nose and &on&a+e nose are t(e sa#e t(in). sn$b and &on&a+e %ill be t(e t(in)* b$t i' sn$b and &on&a+e are not t(e sa#e /be&a$se it is i#,ossible to s,ea o' sn$bness a,art 'ro# t(e t(in) o' %(i&( it is an attrib$te ,ro,ter se. 'or sn$bness is &on&a+ity5in5a5nose0. eit(er it is i#,ossible to say 3sn$b nose3 or t(e sa#e t(in) %ill (a+e been said t%i&e. &on&a+e5nose nose* 'or sn$b nose %ill be &on&a+e5nose nose. And so it is abs$rd t(at s$&( t(in)s s(o$ld (a+e an essen&e* i' t(ey (a+e. t(ere %ill be an in'inite re)ress* 'or in sn$b5nose nose yet anot(er 3nose3 %ill be in+ol+ed. Clearly. t(en. only s$bstan&e is de'inable. -or i' t(e ot(er &ate)ories also are de'inable. it #$st be by addition o' a deter#inant. e.). t(e 8$alitati+e is de'ined t($s. and so is t(e odd. 'or it &annot be de'ined a,art 'ro# n$#ber* nor &an 'e#ale be de'ined a,art 'ro# ani#al. /W(en I say 3by addition3 I #ean t(e e1,ressions in %(i&( it t$rns o$t t(at %e are sayin) t(e sa#e t(in)

t%i&e. as in t(ese instan&es.0 And i' t(is is tr$e. &o$,led ter#s also. li e 3odd n$#ber3. %ill not be de'inable /b$t t(is es&a,es o$r noti&e be&a$se o$r 'or#$lae are not a&&$rate.0. B$t i' t(ese also are de'inable. eit(er it is in so#e ot(er %ay or. as %e de'inition and essen&e #$st be said to (a+e #ore t(an one sense. T(ere'ore in one sense not(in) %ill (a+e a de'inition and not(in) %ill (a+e an essen&e. e1&e,t s$bstan&es. b$t in anot(er sense ot(er t(in)s %ill (a+e t(e#. Clearly. t(en. de'inition is t(e 'or#$la o' t(e essen&e. and essen&e belon)s to s$bstan&es eit(er alone or &(ie'ly and ,ri#arily and in t(e $n8$ali'ied sense. @ We #$st in8$ire %(et(er ea&( t(in) and its essen&e are t(e sa#e or di''erent. T(is is o' so#e $se 'or t(e in8$iry &on&ernin) s$bstan&e* 'or ea&( t(in) is t(o$)(t to be not di''erent 'ro# its s$bstan&e. and t(e essen&e is said to be t(e s$bstan&e o' ea&( t(in). 2o% in t(e &ase o' a&&idental $nities t(e t%o %o$ld be )enerally t(o$)(t to be di''erent. e.). %(ite #an %o$ld be t(o$)(t to be di''erent 'ro# t(e essen&e o' %(ite #an. -or i' t(ey are t(e sa#e. t(e essen&e o' #an and t(at o' %(ite #an are also t(e sa#e* 'or a #an and a %(ite #an are t(e sa#e t(in). as ,eo,le say. so t(at t(e essen&e o' %(ite #an and t(at o' #an %o$ld be also t(e sa#e. B$t ,er(a,s it does not 'ollo% t(at t(e essen&e o' a&&idental $nities s(o$ld be t(e sa#e as t(at o' t(e si#,le ter#s. -or t(e e1tre#e ter#s are not in t(e sa#e %ay identi&al %it( t(e #iddle ter#. B$t ,er(a,s t(is #i)(t be t(o$)(t to 'ollo%. t(at t(e e1tre#e ter#s. t(e a&&idents. s(o$ld t$rn o$t to be t(e sa#e. e.). t(e essen&e o' %(ite and t(at o' #$si&al* b$t t(is is not a&t$ally t(o$)(t to be t(e &ase. B$t in t(e &ase o' so5&alled sel'5s$bsistent t(in)s. is a t(in) ne&essarily t(e sa#e as its essen&e< E.). i' t(ere are so#e s$bstan&es %(i&( (a+e no ot(er s$bstan&es nor entities ,rior to t(e#5s$bstan&es s$&( as so#e assert t(e Ideas to be<5I' t(e essen&e o' )ood is to be di''erent 'ro# )ood5itsel'. and t(e essen&e o' ani#al 'ro# ani#al5itsel'. and t(e essen&e o' bein) 'ro# bein)5itsel'. t(ere %ill. 'irstly. be ot(er s$bstan&es and entities and Ideas besides t(ose %(i&( are asserted. and. se&ondly. t(ese ot(ers %ill be ,rior s$bstan&es. i' essen&e is s$bstan&e. And i' t(e ,osterior s$bstan&es and t(e ,rior are se+ered 'ro# ea&( ot(er. /a0 t(ere %ill be no no%led)e o' t(e 'or#er. and /b0 t(e latter %ill (a+e no bein). /By 3se+ered3 I #ean. i' t(e )ood5itsel' (as not t(e essen&e o' )ood. and t(e latter (as not t(e ,ro,erty o' bein) )ood.0 -or /a0 t(ere is no%led)e o' ea&( t(in) only %(en %e no% its essen&e. And /b0 t(e &ase is t(e sa#e 'or ot(er t(in)s as 'or t(e )ood* so t(at i' t(e essen&e o' )ood is not )ood. neit(er is t(e essen&e o' reality real. nor t(e essen&e o' $nity one. And all essen&es ali e e1ist or none o' t(e# does* so t(at i' t(e essen&e o' reality is not real. neit(er is any o' t(e ot(ers. A)ain. t(at to %(i&( t(e essen&e o' )ood does not belon) is not )ood.5T(e )ood. t(en. #$st be one %it( t(e essen&e o' )ood. and t(e bea$ti'$l %it( t(e essen&e o' bea$ty. and so %it( all t(in)s %(i&( do not de,end on so#et(in) else b$t are sel'5s$bsistent and ,ri#ary. -or it is eno$)( i' t(ey are t(is. e+en i' t(ey are not -or#s* or rat(er. ,er(a,s. e+en i' t(ey are -or#s. /At t(e sa#e ti#e it is &lear t(at i' t(ere are Ideas s$&( as so#e ,eo,le say t(ere are. it %ill not be s$bstrat$# t(at is s$bstan&e* 'or t(ese #$st be s$bstan&es. b$t not ,redi&able o' a s$bstrat$#* 'or i' t(ey %ere t(ey %o$ld e1ist only by bein) ,arti&i,ated in.0 Ea&( t(in) itsel'. t(en. and its essen&e are one and t(e sa#e in no #erely a&&idental %ay. as is e+ident bot( 'ro# t(e ,re&edin) ar)$#ents and be&a$se to no% ea&( t(in). at least. is 4$st to no% its essen&e. so t(at e+en by t(e e1(ibition o' instan&es it be&o#es &lear t(at bot( #$st be one. /B$t o' an a&&idental ter#. e.).3t(e #$si&al3 or 3t(e %(ite3. sin&e it (as t%o #eanin)s. it is not tr$e to say t(at it itsel' is identi&al %it( its essen&e* 'or bot( t(at to %(i&( t(e a&&idental

8$ality belon)s. and t(e a&&idental 8$ality. are %(ite. so t(at in a sense t(e a&&ident and its essen&e are t(e sa#e. and in a sense t(ey are not* 'or t(e essen&e o' %(ite is not t(e sa#e as t(e #an or t(e %(ite #an. b$t it is t(e sa#e as t(e attrib$te %(ite.0 T(e abs$rdity o' t(e se,aration %o$ld a,,ear also i' one %ere to assi)n a na#e to ea&( o' t(e essen&es* 'or t(ere %o$ld be yet anot(er essen&e besides t(e ori)inal one. e.). to t(e essen&e o' (orse t(ere %ill belon) a se&ond essen&e. Yet %(y s(o$ld not so#e t(in)s be t(eir essen&es 'ro# t(e start. sin&e essen&e is s$bstan&e< B$t indeed not only are a t(in) and its essen&e one. b$t t(e 'or#$la o' t(e# is also t(e sa#e. as is &lear e+en 'ro# %(at (as been said* 'or it is not by a&&ident t(at t(e essen&e o' one. and t(e one. are one. -$rt(er. i' t(ey are to be di''erent. t(e ,ro&ess %ill )o on to in'inity* 'or %e s(all (a+e /!0 t(e essen&e o' one. and /70 t(e one. so t(at to ter#s o' t(e 'or#er ind t(e sa#e ar)$#ent %ill be a,,li&able. Clearly. t(en. ea&( ,ri#ary and sel'5s$bsistent t(in) is one and t(e sa#e as its essen&e. T(e so,(isti&al ob4e&tions to t(is ,osition. and t(e 8$estion %(et(er So&rates and to be So&rates are t(e sa#e t(in). are ob+io$sly ans%ered by t(e sa#e sol$tion* 'or t(ere is no di''eren&e eit(er in t(e stand,oint 'ro# %(i&( t(e 8$estion %o$ld be as ed. or in t(at 'ro# %(i&( one &o$ld ans%er it s$&&ess'$lly. We (a+e e1,lained. t(en. in %(at sense ea&( t(in) is t(e sa#e as its essen&e and in %(at sense it is not. A ;' t(in)s t(at &o#e to be. so#e &o#e to be by nat$re. so#e by art. so#e s,ontaneo$sly. 2o% e+eryt(in) t(at &o#es to be &o#es to be by t(e a)en&y o' so#et(in) and 'ro# so#et(in) and &o#es to be so#et(in). And t(e so#et(in) %(i&( I say it &o#es to be #ay be 'o$nd in any &ate)ory* it #ay &o#e to be eit(er a 3t(is3 or o' so#e si6e or o' so#e 8$ality or so#e%(ere. 2o% nat$ral &o#in)s to be are t(e &o#in)s to be o' t(ose t(in)s %(i&( &o#e to be by nat$re* and t(at o$t o' %(i&( t(ey &o#e to be is %(at %e &all #atter* and t(at by %(i&( t(ey &o#e to be is so#et(in) %(i&( e1ists nat$rally* and t(e so#et(in) %(i&( t(ey &o#e to be is a #an or a ,lant or one o' t(e t(in)s o' t(is ind. %(i&( %e say are s$bstan&es i' anyt(in) is5all t(in)s ,rod$&ed eit(er by nat$re or by art (a+e #atter* 'or ea&( o' t(e# is &a,able bot( o' bein) and o' not bein). and t(is &a,a&ity is t(e #atter in ea&(5and. in )eneral. bot( t(at 'ro# %(i&( t(ey are ,rod$&ed is nat$re. and t(e ty,e a&&ordin) to %(i&( t(ey are ,rod$&ed is nat$re /'or t(at %(i&( is ,rod$&ed. e.). a ,lant or an ani#al. (as a nat$re0. and so is t(at by %(i&( t(ey are ,rod$&ed55t(e so5&alled 3'or#al3 nat$re. %(i&( is s,e&i'i&ally t(e sa#e /t(o$)( t(is is in anot(er indi+id$al0* 'or #an be)ets #an. T($s. t(en. are nat$ral ,rod$&ts ,rod$&ed* all ot(er ,rod$&tions are &alled 3#a in)s3. And all #a in)s ,ro&eed eit(er 'ro# art or 'ro# a 'a&$lty or 'ro# t(o$)(t. So#e o' t(e# (a,,en also s,ontaneo$sly or by l$& 4$st as nat$ral ,rod$&ts so#eti#es do* 'or t(ere also t(e sa#e t(in)s so#eti#es are ,rod$&ed %it(o$t seed as %ell as 'ro# seed. Con&ernin) t(ese &ases. t(en. %e #$st in8$ire later. b$t 'ro# art ,ro&eed t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( t(e 'or# is in t(e so$l o' t(e artist. /By 'or# I #ean t(e essen&e o' ea&( t(in) and its ,ri#ary s$bstan&e.0 -or e+en &ontraries (a+e in a sense t(e sa#e 'or#* 'or t(e s$bstan&e o' a ,ri+ation is t(e o,,osite s$bstan&e. e.). (ealt( is t(e s$bstan&e o' disease /'or disease is t(e absen&e o' (ealt(0* and (ealt( is t(e 'or#$la in t(e so$l or t(e no%led)e o' it. T(e (ealt(y s$b4e&t is ,rod$&ed as t(e res$lt o' t(e 'ollo%in) train o' t(o$)(t>5sin&e t(is is (ealt(. i' t(e s$b4e&t is to be (ealt(y t(is #$st 'irst be ,resent. e.). a $ni'or# state o' body. and i' t(is is to be ,resent. t(ere #$st be (eat* and t(e ,(ysi&ian )oes on t(in in) t($s $ntil (e red$&es t(e #atter to a 'inal so#et(in) %(i&( (e (i#sel' &an ,rod$&e. T(en t(e ,ro&ess 'ro# t(is ,oint on%ard. i.e. t(e ,ro&ess

to%ards (ealt(. is &alled a 3#a in)3. T(ere'ore it 'ollo%s t(at in a sense (ealt( &o#es 'ro# (ealt( and (o$se 'ro# (o$se. t(at %it( #atter 'ro# t(at %it(o$t #atter* 'or t(e #edi&al art and t(e b$ildin) art are t(e 'or# o' (ealt( and o' t(e (o$se. and %(en I s,ea o' s$bstan&e %it(o$t #atter I #ean t(e essen&e. ;' t(e ,rod$&tions or ,ro&esses one ,art is &alled t(in in) and t(e ot(er #a in).5t(at %(i&( ,ro&eeds 'ro# t(e startin)5,oint and t(e 'or# is t(in in). and t(at %(i&( ,ro&eeds 'ro# t(e 'inal ste, o' t(e t(in in) is #a in). And ea&( o' t(e ot(er. inter#ediate. t(in)s is ,rod$&ed in t(e sa#e %ay. I #ean. 'or instan&e. i' t(e s$b4e&t is to be (ealt(y (is bodily state #$st be #ade $ni'or#. W(at t(en does bein) #ade $ni'or# i#,ly< T(is or t(at. And t(is de,ends on (is bein) #ade %ar#. W(at does t(is i#,ly< So#et(in) else. And t(is so#et(in) is ,resent ,otentially* and %(at is ,resent ,otentially is already in t(e ,(ysi&ian3s ,o%er. T(e a&ti+e ,rin&i,le t(en and t(e startin) ,oint 'or t(e ,ro&ess o' be&o#in) (ealt(y is. i' it (a,,ens by art. t(e 'or# in t(e so$l. and i' s,ontaneo$sly. it is t(at. %(ate+er it is. %(i&( starts t(e #a in). 'or t(e #an %(o #a es by art. as in (ealin) t(e startin)5,oint is ,er(a,s t(e ,rod$&tion o' %ar#t( /and t(is t(e ,(ysi&ian ,rod$&es by r$bbin)0. War#t( in t(e body. t(en. is eit(er a ,art o' (ealt( or is 'ollo%ed /eit(er dire&tly or t(ro$)( se+eral inter#ediate ste,s0 by so#et(in) si#ilar %(i&( is a ,art o' (ealt(* and t(is. +i6. t(at %(i&( ,rod$&es t(e ,art o' (ealt(. is t(e li#itin)5,oint55and so too %it( a (o$se /t(e stones are t(e li#itin)5,oint (ere0 and in all ot(er &ases. T(ere'ore. as t(e sayin) )oes. it is i#,ossible t(at anyt(in) s(o$ld be ,rod$&ed i' t(ere %ere not(in) e1istin) be'ore. ;b+io$sly t(en so#e ,art o' t(e res$lt %ill ,re5e1ist o' ne&essity* 'or t(e #atter is a ,art* 'or t(is is ,resent in t(e ,ro&ess and it is t(is t(at be&o#es so#et(in). B$t is t(e #atter an ele#ent e+en in t(e 'or#$la< We &ertainly des&ribe in bot( %ays %(at bra6en &ir&les are* %e des&ribe bot( t(e #atter by sayin) it is brass. and t(e 'or# by sayin) t(at it is s$&( and s$&( a 'i)$re* and 'i)$re is t(e ,ro1i#ate )en$s in %(i&( it is ,la&ed. T(e bra6en &ir&le. t(en. (as its #atter in its 'or#$la. As 'or t(at o$t o' %(i&( as #atter t(ey are ,rod$&ed. so#e t(in)s are said. %(en t(ey (a+e been ,rod$&ed. to be not t(at b$t 3t(aten3* e.). t(e stat$e is not )old b$t )olden. And a (ealt(y #an is not said to be t(at 'ro# %(i&( (e (as &o#e. T(e reason is t(at t(o$)( a t(in) &o#es bot( 'ro# its ,ri+ation and 'ro# its s$bstrat$#. %(i&( %e &all its #atter /e.). %(at be&o#es (ealt(y is bot( a #an and an in+alid0. it is said to &o#e rat(er 'ro# its ,ri+ation /e.). it is 'ro# an in+alid rat(er t(an 'ro# a #an t(at a (ealt(y s$b4e&t is ,rod$&ed0. And so t(e (ealt(y s$b4e&t is not said to (e an in+alid. b$t to be a #an. and t(e #an is said to be (ealt(y. B$t as 'or t(e t(in)s %(ose ,ri+ation is obs&$re and na#eless. e.). in brass t(e ,ri+ation o' a ,arti&$lar s(a,e or in bri& s and ti#ber t(e ,ri+ation o' arran)e#ent as a (o$se. t(e t(in) is t(o$)(t to be ,rod$&ed 'ro# t(ese #aterials. as in t(e 'or#er &ase t(e (ealt(y #an is ,rod$&ed 'ro# an in+alid. And so. as t(ere also a t(in) is not said to be t(at 'ro# %(i&( it &o#es. (ere t(e stat$e is not said to be %ood b$t is said by a +erbal &(an)e to be %ooden. not brass b$t bra6en. not )old b$t )olden. and t(e (o$se is said to be not bri& s b$t bri& en /t(o$)( %e s(o$ld not say %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. i' %e loo ed at t(e #atter &are'$lly. e+en t(at a stat$e is ,rod$&ed 'ro# %ood or a (o$se 'ro# bri& s. be&a$se &o#in) to be i#,lies &(an)e in t(at 'ro# %(i&( a t(in) &o#es to be. and not ,er#anen&e0. It is 'or t(is reason. t(en. t(at %e $se t(is %ay o' s,ea in). B Sin&e anyt(in) %(i&( is ,rod$&ed is ,rod$&ed by so#et(in) /and t(is I &all t(e startin)5,oint o' t(e ,rod$&tion0. and 'ro# so#et(in) /and let t(is be ta en to be not t(e ,ri+ation b$t t(e

#atter* 'or t(e #eanin) %e atta&( to t(is (as already been e1,lained0. and sin&e so#et(in) is ,rod$&ed /and t(is is eit(er a s,(ere or a &ir&le or %(ate+er else it #ay &(an&e to be0. 4$st as %e do not #a e t(e s$bstrat$# /t(e brass0. so %e do not #a e t(e s,(ere. e1&e,t in&identally. be&a$se t(e bra6en s,(ere is a s,(ere and %e #a e t(e 'or#e. -or to #a e a 3t(is3 is to #a e a 3t(is3 o$t o' t(e s$bstrat$# in t(e '$ll sense o' t(e %ord. /I #ean t(at to #a e t(e brass ro$nd is not to #a e t(e ro$nd or t(e s,(ere. b$t so#et(in) else. i.e. to ,rod$&e t(is 'or# in so#et(in) di''erent 'ro# itsel'. -or i' %e #a e t(e 'or#. %e #$st #a e it o$t o' so#et(in) else* 'or t(is %as ass$#ed. E.). %e #a e a bra6en s,(ere* and t(at in t(e sense t(at o$t o' t(is. %(i&( is brass. %e #a e t(is ot(er. %(i&( is a s,(ere.0 I'. t(en. %e also #a e t(e s$bstrat$# itsel'. &learly %e s(all #a e it in t(e sa#e %ay. and t(e ,ro&esses o' #a in) %ill re)ress to in'inity. ;b+io$sly t(en t(e 'or# also. or %(ate+er %e o$)(t to &all t(e s(a,e ,resent in t(e sensible t(in). is not ,rod$&ed. nor is t(ere any ,rod$&tion o' it. nor is t(e essen&e ,rod$&ed* 'or t(is is t(at %(i&( is #ade to be in so#et(in) else eit(er by art or by nat$re or by so#e 'a&$lty. B$t t(at t(ere is a bra6en s,(ere. t(is %e #a e. -or %e #a e it o$t o' brass and t(e s,(ere* %e brin) t(e 'or# into t(is ,arti&$lar #atter. and t(e res$lt is a bra6en s,(ere. B$t i' t(e essen&e o' s,(ere in )eneral is to be ,rod$&ed. so#et(in) #$st be ,rod$&ed o$t o' so#et(in). -or t(e ,rod$&t %ill al%ays (a+e to be di+isible. and one ,art #$st be t(is and anot(er t(at* I #ean t(e one #$st be #atter and t(e ot(er 'or#. I'. t(en. a s,(ere is 3t(e 'i)$re %(ose &ir&$#'eren&e is at all ,oints e8$idistant 'ro# t(e &entre3. ,art o' t(is %ill be t(e #edi$# in %(i&( t(e t(in) #ade %ill be. and ,art %ill be in t(at #edi$#. and t(e %(ole %ill be t(e t(in) ,rod$&ed. %(i&( &orres,onds to t(e bra6en s,(ere. It is ob+io$s. t(en. 'ro# %(at (as been said. t(at t(at %(i&( is s,o en o' as 'or# or s$bstan&e is not ,rod$&ed. b$t t(e &on&rete t(in) %(i&( )ets its na#e 'ro# t(is is ,rod$&ed. and t(at in e+eryt(in) %(i&( is )enerated #atter is ,resent. and one ,art o' t(e t(in) is #atter and t(e ot(er 'or#. Is t(ere. t(en. a s,(ere a,art 'ro# t(e indi+id$al s,(eres or a (o$se a,art 'ro# t(e bri& s< Rat(er %e #ay say t(at no 3t(is3 %o$ld e+er (a+e been &o#in) to be. i' t(is (ad been so. b$t t(at t(e 3'or#3 #eans t(e 3s$&(3. and is not a 3t(is35a de'inite t(in)* b$t t(e artist #a es. or t(e 'at(er be)ets. a 3s$&(3 o$t o' a 3t(is3* and %(en it (as been be)otten. it is a 3t(is s$&(3. And t(e %(ole 3t(is3. Callias or So&rates. is analo)o$s to 3t(is bra6en s,(ere3. b$t #an and ani#al to 3bra6en s,(ere3 in )eneral. ;b+io$sly. t(en. t(e &a$se %(i&( &onsists o' t(e -or#s /ta en in t(e sense in %(i&( so#e #aintain t(e e1isten&e o' t(e -or#s. i.e. i' t(ey are so#et(in) a,art 'ro# t(e indi+id$als0 is $seless. at least %it( re)ard to &o#in)s5to5be and to s$bstan&es* and t(e -or#s need not. 'or t(is reason at least. be sel'5s$bsistent s$bstan&es. In so#e &ases indeed it is e+en ob+io$s t(at t(e be)etter is o' t(e sa#e ind as t(e be)otten /not. (o%e+er. t(e sa#e nor one in n$#ber. b$t in 'or#0. i.e. in t(e &ase o' nat$ral ,rod$&ts /'or #an be)ets #an0. $nless so#et(in) (a,,ens &ontrary to nat$re. e.). t(e ,rod$&tion o' a #$le by a (orse. /And e+en t(ese &ases are si#ilar* 'or t(at %(i&( %o$ld be 'o$nd to be &o##on to (orse and ass. t(e )en$s ne1t abo+e t(e#. (as not re&ei+ed a na#e. b$t it %o$ld do$btless be bot( in 'a&t so#et(in) li e a #$le.0 ;b+io$sly. t(ere'ore. it is 8$ite $nne&essary to set $, a -or# as a ,attern /'or %e s(o$ld (a+e loo ed 'or -or#s in t(ese &ases i' in any* 'or t(ese are s$bstan&es i' anyt(in) is so0* t(e be)etter is ade8$ate to t(e #a in) o' t(e ,rod$&t and to t(e &a$sin) o' t(e 'or# in t(e #atter. And %(en %e (a+e t(e %(ole. s$&( and s$&( a 'or# in t(is 'les( and in t(ese bones. t(is is Callias or So&rates* and t(ey are di''erent in +irt$e o' t(eir #atter /'or t(at is di''erent0. b$t t(e sa#e in 'or#* 'or t(eir 'or# is indi+isible. C

T(e 8$estion #i)(t be raised. %(y so#e t(in)s are ,rod$&ed s,ontaneo$sly as %ell as by art. e.). (ealt(. %(ile ot(ers are not. e.). a (o$se. T(e reason is t(at in so#e &ases t(e #atter %(i&( )o+erns t(e ,rod$&tion in t(e #a in) and ,rod$&in) o' any %or o' art. and in %(i&( a ,art o' t(e ,rod$&t is ,resent.5so#e #atter is s$&( as to be set in #otion by itsel' and so#e is not o' t(is nat$re. and o' t(e 'or#er ind so#e &an #o+e itsel' in t(e ,arti&$lar %ay re8$ired. %(ile ot(er #atter is in&a,able o' t(is* 'or #any t(in)s &an be set in #otion by t(e#sel+es b$t not in so#e ,arti&$lar %ay. e.). t(at o' dan&in). T(e t(in)s. t(en. %(ose #atter is o' t(is sort. e.). stones. &annot be #o+ed in t(e ,arti&$lar %ay re8$ired. e1&e,t by so#et(in) else. b$t in anot(er %ay t(ey &an #o+e t(e#sel+es5and so it is %it( 'ire. T(ere'ore so#e t(in)s %ill not e1ist a,art 'ro# so#e one %(o (as t(e art o' #a in) t(e#. %(ile ot(ers %ill* 'or #otion %ill be started by t(ese t(in)s %(i&( (a+e not t(e art b$t &an t(e#sel+es be #o+ed by ot(er t(in)s %(i&( (a+e not t(e art or %it( a #otion startin) 'ro# a ,art o' t(e ,rod$&t. And it is &lear also 'ro# %(at (as been said t(at in a sense e+ery ,rod$&t o' art is ,rod$&ed 'ro# a t(in) %(i&( s(ares its na#e /as nat$ral ,rod$&ts are ,rod$&ed0. or 'ro# a ,art o' itsel' %(i&( s(ares its na#e /e.). t(e (o$se is ,rod$&ed 'ro# a (o$se. 8$a ,rod$&ed by reason* 'or t(e art o' b$ildin) is t(e 'or# o' t(e (o$se0. or 'ro# so#et(in) %(i&( &ontains a art o' it.5i' %e e1&l$de t(in)s ,rod$&ed by a&&ident* 'or t(e &a$se o' t(e t(in)3s ,rod$&in) t(e ,rod$&t dire&tly ,er se is a ,art o' t(e ,rod$&t. T(e (eat in t(e #o+e#ent &a$sed (eat in t(e body. and t(is is eit(er (ealt(. or a ,art o' (ealt(. or is 'ollo%ed by a ,art o' (ealt( or by (ealt( itsel'. And so it is said to &a$se (ealt(. be&a$se it &a$ses t(at to %(i&( (ealt( atta&(es as a &onse8$en&e. T(ere'ore. as in syllo)is#s. s$bstan&e is t(e startin)5,oint o' e+eryt(in). It is 'ro# 3%(at a t(in) is3 t(at syllo)is#s start* and 'ro# it also %e no% 'ind ,ro&esses o' ,rod$&tion to start. T(in)s %(i&( are 'or#ed by nat$re are in t(e sa#e &ase as t(ese ,rod$&ts o' art. -or t(e seed is ,rod$&ti+e in t(e sa#e %ay as t(e t(in)s t(at %or by art* 'or it (as t(e 'or# ,otentially. and t(at 'ro# %(i&( t(e seed &o#es (as in a sense t(e sa#e na#e as t(e o''s,rin) only in a sense. 'or %e #$st not e1,e&t ,arent and o''s,rin) al%ays to (a+e e1a&tly t(e sa#e na#e. as in t(e ,rod$&tion o' 3($#an bein)3 'ro# 3($#an3 'or a 3%o#an3 also &an be ,rod$&ed by a 3#an35$nless t(e o''s,rin) be an i#,er'e&t 'or#* %(i&( is t(e reason %(y t(e ,arent o' a #$le is not a #$le. T(e nat$ral t(in)s %(i&( /li e t(e arti'i&ial ob4e&ts ,re+io$sly &onsidered0 &an be ,rod$&ed s,ontaneo$sly are t(ose %(ose #atter &an be #o+ed e+en by itsel' in t(e %ay in %(i&( t(e seed $s$ally #o+es it* t(ose t(in)s %(i&( (a+e not s$&( #atter &annot be ,rod$&ed e1&e,t 'ro# t(e ,arent ani#als t(e#sel+es. B$t not only re)ardin) s$bstan&e does o$r ar)$#ent ,ro+e t(at its 'or# does not &o#e to be. b$t t(e ar)$#ent a,,lies to all t(e ,ri#ary &lasses ali e. i.e. 8$antity. 8$ality. and t(e ot(er &ate)ories. -or as t(e bra6en s,(ere &o#es to be. b$t not t(e s,(ere nor t(e brass. and so too in t(e &ase o' brass itsel'. i' it &o#es to be. it is its &on&rete $nity t(at &o#es to be /'or t(e #atter and t(e 'or# #$st al%ays e1ist be'ore0. so is it bot( in t(e &ase o' s$bstan&e and in t(at o' 8$ality and 8$antity and t(e ot(er &ate)ories li e%ise* 'or t(e 8$ality does not &o#e to be. b$t t(e %ood o' t(at 8$ality. and t(e 8$antity does not &o#e to be. b$t t(e %ood or t(e ani#al o' t(at si6e. B$t %e #ay learn 'ro# t(ese instan&es a ,e&$liarity o' s$bstan&e. t(at t(ere #$st e1ist be'ore(and in &o#,lete reality anot(er s$bstan&e %(i&( ,rod$&es it. e.). an ani#al i' an ani#al is ,rod$&ed* b$t it is not ne&essary t(at a 8$ality or 8$antity s(o$ld ,re5e1ist ot(er%ise t(an ,otentially. !0 Sin&e a de'inition is a 'or#$la. and e+ery 'or#$la (as ,arts.

and as t(e 'or#$la is to t(e t(in). so is t(e ,art o' t(e 'or#$la to t(e ,art o' t(e t(in). t(e 8$estion is already bein) as ed %(et(er t(e 'or#$la o' t(e ,arts #$st be ,resent in t(e 'or#$la o' t(e %(ole or not. -or in so#e &ases t(e 'or#$lae o' t(e ,arts are seen to be ,resent. and in so#e not. T(e 'or#$la o' t(e &ir&le does not in&l$de t(at o' t(e se)#ents. b$t t(at o' t(e syllable in&l$des t(at o' t(e letters* yet t(e &ir&le is di+ided into se)#ents as t(e syllable is into letters.5And '$rt(er i' t(e ,arts are ,rior to t(e %(ole. and t(e a&$te an)le is a ,art o' t(e ri)(t an)le and t(e 'in)er a ,art o' t(e ani#al. t(e a&$te an)le %ill be ,rior to t(e ri)(t an)le and 'in)er to t(e #an. B$t t(e latter are t(o$)(t to be ,rior* 'or in 'or#$la t(e ,arts are e1,lained by re'eren&e to t(e#. and in res,e&t also o' t(e ,o%er o' e1istin) a,art 'ro# ea&( ot(er t(e %(oles are ,rior to t(e ,arts. Per(a,s %e s(o$ld rat(er say t(at 3,art3 is $sed in se+eral senses. ;ne o' t(ese is 3t(at %(i&( #eas$res anot(er t(in) in res,e&t o' 8$antity3. B$t let t(is sense be set aside* let $s in8$ire abo$t t(e ,arts o' %(i&( s$bstan&e &onsists. I' t(en #atter is one t(in). 'or# anot(er. t(e &o#,o$nd o' t(ese a t(ird. and bot( t(e #atter and t(e 'or# and t(e &o#,o$nd are s$bstan&e e+en t(e #atter is in a sense &alled ,art o' a t(in). %(ile in a sense it is not. b$t only t(e ele#ents o' %(i&( t(e 'or#$la o' t(e 'or# &onsists. E.). o' &on&a+ity 'les( /'or t(is is t(e #atter in %(i&( it is ,rod$&ed0 is not a ,art. b$t o' sn$bness it is a ,art* and t(e bron6e is a ,art o' t(e &on&rete stat$e. b$t not o' t(e stat$e %(en t(is is s,o en o' in t(e sense o' t(e 'or#. /-or t(e 'or#. or t(e t(in) as (a+in) 'or#. s(o$ld be said to be t(e t(in). b$t t(e #aterial ele#ent by itsel' #$st ne+er be said to be so.0 And so t(e 'or#$la o' t(e &ir&le does not in&l$de t(at o' t(e se)#ents. b$t t(e 'or#$la o' t(e syllable in&l$des t(at o' t(e letters* 'or t(e letters are ,arts o' t(e 'or#$la o' t(e 'or#. and not #atter. b$t t(e se)#ents are ,arts in t(e sense o' #atter on %(i&( t(e 'or# s$,er+enes* yet t(ey are nearer t(e 'or# t(an t(e bron6e is %(en ro$ndness is ,rod$&ed in bron6e. B$t in a sense not e+en e+ery ind o' letter %ill be ,resent in t(e 'or#$la o' t(e syllable. e.). ,arti&$lar %a1en letters or t(e letters as #o+e#ents in t(e air* 'or in t(ese also %e (a+e already so#et(in) t(at is ,art o' t(e syllable only in t(e sense t(at it is its ,er&e,tible #atter. -or e+en i' t(e line %(en di+ided ,asses a%ay into its (al+es. or t(e #an into bones and #$s&les and 'les(. it does not 'ollo% t(at t(ey are &o#,osed o' t(ese as ,arts o' t(eir essen&e. b$t rat(er as #atter* and t(ese are ,arts o' t(e &on&rete t(in). b$t not also o' t(e 'or#. i.e. o' t(at to %(i&( t(e 'or#$la re'ers* %(ere'ore also t(ey are not ,resent in t(e 'or#$lae. In one ind o' 'or#$la. t(en. t(e 'or#$la o' s$&( ,arts %ill be ,resent. b$t in anot(er it #$st not be ,resent. %(ere t(e 'or#$la does not re'er to t(e &on&rete ob4e&t. -or it is 'or t(is reason t(at so#e t(in)s (a+e as t(eir &onstit$ent ,rin&i,les ,arts into %(i&( t(ey ,ass a%ay. %(ile so#e (a+e not. T(ose t(in)s %(i&( are t(e 'or# and t(e #atter ta en to)et(er. e.). t(e sn$b. or t(e bron6e &ir&le. ,ass a%ay into t(ese #aterials. and t(e #atter is a ,art o' t(e#* b$t t(ose t(in)s %(i&( do not in+ol+e #atter b$t are %it(o$t #atter. and %(ose 'or#$lae are 'or#$lae o' t(e 'or# only. do not ,ass a%ay.5eit(er not at all or at any rate not in t(is %ay. T(ere'ore t(ese #aterials are ,rin&i,les and ,arts o' t(e &on&rete t(in)s. %(ile o' t(e 'or# t(ey are neit(er ,arts nor ,rin&i,les. And t(ere'ore t(e &lay stat$e is resol+ed into &lay and t(e ball into bron6e and Callias into 'les( and bones. and a)ain t(e &ir&le into its se)#ents* 'or t(ere is a sense o' 3&ir&le3 in %(i&( in+ol+es #atter. -or 3&ir&le3 is $sed a#bi)$o$sly. #eanin) bot( t(e &ir&le. $n8$ali'ied. and t(e indi+id$al &ir&le. be&a$se t(ere is no na#e ,e&$liar to t(e indi+id$als. T(e tr$t( (as indeed no% been stated. b$t still let $s state it yet #ore &learly. ta in) $, t(e 8$estion a)ain. T(e ,arts o' t(e 'or#$la. into %(i&( t(e 'or#$la is di+ided. are ,rior to it. eit(er all or so#e o' t(e#. T(e 'or#$la o' t(e ri)(t an)le. (o%e+er. does not

in&l$de t(e 'or#$la o' t(e a&$te. b$t t(e 'or#$la o' t(e a&$te in&l$des t(at o' t(e ri)(t an)le* 'or (e %(o de'ines t(e a&$te $ses t(e ri)(t an)le* 'or t(e a&$te is 3less t(an a ri)(t an)le3. T(e &ir&le and t(e se#i&ir&le also are in a li e relation* 'or t(e se#i&ir&le is de'ined by t(e &ir&le* and so is t(e 'in)er by t(e %(ole body. 'or a 'in)er is 3s$&( and s$&( a ,art o' a #an3. T(ere'ore t(e ,arts %(i&( are o' t(e nat$re o' #atter. and into %(i&( as its #atter a t(in) is di+ided. are ,osterior* b$t t(ose %(i&( are o' t(e nat$re o' ,arts o' t(e 'or#$la. and o' t(e s$bstan&e a&&ordin) to its 'or#$la. are ,rior. eit(er all or so#e o' t(e#. And sin&e t(e so$l o' ani#als /'or t(is is t(e s$bstan&e o' a li+in) bein)0 is t(eir s$bstan&e a&&ordin) to t(e 'or#$la. i.e. t(e 'or# and t(e essen&e o' a body o' a &ertain ind /at least %e s(all de'ine ea&( ,art. i' %e de'ine it %ell. not %it(o$t re'eren&e to its '$n&tion. and t(is &annot belon) to it %it(o$t ,er&e,tion0. so t(at t(e ,arts o' so$l are ,rior. eit(er all or so#e o' t(e#. to t(e &on&rete 3ani#al3. and so too %it( ea&( indi+id$al ani#al* and t(e body and ,arts are ,osterior to t(is. t(e essential s$bstan&e. and it is not t(e s$bstan&e b$t t(e &on&rete t(in) t(at is di+ided into t(ese ,arts as its #atter>5t(is bein) so. to t(e &on&rete t(in) t(ese are in a sense ,rior. b$t in a sense t(ey are not. -or t(ey &annot e+en e1ist i' se+ered 'ro# t(e %(ole* 'or it is not a 'in)er in any and e+ery state t(at is t(e 'in)er o' a li+in) t(in). b$t a dead 'in)er is a 'in)er only in na#e. So#e ,arts are neit(er ,rior nor ,osterior to t(e %(ole. i.e. t(ose %(i&( are do#inant and in %(i&( t(e 'or#$la. i.e. t(e essential s$bstan&e. is i##ediately ,resent. e.). ,er(a,s t(e (eart or t(e brain* 'or it does not #atter in t(e least %(i&( o' t(e t%o (as t(is 8$ality. B$t #an and (orse and ter#s %(i&( are t($s a,,lied to indi+id$als. b$t $ni+ersally. are not s$bstan&e b$t so#et(in) &o#,osed o' t(is ,arti&$lar 'or#$la and t(is ,arti&$lar #atter treated as $ni+ersal* and as re)ards t(e indi+id$al. So&rates already in&l$des in (i# $lti#ate indi+id$al #atter* and si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. 3A ,art3 #ay be a ,art eit(er o' t(e 'or# /i.e. o' t(e essen&e0. or o' t(e &o#,o$nd o' t(e 'or# and t(e #atter. or o' t(e #atter itsel'. B$t only t(e ,arts o' t(e 'or# are ,arts o' t(e 'or#$la. and t(e 'or#$la is o' t(e $ni+ersal* 'or 3bein) a &ir&le3 is t(e sa#e as t(e &ir&le. and 3bein) a so$l3 t(e sa#e as t(e so$l. B$t %(en %e &o#e to t(e &on&rete t(in). e.). t(is &ir&le. i.e. one o' t(e indi+id$al &ir&les. %(et(er ,er&e,tible or intelli)ible /I #ean by intelli)ible &ir&les t(e #at(e#ati&al. and by ,er&e,tible &ir&les t(ose o' bron6e and o' %ood0.5o' t(ese t(ere is no de'inition. b$t t(ey are no%n by t(e aid o' int$iti+e t(in in) or o' ,er&e,tion* and %(en t(ey ,ass o$t o' t(is &o#,lete reali6ation it is not &lear %(et(er t(ey e1ist or not* b$t t(ey are al%ays stated and re&o)ni6ed by #eans o' t(e $ni+ersal 'or#$la. B$t #atter is $n no%able in itsel'. And so#e #atter is ,er&e,tible and so#e intelli)ible. ,er&e,tible #atter bein) 'or instan&e bron6e and %ood and all #atter t(at is &(an)eable. and intelli)ible #atter bein) t(at %(i&( is ,resent in ,er&e,tible t(in)s not 8$a ,er&e,tible. i.e. t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. We (a+e stated. t(en. (o% #atters stand %it( re)ard to %(ole and ,art. and t(eir ,riority and ,osteriority. B$t %(en any one as s %(et(er t(e ri)(t an)le and t(e &ir&le and t(e ani#al are ,rior. or t(e t(in)s into %(i&( t(ey are di+ided and o' %(i&( t(ey &onsist. i.e. t(e ,arts. %e #$st #eet t(e in8$iry by sayin) t(at t(e 8$estion &annot be ans%ered si#,ly. -or i' e+en bare so$l is t(e ani#al or t(e li+in) t(in). or t(e so$l o' ea&( indi+id$al is t(e indi+id$al itsel'. and 3bein) a &ir&le3 is t(e &ir&le. and 3bein) a ri)(t an)le3 and t(e essen&e o' t(e ri)(t an)le is t(e ri)(t an)le. t(en t(e %(ole in one sense #$st be &alled ,osterior to t(e art in one sense. i.e. to t(e ,arts in&l$ded in t(e 'or#$la and to t(e ,arts o' t(e indi+id$al ri)(t an)le /'or bot( t(e #aterial ri)(t an)le %(i&( is #ade o' bron6e. and t(at %(i&( is 'or#ed by indi+id$al lines. are ,osterior to t(eir ,arts0* %(ile t(e i##aterial ri)(t an)le is ,osterior to t(e ,arts in&l$ded in t(e 'or#$la. b$t ,rior to t(ose in&l$ded in t(e

,arti&$lar instan&e. and t(e 8$estion #$st not be ans%ered si#,ly. I'. (o%e+er. t(e so$l is so#et(in) di''erent and is not identi&al %it( t(e ani#al. e+en so so#e ,arts #$st. as %e (a+e #aintained. be &alled ,rior and ot(ers #$st not. !! Anot(er 8$estion is nat$rally raised. +i6. %(at sort o' ,arts belon) to t(e 'or# and %(at sort not to t(e 'or#. b$t to t(e &on&rete t(in). Yet i' t(is is not ,lain it is not ,ossible to de'ine any t(in)* 'or de'inition is o' t(e $ni+ersal and o' t(e 'or#. I' t(en it is not e+ident %(at sort o' ,arts are o' t(e nat$re o' #atter and %(at sort are not. neit(er %ill t(e 'or#$la o' t(e t(in) be e+ident. In t(e &ase o' t(in)s %(i&( are 'o$nd to o&&$r in s,e&i'i&ally di''erent #aterials. as a &ir&le #ay e1ist in bron6e or stone or %ood. it see#s ,lain t(at t(ese. t(e bron6e or t(e stone. are no ,art o' t(e essen&e o' t(e &ir&le. sin&e it is 'o$nd a,art 'ro# t(e#. ;' t(in)s %(i&( are not seen to e1ist a,art. t(ere is no reason %(y t(e sa#e #ay not be tr$e. 4$st as i' all &ir&les t(at (ad e+er been seen %ere o' bron6e* 'or none t(e less t(e bron6e %o$ld be no ,art o' t(e 'or#* b$t it is (ard to eli#inate it in t(o$)(t. E.). t(e 'or# o' #an is al%ays 'o$nd in 'les( and bones and ,arts o' t(is ind* are t(ese t(en also ,arts o' t(e 'or# and t(e 'or#$la< 2o. t(ey are #atter* b$t be&a$se #an is not 'o$nd also in ot(er #atters %e are $nable to ,er'or# t(e abstra&tion. Sin&e t(is is t(o$)(t to be ,ossible. b$t it is not &lear %(en it is t(e &ase. so#e ,eo,le already raise t(e 8$estion e+en in t(e &ase o' t(e &ir&le and t(e trian)le. t(in in) t(at it is not ri)(t to de'ine t(ese by re'eren&e to lines and to t(e &ontin$o$s. b$t t(at all t(ese are to t(e &ir&le or t(e trian)le as 'les( and bones are to #an. and bron6e or stone to t(e stat$e* and t(ey red$&e all t(in)s to n$#bers. and t(ey say t(e 'or#$la o' 3line3 is t(at o' 3t%o3. And o' t(ose %(o assert t(e Ideas so#e #a e 3t%o3 t(e line5itsel'. and ot(ers #a e it t(e -or# o' t(e line* 'or in so#e &ases t(ey say t(e -or# and t(at o' %(i&( it is t(e -or# are t(e sa#e. e.). 3t%o3 and t(e -or# o' t%o* b$t in t(e &ase o' 3line3 t(ey say t(is is no lon)er so. It 'ollo%s t(en t(at t(ere is one -or# 'or #any t(in)s %(ose 'or# is e+idently di''erent /a &on&l$sion %(i&( &on'ronted t(e Pyt(a)oreans also0* and it is ,ossible to #a e one t(in) t(e -or#5itsel' o' all. and to (old t(at t(e ot(ers are not -or#s* b$t t($s all t(in)s %ill be one. We (a+e ,ointed o$t. t(en. t(at t(e 8$estion o' de'initions &ontains so#e di''i&$lty. and %(y t(is is so. And so to red$&e all t(in)s t($s to -or#s and to eli#inate t(e #atter is $seless labo$r* 'or so#e t(in)s s$rely are a ,arti&$lar 'or# in a ,arti&$lar #atter. or ,arti&$lar t(in)s in a ,arti&$lar state. And t(e &o#,arison %(i&( So&rates t(e yo$n)er $sed to #a e in t(e &ase o' 3ani#al3 is not so$nd* 'or it leads a%ay 'ro# t(e tr$t(. and #a es one s$,,ose t(at #an &an ,ossibly e1ist %it(o$t (is ,arts. as t(e &ir&le &an %it(o$t t(e bron6e. B$t t(e &ase is not si#ilar* 'or an ani#al is so#et(in) ,er&e,tible. and it is not ,ossible to de'ine it %it(o$t re'eren&e to #o+e#ent5nor. t(ere'ore. %it(o$t re'eren&e to t(e ,arts3 bein) in a &ertain state. -or it is not a (and in any and e+ery state t(at is a ,art o' #an. b$t only %(en it &an '$l'il its %or . and t(ere'ore only %(en it is ali+e* i' it is not ali+e it is not a ,art. Re)ardin) t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. %(y are t(e 'or#$lae o' t(e ,arts not ,arts o' t(e 'or#$lae o' t(e %(oles* e.). %(y are not t(e se#i&ir&les in&l$ded in t(e 'or#$la o' t(e &ir&le< It &annot be said. 3be&a$se t(ese ,arts are ,er&e,tible t(in)s3* 'or t(ey are not. B$t ,er(a,s t(is #a es no di''eren&e* 'or e+en so#e t(in)s %(i&( are not ,er&e,tible #$st (a+e #atter* indeed t(ere is so#e #atter in e+eryt(in) %(i&( is not an essen&e and a bare 'or# b$t a 3t(is3. T(e se#i&ir&les. t(en. %ill not be ,arts o' t(e $ni+ersal &ir&le. b$t %ill be ,arts o' t(e indi+id$al &ir&les. as (as been

said be'ore* 'or %(ile one ind o' #atter is ,er&e,tible. t(ere is anot(er %(i&( is intelli)ible. It is &lear also t(at t(e so$l is t(e ,ri#ary s$bstan&e and t(e body is #atter. and #an or ani#al is t(e &o#,o$nd o' bot( ta en $ni+ersally* and 3So&rates3 or 3Coris&$s3. i' e+en t(e so$l o' So&rates #ay be &alled So&rates. (as t%o #eanin)s /'or so#e #ean by s$&( a ter# t(e so$l. and ot(ers #ean t(e &on&rete t(in)0. b$t i' 3So&rates3 or 3Coris&$s3 #eans si#,ly t(is ,arti&$lar so$l and t(is ,arti&$lar body. t(e indi+id$al is analo)o$s to t(e $ni+ersal in its &o#,osition. W(et(er t(ere is. a,art 'ro# t(e #atter o' s$&( s$bstan&es. anot(er ind o' #atter. and one s(o$ld loo 'or so#e s$bstan&e ot(er t(an t(ese. e.). n$#bers or so#et(in) o' t(e sort. #$st be &onsidered later. -or it is 'or t(e sa e o' t(is t(at %e are tryin) to deter#ine t(e nat$re o' ,er&e,tible s$bstan&es as %ell. sin&e in a sense t(e in8$iry abo$t ,er&e,tible s$bstan&es is t(e %or o' ,(ysi&s. i.e. o' se&ond ,(iloso,(y* 'or t(e ,(ysi&ist #$st &o#e to no% not only abo$t t(e #atter. b$t also abo$t t(e s$bstan&e e1,ressed in t(e 'or#$la. and e+en #ore t(an abo$t t(e ot(er. And in t(e &ase o' de'initions. (o% t(e ele#ents in t(e 'or#$la are ,arts o' t(e de'inition. and %(y t(e de'inition is one 'or#$la /'or &learly t(e t(in) is one. b$t in +irt$e o' %(at is t(e t(in) one. alt(o$)( it (as ,arts<0.5t(is #$st be &onsidered later. W(at t(e essen&e is and in %(at sense it is inde,endent. (as been stated $ni+ersally in a %ay %(i&( is tr$e o' e+ery &ase. and also %(y t(e 'or#$la o' t(e essen&e o' so#e t(in)s &ontains t(e ,arts o' t(e t(in) de'ined. %(ile t(at o' ot(ers does not. And %e (a+e stated t(at in t(e 'or#$la o' t(e s$bstan&e t(e #aterial ,arts %ill not be ,resent /'or t(ey are not e+en ,arts o' t(e s$bstan&e in t(at sense. b$t o' t(e &on&rete s$bstan&e* b$t o' t(is t(ere is in a sense a 'or#$la. and in a sense t(ere is not* 'or t(ere is no 'or#$la o' it %it( its #atter. 'or t(is is inde'inite. b$t t(ere is a 'or#$la o' it %it( re'eren&e to its ,ri#ary s$bstan&e5e.). in t(e &ase o' #an t(e 'or#$la o' t(e so$l5. 'or t(e s$bstan&e is t(e ind%ellin) 'or#. 'ro# %(i&( and t(e #atter t(e so5&alled &on&rete s$bstan&e is deri+ed* e.). &on&a+ity is a 'or# o' t(is sort. 'or 'ro# t(is and t(e nose arise 3sn$b nose3 and 3sn$bness30* b$t in t(e &on&rete s$bstan&e. e.). a sn$b nose or Callias. t(e #atter also %ill be ,resent. And %e (a+e stated t(at t(e essen&e and t(e t(in) itsel' are in so#e &ases t(e sa#e* ie. in t(e &ase o' ,ri#ary s$bstan&es. e.). &$r+at$re and t(e essen&e o' &$r+at$re i' t(is is ,ri#ary. /By a 3,ri#ary3 s$bstan&e I #ean one %(i&( does not i#,ly t(e ,resen&e o' so#et(in) in so#et(in) else. i.e. in so#et(in) t(at $nderlies it %(i&( a&ts as #atter.0 B$t t(in)s %(i&( are o' t(e nat$re o' #atter. or o' %(oles t(at in&l$de #atter. are not t(e sa#e as t(eir essen&es. nor are a&&idental $nities li e t(at o' 3So&rates3 and 3#$si&al3* 'or t(ese are t(e sa#e only by a&&ident. !7 2o% let $s treat 'irst o' de'inition. in so 'ar as %e (a+e not treated o' it in t(e Analyti&s* 'or t(e ,roble# stated in t(e# is $se'$l 'or o$r in8$iries &on&ernin) s$bstan&e. I #ean t(is ,roble#>5%(erein &an &onsist t(e $nity o' t(at. t(e 'or#$la o' %(i&( %e &all a de'inition. as 'or instan&e. in t(e &ase o' #an. 3t%o5'ooted ani#al3* 'or let t(is be t(e 'or#$la o' #an. W(y. t(en. is t(is one. and not #any. +i6. 3ani#al3 and 3t%o5'ooted3< -or in t(e &ase o' 3#an3 and 3,ale3 t(ere is a ,l$rality %(en one ter# does not belon) to t(e ot(er. b$t a $nity %(en it does belon) and t(e s$b4e&t. #an. (as a &ertain attrib$te* 'or t(en a $nity is ,rod$&ed and %e (a+e 3t(e ,ale #an3. In t(e ,resent &ase. on t(e ot(er (and. one does not s(are in t(e ot(er* t(e )en$s is not t(o$)(t to s(are in its di''erentiae /'or t(en t(e sa#e t(in) %o$ld s(are in &ontraries* 'or t(e di''erentiae by %(i&( t(e )en$s is di+ided are &ontrary0. And e+en i' t(e )en$s does s(are in t(e#. t(e sa#e ar)$#ent a,,lies. sin&e

t(e di''erentiae ,resent in #an are #any. e.). endo%ed %it( 'eet. t%o5'ooted. 'eat(erless. W(y are t(ese one and not #any< 2ot be&a$se t(ey are ,resent in one t(in)* 'or on t(is ,rin&i,le a $nity &an be #ade o$t o' all t(e attrib$tes o' a t(in). B$t s$rely all t(e attrib$tes in t(e de'inition #$st be one* 'or t(e de'inition is a sin)le 'or#$la and a 'or#$la o' s$bstan&e. so t(at it #$st be a 'or#$la o' so#e one t(in)* 'or s$bstan&e #eans a 3one3 and a 3t(is3. as %e #aintain. We #$st 'irst in8$ire abo$t de'initions rea&(ed by t(e #et(od o' di+isions. T(ere is not(in) in t(e de'inition e1&e,t t(e 'irst5na#ed and t(e di''erentiae. T(e ot(er )enera are t(e 'irst )en$s and alon) %it( t(is t(e di''erentiae t(at are ta en %it( it. e.). t(e 'irst #ay be 3ani#al3. t(e ne1t 3ani#al %(i&( is t%o5'ooted3. and a)ain 3ani#al %(i&( is t%o5'ooted and 'eat(erless3. and si#ilarly i' t(e de'inition in&l$des #ore ter#s. And in )eneral it #a es no di''eren&e %(et(er it in&l$des #any or 'e% ter#s.5nor. t(ere'ore. %(et(er it in&l$des 'e% or si#,ly t%o* and o' t(e t%o t(e one is di''erentia and t(e ot(er )en$s* e.). in 3t%o5'ooted ani#al3 3ani#al3 is )en$s. and t(e ot(er is di''erentia. I' t(en t(e )en$s absol$tely does not e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e s,e&ies5o'5a5)en$s. or i' it e1ists b$t e1ists as #atter /'or t(e +oi&e is )en$s and #atter. b$t its di''erentiae #a e t(e s,e&ies. i.e. t(e letters. o$t o' it0. &learly t(e de'inition is t(e 'or#$la %(i&( &o#,rises t(e di''erentiae. B$t it is also ne&essary t(at t(e di+ision be by t(e di''erentia o' t(e di'erentia* e.). 3endo%ed %it( 'eet3 is a di''erentia o' 3ani#al3* a)ain t(e di''erentia o' 3ani#al endo%ed %it( 'eet3 #$st be o' it 8$a endo%ed %it( 'eet. T(ere'ore %e #$st not say. i' %e are to s,ea ri)(tly. t(at o' t(at %(i&( is endo%ed %it( 'eet one ,art (as 'eat(ers and one is 'eat(erless /i' %e do t(is %e do it t(ro$)( in&a,a&ity0* %e #$st di+ide it only into &lo+en5'ooted and not &lo+en* 'or t(ese are di''erentiae in t(e 'oot* &lo+en5'ootedness is a 'or# o' 'ootedness. And t(e ,ro&ess %ants al%ays to )o on so till it rea&(es t(e s,e&ies t(at &ontain no di''eren&es. And t(en t(ere %ill be as #any inds o' 'oot as t(ere are di''erentiae. and t(e inds o' ani#als endo%ed %it( 'eet %ill be e8$al in n$#ber to t(e di''erentiae. I' t(en t(is is so. &learly t(e last di''erentia %ill be t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e t(in) and its de'inition. sin&e it is not ri)(t to state t(e sa#e t(in)s #ore t(an on&e in o$r de'initions* 'or it is s$,er'l$o$s. And t(is does (a,,en* 'or %(en %e say 3ani#al endo%ed %it( 'eet and t%o5'ooted3 %e (a+e said not(in) ot(er t(an 3ani#al (a+in) 'eet. (a+in) t%o 'eet3* and i' %e di+ide t(is by t(e ,ro,er di+ision. %e s(all be sayin) t(e sa#e t(in) #ore t(an on&e5as #any ti#es as t(ere are di''erentiae. I' t(en a di''erentia o' a di''erentia be ta en at ea&( ste,. one di''erentia5t(e last5%ill be t(e 'or# and t(e s$bstan&e* b$t i' %e di+ide a&&ordin) to a&&idental 8$alities. e.). i' %e %ere to di+ide t(at %(i&( is endo%ed %it( 'eet into t(e %(ite and t(e bla& . t(ere %ill be as #any di''erentiae as t(ere are &$ts. T(ere'ore it is ,lain t(at t(e de'inition is t(e 'or#$la %(i&( &ontains t(e di''erentiae. or. a&&ordin) to t(e ri)(t #et(od. t(e last o' t(ese. T(is %o$ld be e+ident. i' %e %ere to &(an)e t(e order o' s$&( de'initions. e.). o' t(at o' #an. sayin) 3ani#al %(i&( is t%o5'ooted and endo%ed %it( 'eet3* 'or 3endo%ed %it( 'eet3 is s$,er'l$o$s %(en 3t%o5'ooted3 (as been said. B$t t(ere is no order in t(e s$bstan&e* 'or (o% are %e to t(in t(e one ele#ent ,osterior and t(e ot(er ,rior< Re)ardin) t(e de'initions. t(en. %(i&( are rea&(ed by t(e #et(od o' di+isions. let t(is s$''i&e as o$r 'irst atte#,t at statin) t(eir nat$re. !3 "et $s ret$rn to t(e s$b4e&t o' o$r in8$iry. %(i&( is s$bstan&e. As t(e s$bstrat$# and t(e essen&e and t(e &o#,o$nd o' t(ese are &alled s$bstan&e. so also is t(e $ni+ersal. Abo$t t%o o' t(ese %e (a+e

s,o en* bot( abo$t t(e essen&e and abo$t t(e s$bstrat$#. o' %(i&( %e (a+e said t(at it $nderlies in t%o senses. eit(er bein) a 3t(is35%(i&( is t(e %ay in %(i&( an ani#al $nderlies its attrib$tes5or as t(e #atter $nderlies t(e &o#,lete reality. T(e $ni+ersal also is t(o$)(t by so#e to be in t(e '$llest sense a &a$se. and a ,rin&i,le* t(ere'ore let $s atta& t(e dis&$ssion o' t(is ,oint also. -or it see#s i#,ossible t(at any $ni+ersal ter# s(o$ld be t(e na#e o' a s$bstan&e. -or 'irstly t(e s$bstan&e o' ea&( t(in) is t(at %(i&( is ,e&$liar to it. %(i&( does not belon) to anyt(in) else* b$t t(e $ni+ersal is &o##on. sin&e t(at is &alled $ni+ersal %(i&( is s$&( as to belon) to #ore t(an one t(in). ;' %(i&( indi+id$al t(en %ill t(is be t(e s$bstan&e< Eit(er o' all or o' none* b$t it &annot be t(e s$bstan&e o' all. And i' it is to be t(e s$bstan&e o' one. t(is one %ill be t(e ot(ers also* 'or t(in)s %(ose s$bstan&e is one and %(ose essen&e is one are t(e#sel+es also one. -$rt(er. s$bstan&e #eans t(at %(i&( is not ,redi&able o' a s$b4e&t. b$t t(e $ni+ersal is ,redi&able o' so#e s$b4e&t al%ays. B$t ,er(a,s t(e $ni+ersal. %(ile it &annot be s$bstan&e in t(e %ay in %(i&( t(e essen&e is so. &an be ,resent in t(is* e.). 3ani#al3 &an be ,resent in 3#an3 and 3(orse3. T(en &learly it is a 'or#$la o' t(e essen&e. And it #a es no di''eren&e e+en i' it is not a 'or#$la o' e+eryt(in) t(at is in t(e s$bstan&e* 'or none t(e less t(e $ni+ersal %ill be t(e s$bstan&e o' so#et(in). as 3#an3 is t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e indi+id$al #an in %(o# it is ,resent. so t(at t(e sa#e res$lt %ill 'ollo% on&e #ore* 'or t(e $ni+ersal. e.). 3ani#al3. %ill be t(e s$bstan&e o' t(at in %(i&( it is ,resent as so#et(in) ,e&$liar to it. And '$rt(er it is i#,ossible and abs$rd t(at t(e 3t(is3. i.e. t(e s$bstan&e. i' it &onsists o' ,arts. s(o$ld not &onsist o' s$bstan&es nor o' %(at is a 3t(is3. b$t o' 8$ality* 'or t(at %(i&( is not s$bstan&e. i.e. t(e 8$ality. %ill t(en be ,rior to s$bstan&e and to t(e 3t(is3. W(i&( is i#,ossible* 'or neit(er in 'or#$la nor in ti#e nor in &o#in) to be &an t(e #odi'i&ations be ,rior to t(e s$bstan&e* 'or t(en t(ey %ill also be se,arable 'ro# it. -$rt(er. So&rates %ill &ontain a s$bstan&e ,resent in a s$bstan&e. so t(at t(is %ill be t(e s$bstan&e o' t%o t(in)s. And in )eneral it 'ollo%s. i' #an and s$&( t(in)s are s$bstan&e. t(at none o' t(e ele#ents in t(eir 'or#$lae is t(e s$bstan&e o' anyt(in). nor does it e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e s,e&ies or in anyt(in) else* I #ean. 'or instan&e. t(at no 3ani#al3 e1ists a,art 'ro# t(e ,arti&$lar inds o' ani#al. nor does any ot(er o' t(e ele#ents ,resent in 'or#$lae e1ist a,art. I'. t(en. %e +ie% t(e #atter 'ro# t(ese stand,oints. it is ,lain t(at no $ni+ersal attrib$te is a s$bstan&e. and t(is is ,lain also 'ro# t(e 'a&t t(at no &o##on ,redi&ate indi&ates a 3t(is3. b$t rat(er a 3s$&(3. I' not. #any di''i&$lties 'ollo% and es,e&ially t(e 3t(ird #an3. T(e &on&l$sion is e+ident also 'ro# t(e 'ollo%in) &onsideration. A s$bstan&e &annot &onsist o' s$bstan&es ,resent in it in &o#,lete reality* 'or t(in)s t(at are t($s in &o#,lete reality t%o are ne+er in &o#,lete reality one. t(o$)( i' t(ey are ,otentially t%o. t(ey &an be one /e.). t(e do$ble line &onsists o' t%o (al+es5,otentially* 'or t(e &o#,lete reali6ation o' t(e (al+es di+ides t(e# 'ro# one anot(er0* t(ere'ore i' t(e s$bstan&e is one. it %ill not &onsist o' s$bstan&es ,resent in it and ,resent in t(is %ay. %(i&( De#o&rit$s des&ribes ri)(tly* (e says one t(in) &annot be #ade o$t o' t%o nor t%o o$t o' one* 'or (e identi'ies s$bstan&es %it( (is indi+isible #a)nit$des. It is &lear t(ere'ore t(at t(e sa#e %ill (old )ood o' n$#ber. i' n$#ber is a synt(esis o' $nits. as is said by so#e* 'or t%o is eit(er not one. or t(ere is no $nit ,resent in it in &o#,lete reality. B$t o$r res$lt in+ol+es a di''i&$lty. I' no s$bstan&e &an &onsist o' $ni+ersals be&a$se a $ni+ersal indi&ates a 3s$&(3. not a 3t(is3. and i' no s$bstan&e &an be &o#,osed o' s$bstan&es e1istin) in &o#,lete reality. e+ery s$bstan&e %o$ld be in&o#,osite. so t(at t(ere %o$ld not e+en be a 'or#$la o' any s$bstan&e. B$t it is t(o$)(t by all and %as stated lon) a)o t(at it is eit(er only. or ,ri#arily. s$bstan&e t(at

&an de'ined* yet no% it see#s t(at not e+en s$bstan&e &an. T(ere &annot. t(en. be a de'inition o' anyt(in)* or in a sense t(ere &an be. and in a sense t(ere &annot. And %(at %e are sayin) %ill be ,lainer 'ro# %(at 'ollo%s. != It is &lear also 'ro# t(ese +ery 'a&ts %(at &onse8$en&e &on'ronts t(ose %(o say t(e Ideas are s$bstan&es &a,able o' se,arate e1isten&e. and at t(e sa#e ti#e #a e t(e -or# &onsist o' t(e )en$s and t(e di''erentiae. -or i' t(e -or#s e1ist and 3ani#al3 is ,resent in 3#an3 and 3(orse3. it is eit(er one and t(e sa#e in n$#ber. or di''erent. /In 'or#$la it is &learly one* 'or (e %(o states t(e 'or#$la %ill )o t(ro$)( t(e 'or#$la in eit(er &ase.0 I' t(en t(ere is a 3#an5in5(i#sel'3 %(o is a 3t(is3 and e1ists a,art. t(e ,arts also o' %(i&( (e &onsists. e.). 3ani#al3 and 3t%o5'ooted3. #$st indi&ate 3t(ises3. and be &a,able o' se,arate e1isten&e. and s$bstan&es* t(ere'ore 3ani#al3. as %ell as 3#an3. #$st be o' t(is sort. 2o% /!0 i' t(e 3ani#al3 in 3t(e (orse3 and in 3#an3 is one and t(e sa#e. as yo$ are %it( yo$rsel'. /a0 (o% %ill t(e one in t(in)s t(at e1ist a,art be one. and (o% %ill t(is 3ani#al3 es&a,e bein) di+ided e+en 'ro# itsel'< -$rt(er. /b0 i' it is to s(are in 3t%o5'ooted3 and 3#any5'ooted3. an i#,ossible &on&l$sion 'ollo%s* 'or &ontrary attrib$tes %ill belon) at t(e sa#e ti#e to it alt(o$)( it is one and a 3t(is3. I' it is not to s(are in t(e#. %(at is t(e relation i#,lied %(en one says t(e ani#al is t%o5'ooted or ,ossessed o' 'eet< B$t ,er(a,s t(e t%o t(in)s are 3,$t to)et(er3 and are 3in &onta&t3. or are 3#i1ed3. Yet all t(ese e1,ressions are abs$rd. B$t /70 s$,,ose t(e -or# to be di''erent in ea&( s,e&ies. T(en t(ere %ill be ,ra&ti&ally an in'inite n$#ber o' t(in)s %(ose s$bstan&e is ani#al3* 'or it is not by a&&ident t(at 3#an3 (as 3ani#al3 'or one o' its ele#ents. -$rt(er. #any t(in)s %ill be 3ani#al5itsel'3. -or /i0 t(e 3ani#al3 in ea&( s,e&ies %ill be t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e s,e&ies* 'or it is a'ter not(in) else t(at t(e s,e&ies is &alled* i' it %ere. t(at ot(er %o$ld be an ele#ent in 3#an3. i.e. %o$ld be t(e )en$s o' #an. And '$rt(er. /ii0 all t(e ele#ents o' %(i&( 3#an3 is &o#,osed %ill be Ideas. 2one o' t(e#. t(en. %ill be t(e Idea o' one t(in) and t(e s$bstan&e o' anot(er* t(is is i#,ossible. T(e 3ani#al3. t(en. ,resent in ea&( s,e&ies o' ani#als %ill be ani#al5itsel'. -$rt(er. 'ro# %(at is t(is 3ani#al3 in ea&( s,e&ies deri+ed. and (o% %ill it be deri+ed 'ro# ani#al5itsel'< ;r (o% &an t(is 3ani#al3. %(ose essen&e is si#,ly ani#ality. e1ist a,art 'ro# ani#al5itsel'< -$rt(er. /30in t(e &ase o' sensible t(in)s bot( t(ese &onse8$en&es and ot(ers still #ore abs$rd 'ollo%. I'. t(en. t(ese &onse8$en&es are i#,ossible. &learly t(ere are not -or#s o' sensible t(in)s in t(e sense in %(i&( so#e #aintain t(eir e1isten&e. !5 Sin&e s$bstan&e is o' t%o inds. t(e &on&rete t(in) and t(e 'or#$la /I #ean t(at one ind o' s$bstan&e is t(e 'or#$la ta en %it( t(e #atter. %(ile anot(er ind is t(e 'or#$la in its )enerality0. s$bstan&es in t(e 'or#er sense are &a,able o' destr$&tion /'or t(ey are &a,able also o' )eneration0. b$t t(ere is no destr$&tion o' t(e 'or#$la in t(e sense t(at it is e+er in &o$rse o' bein) destroyed /'or t(ere is no )eneration o' it eit(er* t(e bein) o' (o$se is not )enerated. b$t only t(e bein) o' t(is (o$se0. b$t %it(o$t )eneration and destr$&tion 'or#$lae are and are not* 'or it (as been s(o%n t(at no one be)ets nor #a es t(ese. -or t(is reason. also. t(ere is neit(er de'inition o' nor de#onstration abo$t sensible indi+id$al s$bstan&es. be&a$se t(ey (a+e #atter %(ose nat$re is s$&( t(at t(ey are &a,able bot( o' bein) and o' not bein)* 'or %(i&( reason all t(e indi+id$al instan&es o' t(e# are destr$&tible. I' t(en de#onstration is o' ne&essary tr$t(s and de'inition is a s&ienti'i& ,ro&ess. and i'. 4$st as no%led)e &annot be so#eti#es no%led)e and so#eti#es

i)noran&e. b$t t(e state %(i&( +aries t($s is o,inion. so too de#onstration and de'inition &annot +ary t($s. b$t it is o,inion t(at deals %it( t(at %(i&( &an be ot(er%ise t(an as it is. &learly t(ere &an neit(er be de'inition o' nor de#onstration abo$t sensible indi+id$als. -or ,eris(in) t(in)s are obs&$re to t(ose %(o (a+e t(e rele+ant no%led)e. %(en t(ey (a+e ,assed 'ro# o$r ,er&e,tion* and t(o$)( t(e 'or#$lae re#ain in t(e so$l $n&(an)ed. t(ere %ill no lon)er be eit(er de'inition or de#onstration. And so %(en one o' t(e de'inition5#on)ers de'ines any indi+id$al. (e #$st re&o)ni6e t(at (is de'inition #ay al%ays be o+ert(ro%n* 'or it is not ,ossible to de'ine s$&( t(in)s. 2or is it ,ossible to de'ine any Idea. -or t(e Idea is. as its s$,,orters say. an indi+id$al. and &an e1ist a,art* and t(e 'or#$la #$st &onsist o' %ords* and (e %(o de'ines #$st not in+ent a %ord /'or it %o$ld be $n no%n0. b$t t(e establis(ed %ords are &o##on to all t(e #e#bers o' a &lass* t(ese t(en #$st a,,ly to so#et(in) besides t(e t(in) de'ined* e.). i' one %ere de'inin) yo$. (e %o$ld say 3an ani#al %(i&( is lean3 or 3,ale3. or so#et(in) else %(i&( %ill a,,ly also to so#e one ot(er t(an yo$. I' any one %ere to say t(at ,er(a,s all t(e attrib$tes ta en a,art #ay belon) to #any s$b4e&ts. b$t to)et(er t(ey belon) only to t(is one. %e #$st re,ly 'irst t(at t(ey belon) also to bot( t(e ele#ents* e.). 3t%o5'ooted ani#al3 belon)s to ani#al and to t(e t%o5'ooted. /And in t(e &ase o' eternal entities t(is is e+en ne&essary. sin&e t(e ele#ents are ,rior to and ,arts o' t(e &o#,o$nd* nay #ore. t(ey &an also e1ist a,art. i' 3#an3 &an e1ist a,art. -or eit(er neit(er or bot( &an. I'. t(en. neit(er &an. t(e )en$s %ill not e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e +ario$s s,e&ies* b$t i' it does. t(e di''erentia %ill also.0 Se&ondly. %e #$st re,ly t(at 3ani#al3 and 3t%o5'ooted3 are ,rior in bein) to 3t%o5'ooted ani#al3* and t(in)s %(i&( are ,rior to ot(ers are not destroyed %(en t(e ot(ers are. A)ain. i' t(e Ideas &onsist o' Ideas /as t(ey #$st. sin&e ele#ents are si#,ler t(an t(e &o#,o$nd0. it %ill be '$rt(er ne&essary t(at t(e ele#ents also o' %(i&( t(e Idea &onsists. e.). 3ani#al3 and 3t%o5'ooted3. s(o$ld be ,redi&ated o' #any s$b4e&ts. I' not. (o% %ill t(ey &o#e to be no%n< -or t(ere %ill t(en be an Idea %(i&( &annot be ,redi&ated o' #ore s$b4e&ts t(an one. B$t t(is is not t(o$)(t ,ossible5e+ery Idea is t(o$)(t to be &a,able o' bein) s(ared. As (as been said. t(en. t(e i#,ossibility o' de'inin) indi+id$als es&a,es noti&e in t(e &ase o' eternal t(in)s. es,e&ially t(ose %(i&( are $ni8$e. li e t(e s$n or t(e #oon. -or ,eo,le err not only by addin) attrib$tes %(ose re#o+al t(e s$n %o$ld s$r+i+e. e.). 3)oin) ro$nd t(e eart(3 or 3ni)(t5(idden3 /'or 'ro# t(eir +ie% it 'ollo%s t(at i' it stands still or is +isible. it %ill no lon)er be t(e s$n* b$t it is stran)e i' t(is is so* 'or 3t(e s$n3 #eans a &ertain s$bstan&e0* b$t also by t(e #ention o' attrib$tes %(i&( &an belon) to anot(er s$b4e&t* e.). i' anot(er t(in) %it( t(e stated attrib$tes &o#es into e1isten&e. &learly it %ill be a s$n* t(e 'or#$la t(ere'ore is )eneral. B$t t(e s$n %as s$,,osed to be an indi+id$al. li e Cleon or So&rates. A'ter all. %(y does not one o' t(e s$,,orters o' t(e Ideas ,rod$&e a de'inition o' an Idea< It %o$ld be&o#e &lear. i' t(ey tried. t(at %(at (as no% been said is tr$e. !@ E+idently e+en o' t(e t(in)s t(at are t(o$)(t to be s$bstan&es. #ost are only ,oten&ies.5bot( t(e ,arts o' ani#als /'or none o' t(e# e1ists se,arately* and %(en t(ey are se,arated. t(en too t(ey e1ist. all o' t(e#. #erely as #atter0 and eart( and 'ire and air* 'or none o' t(e# is a $nity. b$t as it %ere a #ere (ea,. till t(ey are %or ed $, and so#e $nity is #ade o$t o' t(e#. ;ne #i)(t #ost readily s$,,ose t(e ,arts o' li+in) t(in)s and t(e ,arts o' t(e so$l nearly related to t(e# to t$rn o$t to be bot(. i.e. e1istent in &o#,lete reality as %ell as in ,oten&y. be&a$se t(ey (a+e so$r&es o' #o+e#ent in so#et(in) in t(eir 4oints* 'or %(i&( reason so#e ani#als li+e %(en di+ided. Yet all

t(e ,arts #$st e1ist only ,otentially. %(en t(ey are one and &ontin$o$s by nat$re.5not by 'or&e or by )ro%in) into one. 'or s$&( a ,(eno#enon is an abnor#ality. Sin&e t(e ter# 3$nity3 is $sed li e t(e ter# 3bein)3. and t(e s$bstan&e o' t(at %(i&( is one is one. and t(in)s %(ose s$bstan&e is n$#eri&ally one are n$#eri&ally one. e+idently neit(er $nity nor bein) &an be t(e s$bstan&e o' t(in)s. 4$st as bein) an ele#ent or a ,rin&i,le &annot be t(e s$bstan&e. b$t %e as %(at. t(en. t(e ,rin&i,le is. t(at %e #ay red$&e t(e t(in) to so#et(in) #ore no%able. 2o% o' t(ese &on&e,ts 3bein)3 and 3$nity3 are #ore s$bstantial t(an 3,rin&i,le3 or 3ele#ent3 or 3&a$se3. b$t not e+en t(e 'or#er are s$bstan&e. sin&e in )eneral not(in) t(at is &o##on is s$bstan&e* 'or s$bstan&e does not belon) to anyt(in) b$t to itsel' and to t(at %(i&( (as it. o' %(i&( it is t(e s$bstan&e. -$rt(er. t(at %(i&( is one &annot be in #any ,la&es at t(e sa#e ti#e. b$t t(at %(i&( is &o##on is ,resent in #any ,la&es at t(e sa#e ti#e* so t(at &learly no $ni+ersal e1ists a,art 'ro# its indi+id$als. B$t t(ose %(o say t(e -or#s e1ist. in one res,e&t are ri)(t. in )i+in) t(e -or#s se,arate e1isten&e. i' t(ey are s$bstan&es* b$t in anot(er res,e&t t(ey are not ri)(t. be&a$se t(ey say t(e one o+er #any is a -or#. T(e reason 'or t(eir doin) t(is is t(at t(ey &annot de&lare %(at are t(e s$bstan&es o' t(is sort. t(e i#,eris(able s$bstan&es %(i&( e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e indi+id$al and sensible s$bstan&es. T(ey #a e t(e#. t(en. t(e sa#e in ind as t(e ,eris(able t(in)s /'or t(is ind o' s$bstan&e %e no%0553#an5(i#sel'3 and 3(orse5itsel'3. addin) to t(e sensible t(in)s t(e %ord 3itsel'3. Yet e+en i' %e (ad not seen t(e stars. none t(e less. I s$,,ose. %o$ld t(ey (a+e been eternal s$bstan&es a,art 'ro# t(ose %(i&( %e ne%* so t(at no% also i' %e do not no% %(at non5sensible s$bstan&es t(ere are. yet it is do$btless ne&essary t(at t(ere s(o$ld (e so#e.5Clearly. t(en. no $ni+ersal ter# is t(e na#e o' a s$bstan&e. and no s$bstan&e is &o#,osed o' s$bstan&es. !A "et $s state %(at. i.e. %(at ind o' t(in). s$bstan&e s(o$ld be said to be. ta in) on&e #ore anot(er startin)5,oint* 'or ,er(a,s 'ro# t(is %e s(all )et a &lear +ie% also o' t(at s$bstan&e %(i&( e1ists a,art 'ro# sensible s$bstan&es. Sin&e. t(en. s$bstan&e is a ,rin&i,le and a &a$se. let $s ,$rs$e it 'ro# t(is startin)5,oint. T(e 3%(y3 is al%ays so$)(t in t(is 'or#553%(y does one t(in) atta&( to so#e ot(er<3 -or to in8$ire %(y t(e #$si&al #an is a #$si&al #an. is eit(er to in8$ire55as %e (a+e said %(y t(e #an is #$si&al. or it is so#et(in) else. 2o% 3%(y a t(in) is itsel'3 is a #eanin)less in8$iry /'or /to )i+e #eanin) to t(e 8$estion 3%(y30 t(e 'a&t or t(e e1isten&e o' t(e t(in) #$st already be e+ident5e.). t(at t(e #oon is e&li,sed5b$t t(e 'a&t t(at a t(in) is itsel' is t(e sin)le reason and t(e sin)le &a$se to be )i+en in ans%er to all s$&( 8$estions as %(y t(e #an is #an. or t(e #$si&ian #$si&al3. $nless one %ere to ans%er 3be&a$se ea&( t(in) is inse,arable 'ro# itsel'. and its bein) one 4$st #eant t(is3* t(is. (o%e+er. is &o##on to all t(in)s and is a s(ort and easy %ay %it( t(e 8$estion0. B$t %e &an in8$ire %(y #an is an ani#al o' s$&( and s$&( a nat$re. T(is. t(en. is ,lain. t(at %e are not in8$irin) %(y (e %(o is a #an is a #an. We are in8$irin). t(en. %(y so#et(in) is ,redi&able o' so#et(in) /t(at it is ,redi&able #$st be &lear* 'or i' not. t(e in8$iry is an in8$iry into not(in)0. E.). %(y does it t($nder< T(is is t(e sa#e as 3%(y is so$nd ,rod$&ed in t(e &lo$ds<3 T($s t(e in8$iry is abo$t t(e ,redi&ation o' one t(in) o' anot(er. And %(y are t(ese t(in)s. i.e. bri& s and stones. a (o$se< Plainly %e are see in) t(e &a$se. And t(is is t(e essen&e /to s,ea abstra&tly0. %(i&( in so#e &ases is t(e end. e.). ,er(a,s in t(e &ase o' a (o$se or a bed. and in so#e &ases is t(e 'irst #o+er* 'or t(is also is a &a$se. B$t %(ile t(e e''i&ient &a$se is so$)(t in t(e &ase o' )enesis and destr$&tion. t(e 'inal &a$se is so$)(t in t(e &ase o' bein) also.

T(e ob4e&t o' t(e in8$iry is #ost easily o+erloo ed %(ere one ter# is not e1,ressly ,redi&ated o' anot(er /e.). %(en %e in8$ire 3%(at #an is30. be&a$se %e do not distin)$is( and do not say de'initely t(at &ertain ele#ents #a e $, a &ertain %(ole. B$t %e #$st arti&$late o$r #eanin) be'ore %e be)in to in8$ire* i' not. t(e in8$iry is on t(e border5line bet%een bein) a sear&( 'or so#et(in) and a sear&( 'or not(in). Sin&e %e #$st (a+e t(e e1isten&e o' t(e t(in) as so#et(in) )i+en. &learly t(e 8$estion is %(y t(e #atter is so#e de'inite t(in)* e.). %(y are t(ese #aterials a (o$se< Be&a$se t(at %(i&( %as t(e essen&e o' a (o$se is ,resent. And %(y is t(is indi+id$al t(in). or t(is body (a+in) t(is 'or#. a #an< T(ere'ore %(at %e see is t(e &a$se. i.e. t(e 'or#. by reason o' %(i&( t(e #atter is so#e de'inite t(in)* and t(is is t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e t(in). E+idently. t(en. in t(e &ase o' si#,le ter#s no in8$iry nor tea&(in) is ,ossible* o$r attit$de to%ards s$&( t(in)s is ot(er t(an t(at o' in8$iry. Sin&e t(at %(i&( is &o#,o$nded o$t o' so#et(in) so t(at t(e %(ole is one. not li e a (ea, b$t li e a syllable5no% t(e syllable is not its ele#ents. ba is not t(e sa#e as b and a. nor is 'les( 'ire and eart( /'or %(en t(ese are se,arated t(e %(oles. i.e. t(e 'les( and t(e syllable. no lon)er e1ist. b$t t(e ele#ents o' t(e syllable e1ist. and so do 'ire and eart(0* t(e syllable. t(en. is so#et(in)5not only its ele#ents /t(e +o%el and t(e &onsonant0 b$t also so#et(in) else. and t(e 'les( is not only 'ire and eart( or t(e (ot and t(e &old. b$t also so#et(in) else>5i'. t(en. t(at so#et(in) #$st itsel' be eit(er an ele#ent or &o#,osed o' ele#ents. /!0 i' it is an ele#ent t(e sa#e ar)$#ent %ill a)ain a,,ly* 'or 'les( %ill &onsist o' t(is and 'ire and eart( and so#et(in) still '$rt(er. so t(at t(e ,ro&ess %ill )o on to in'inity. B$t /70 i' it is a &o#,o$nd. &learly it %ill be a &o#,o$nd not o' one b$t o' #ore t(an one /or else t(at one %ill be t(e t(in) itsel'0. so t(at a)ain in t(is &ase %e &an $se t(e sa#e ar)$#ent as in t(e &ase o' 'les( or o' t(e syllable. B$t it %o$ld see# t(at t(is 3ot(er3 is so#et(in). and not an ele#ent. and t(at it is t(e &a$se %(i&( #a es t(is t(in) 'les( and t(at a syllable. And si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. And t(is is t(e s$bstan&e o' ea&( t(in) /'or t(is is t(e ,ri#ary &a$se o' its bein)0* and sin&e. %(ile so#e t(in)s are not s$bstan&es. as #any as are s$bstan&es are 'or#ed in a&&ordan&e %it( a nat$re o' t(eir o%n and by a ,ro&ess o' nat$re. t(eir s$bstan&e %o$ld see# to be t(is ind o' 3nat$re3. %(i&( is not an ele#ent b$t a ,rin&i,le. An ele#ent. on t(e ot(er (and. is t(at into %(i&( a t(in) is di+ided and %(i&( is ,resent in it as #atter* e.). a and b are t(e ele#ents o' t(e syllable. Boo EIII ! WE #$st re& on $, t(e res$lts arisin) 'ro# %(at (as been said. and &o#,$te t(e s$# o' t(e#. and ,$t t(e 'inis(in) to$&( to o$r in8$iry. We (a+e said t(at t(e &a$ses. ,rin&i,les. and ele#ents o' s$bstan&es are t(e ob4e&t o' o$r sear&(. And so#e s$bstan&es are re&o)ni6ed by e+ery one. b$t so#e (a+e been ad+o&ated by ,arti&$lar s&(ools. T(ose )enerally re&o)ni6ed are t(e nat$ral s$bstan&es. i.e. 'ire. eart(. %ater. air. J&.. t(e si#,le bodies* se&ond ,lants and t(eir ,arts. and ani#als and t(e ,arts o' ani#als* and 'inally t(e ,(ysi&al $ni+erse and its ,arts* %(ile so#e ,arti&$lar s&(ools say t(at -or#s and t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s are s$bstan&es. B$t t(ere are ar)$#ents %(i&( lead to t(e &on&l$sion t(at t(ere are ot(er s$bstan&es. t(e essen&e and t(e s$bstrat$#. A)ain. in anot(er %ay t(e )en$s see#s #ore s$bstantial t(an t(e +ario$s s,&&ies. and t(e $ni+ersal t(an t(e ,arti&$lars. And %it( t(e $ni+ersal and t(e )en$s t(e Ideas are &onne&ted* it is in +irt$e o' t(e sa#e ar)$#ent t(at t(ey are t(o$)(t to be s$bstan&es. And sin&e t(e essen&e is s$bstan&e. and t(e de'inition is a 'or#$la o' t(e essen&e. 'or t(is reason %e (a+e dis&$ssed de'inition and essential ,redi&ation. Sin&e t(e de'inition is a 'or#$la. and a 'or#$la (as ,arts. %e (ad to &onsider also %it( res,e&t to t(e notion o' 3,art3. %(at are ,arts o' t(e s$bstan&e and

%(at are not. and %(et(er t(e ,arts o' t(e s$bstan&e are also ,arts o' t(e de'inition. -$rt(er. too. neit(er t(e $ni+ersal nor t(e )en$s is a s$bstan&e* %e #$st in8$ire later into t(e Ideas and t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s* 'or so#e say t(ese are s$bstan&es as %ell as t(e sensible s$bstan&es. B$t no% let $s res$#e t(e dis&$ssion o' t(e )enerally re&o)ni6ed s$bstan&es. T(ese are t(e sensible s$bstan&es. and sensible s$bstan&es all (a+e #atter. T(e s$bstrat$# is s$bstan&e. and t(is is in one sense t(e #atter /and by #atter I #ean t(at %(i&(. not bein) a 3t(is3 a&t$ally. is ,otentially a 3t(is30. and in anot(er sense t(e 'or#$la or s(a,e /t(at %(i&( bein) a 3t(is3 &an be se,arately 'or#$lated0. and t(irdly t(e &o#,le1 o' t(ese t%o. %(i&( alone is )enerated and destroyed. and is. %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. &a,able o' se,arate e1isten&e* 'or o' s$bstan&es &o#,letely e1,ressible in a 'or#$la so#e are se,arable and so#e are se,arable and so#e are not. B$t &learly #atter also is s$bstan&e* 'or in all t(e o,,osite &(an)es t(at o&&$r t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( $nderlies t(e &(an)es. e.). in res,e&t o' ,la&e t(at %(i&( is no% (ere and a)ain else%(ere. and in res,e&t o' in&rease t(at %(i&( is no% o' one si6e and a)ain less or )reater. and in res,e&t o' alteration t(at %(i&( is no% (ealt(y and a)ain diseased* and si#ilarly in res,e&t o' s$bstan&e t(ere is so#et(in) t(at is no% bein) )enerated and a)ain bein) destroyed. and no% $nderlies t(e ,ro&ess as a 3t(is3 and a)ain $nderlies it in res,e&t o' a ,ri+ation o' ,ositi+e &(ara&ter. And in t(is &(an)e t(e ot(ers are in+ol+ed. B$t in eit(er one or t%o o' t(e ot(ers t(is is not in+ol+ed* 'or it is not ne&essary i' a t(in) (as #atter 'or &(an)e o' ,la&e t(at it s(o$ld also (a+e #atter 'or )eneration and destr$&tion. T(e di''eren&e bet%een be&o#in) in t(e '$ll sense and be&o#in) in a 8$ali'ied sense (as been stated in o$r ,(ysi&al %or s. 7 Sin&e t(e s$bstan&e %(i&( e1ists as $nderlyin) and as #atter is )enerally re&o)ni6ed. and t(is t(at %(i&( e1ists ,otentially. it re#ains 'or $s to say %(at is t(e s$bstan&e. in t(e sense o' a&t$ality. o' sensible t(in)s. De#o&rit$s see#s to t(in t(ere are t(ree inds o' di''eren&e bet%een t(in)s* t(e $nderlyin) body. t(e #atter. is one and t(e sa#e. b$t t(ey di''er eit(er in r(yt(#. i.e. s(a,e. or in t$rnin). i.e. ,osition. or in inter5&onta&t. i.e. order. B$t e+idently t(ere are #any di''eren&es* 'or instan&e. so#e t(in)s are &(ara&teri6ed by t(e #ode o' &o#,osition o' t(eir #atter. e.). t(e t(in)s 'or#ed by blendin). s$&( as (oney5%ater* and ot(ers by bein) bo$nd to)et(er. e.). b$ndle* and ot(ers by bein) )l$ed to)et(er. e.). a boo * and ot(ers by bein) nailed to)et(er. e.). a &as et* and ot(ers in #ore t(an one o' t(ese %ays* and ot(ers by ,osition. e.). t(res(old and lintel /'or t(ese di''er by bein) ,la&ed in a &ertain %ay0* and ot(ers by ti#e. e.). dinner and brea 'ast* and ot(ers by ,la&e. e.). t(e %inds* and ot(ers by t(e a''e&tions ,ro,er to sensible t(in)s. e.). (ardness and so'tness. density and rarity. dryness and %etness* and so#e t(in)s by so#e o' t(ese 8$alities. ot(ers by t(e# all. and in )eneral so#e by e1&ess and so#e by de'e&t. Clearly. t(en. t(e %ord 3is3 (as 4$st as #any #eanin)s* a t(in) is a t(res(old be&a$se it lies in s$&( and s$&( a ,osition. and its bein) #eans its lyin) in t(at ,osition. %(ile bein) i&e #eans (a+in) been solidi'ied in s$&( and s$&( a %ay. And t(e bein) o' so#e t(in)s %ill be de'ined by all t(ese 8$alities. be&a$se so#e ,arts o' t(e# are #i1ed. ot(ers are blended. ot(ers are bo$nd to)et(er. ot(ers are solidi'ied. and ot(ers $se t(e ot(er di''erentiae* e.). t(e (and or t(e 'oot re8$ires s$&( &o#,le1 de'inition. We #$st )ras,. t(en. t(e inds o' di''erentiae /'or t(ese %ill be t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(e bein) o' t(in)s0. e.). t(e t(in)s &(ara&teri6ed by t(e #ore and t(e less. or by t(e dense and t(e rare. and by ot(er s$&( 8$alities* 'or all t(ese are 'or#s o' e1&ess and de'e&t. And anyt(in) t(at is &(ara&teri6ed by s(a,e or by s#oot(ness and ro$)(ness is &(ara&teri6ed

by t(e strai)(t and t(e &$r+ed. And 'or ot(er t(in)s t(eir bein) %ill #ean t(eir bein) #i1ed. and t(eir not bein) %ill #ean t(e o,,osite. It is &lear. t(en. 'ro# t(ese 'a&ts t(at. sin&e its s$bstan&e is t(e &a$se o' ea&( t(in)3s bein). %e #$st see in t(ese di''erentiae %(at is t(e &a$se o' t(e bein) o' ea&( o' t(ese t(in)s. 2o% none o' t(ese di''erentiae is s$bstan&e. e+en %(en &o$,led %it( #atter. yet it is %(at is analo)o$s to s$bstan&e in ea&( &ase* and as in s$bstan&es t(at %(i&( is ,redi&ated o' t(e #atter is t(e a&t$ality itsel'. in all ot(er de'initions also it is %(at #ost rese#bles '$ll a&t$ality. E.). i' %e (ad to de'ine a t(res(old. %e s(o$ld say 3%ood or stone in s$&( and s$&( a ,osition3. and a (o$se %e s(o$ld de'ine as 3bri& s and ti#bers in s$&( and s$&( a ,osition3./or a ,$r,ose #ay e1ist as %ell in so#e &ases0. and i' %e (ad to de'ine i&e %e s(o$ld say 3%ater 'ro6en or solidi'ied in s$&( and s$&( a %ay3. and (ar#ony is 3s$&( and s$&( a blendin) o' (i)( and lo%3* and si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. ;b+io$sly. t(en. t(e a&t$ality or t(e 'or#$la is di''erent %(en t(e #atter is di''erent* 'or in so#e &ases it is t(e &o#,osition. in ot(ers t(e #i1in). and in ot(ers so#e ot(er o' t(e attrib$tes %e (a+e na#ed. And so. o' t(e ,eo,le %(o )o in 'or de'inin). t(ose %(o de'ine a (o$se as stones. bri& s. and ti#bers are s,ea in) o' t(e ,otential (o$se. 'or t(ese are t(e #atter* b$t t(ose %(o ,ro,ose 3a re&e,ta&le to s(elter &(attels and li+in) bein)s3. or so#et(in) o' t(e sort. s,ea o' t(e a&t$ality. T(ose %(o &o#bine bot( o' t(ese s,ea o' t(e t(ird ind o' s$bstan&e. %(i&( is &o#,osed o' #atter and 'or# /'or t(e 'or#$la t(at )i+es t(e di''erentiae see#s to be an a&&o$nt o' t(e 'or# or a&t$ality. %(ile t(at %(i&( )i+es t(e &o#,onents is rat(er an a&&o$nt o' t(e #atter0* and t(e sa#e is tr$e o' t(e ind o' de'initions %(i&( Ar&(ytas $sed to a&&e,t* t(ey are a&&o$nts o' t(e &o#bined 'or# and #atter. E.). %(at is still %eat(er< Absen&e o' #otion in a lar)e e1,anse o' air* air is t(e #atter. and absen&e o' #otion is t(e a&t$ality and s$bstan&e. W(at is a &al#< S#oot(ness o' sea* t(e #aterial s$bstrat$# is t(e sea. and t(e a&t$ality or s(a,e is s#oot(ness. It is ob+io$s t(en. 'ro# %(at (as been said. %(at sensible s$bstan&e is and (o% it e1ists5one ind o' it as #atter. anot(er as 'or# or a&t$ality. %(ile t(e t(ird ind is t(at %(i&( is &o#,osed o' t(ese t%o. 3 We #$st not 'ail to noti&e t(at so#eti#es it is not &lear %(et(er a na#e #eans t(e &o#,osite s$bstan&e. or t(e a&t$ality or 'or#. e.). %(et(er 3(o$se3 is a si)n 'or t(e &o#,osite t(in). 3a &o+erin) &onsistin) o' bri& s and stones laid t($s and t($s3. or 'or t(e a&t$ality or 'or#. 3a &o+erin)3. and %(et(er a line is 3t%oness in len)t(3 or 3t%oness3. and %(et(er an ani#al is so$l in a body3 or 3a so$l3* 'or so$l is t(e s$bstan&e or a&t$ality o' so#e body. 3Ani#al3 #i)(t e+en be a,,lied to bot(. not as so#et(in) de'inable by one 'or#$la. b$t as related to a sin)le t(in). B$t t(is 8$estion. %(ile i#,ortant 'or anot(er ,$r,ose. is o' no i#,ortan&e 'or t(e in8$iry into sensible s$bstan&e* 'or t(e essen&e &ertainly atta&(es to t(e 'or# and t(e a&t$ality. -or 3so$l3 and 3to be so$l3 are t(e sa#e. b$t 3to be #an3 and 3#an3 are not t(e sa#e. $nless e+en t(e bare so$l is to be &alled #an* and t($s on one inter,retation t(e t(in) is t(e sa#e as its essen&e. and on anot(er it is not. I' %e e1a#ine %e 'ind t(at t(e syllable does not &onsist o' t(e letters G 4$1ta,osition. nor is t(e (o$se bri& s G 4$1ta,osition. And t(is is ri)(t* 'or t(e 4$1ta,osition or #i1in) does not &onsist o' t(ose t(in)s o' %(i&( it is t(e 4$1ta,osition or #i1in). And t(e sa#e is tr$e in all ot(er &ases* e.). i' t(e t(res(old is &(ara&teri6ed by its ,osition. t(e ,osition is not &onstit$ted by t(e t(res(old. b$t rat(er t(e latter is &onstit$ted by t(e 'or#er. 2or is #an ani#al G bi,ed. b$t t(ere #$st be so#et(in) besides t(ese. i' t(ese are #atter.5so#et(in) %(i&( is neit(er an ele#ent in t(e %(ole

nor a &o#,o$nd. b$t is t(e s$bstan&e* b$t t(is ,eo,le eli#inate. and state only t(e #atter. I'. t(en. t(is is t(e &a$se o' t(e t(in)3s bein). and i' t(e &a$se o' its bein) is its s$bstan&e. t(ey %ill not be statin) t(e s$bstan&e itsel'. /T(is. t(en. #$st eit(er be eternal or it #$st be destr$&tible %it(o$t bein) e+er in &o$rse o' bein) destroyed. and #$st (a+e &o#e to be %it(o$t e+er bein) in &o$rse o' &o#in) to be. B$t it (as been ,ro+ed and e1,lained else%(ere t(at no one #a es or be)ets t(e 'or#. b$t it is t(e indi+id$al t(at is #ade. i.e. t(e &o#,le1 o' 'or# and #atter t(at is )enerated. W(et(er t(e s$bstan&es o' destr$&tible t(in)s &an e1ist a,art. is not yet at all &lear* e1&e,t t(at ob+io$sly t(is is i#,ossible in so#e &ases5in t(e &ase o' t(in)s %(i&( &annot e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e indi+id$al instan&es. e.). (o$se or $tensil. Per(a,s. indeed. neit(er t(ese t(in)s t(e#sel+es. nor any o' t(e ot(er t(in)s %(i&( are not 'or#ed by nat$re. are s$bstan&es at all* 'or one #i)(t say t(at t(e nat$re in nat$ral ob4e&ts is t(e only s$bstan&e to be 'o$nd in destr$&tible t(in)s.0 T(ere'ore t(e di''i&$lty %(i&( $sed to be raised by t(e s&(ool o' Antist(enes and ot(er s$&( $ned$&ated ,eo,le (as a &ertain ti#eliness. T(ey said t(at t(e 3%(at3 &annot be de'ined /'or t(e de'inition so &alled is a 3lon) ri)#arole30 b$t o' %(at sort a t(in). e.). sil+er. is. t(ey t(o$)(t it ,ossible a&t$ally to e1,lain. not sayin) %(at it is. b$t t(at it is li e tin. T(ere'ore one ind o' s$bstan&e &an be de'ined and 'or#$lated. i.e. t(e &o#,osite ind. %(et(er it be ,er&e,tible or intelli)ible* b$t t(e ,ri#ary ,arts o' %(i&( t(is &onsists &annot be de'ined. sin&e a de'initory 'or#$la ,redi&ates so#et(in) o' so#et(in). and one ,art o' t(e de'inition #$st ,lay t(e ,art o' #atter and t(e ot(er t(at o' 'or#. It is also ob+io$s t(at. i' s$bstan&es are in a sense n$#bers. t(ey are so in t(is sense and not. as so#e say. as n$#bers o' $nits. -or a de'inition is a sort o' n$#ber* 'or /!0 it is di+isible. and into indi+isible ,arts /'or de'initory 'or#$lae are not in'inite0. and n$#ber also is o' t(is nat$re. And /70 as. %(en one o' t(e ,arts o' %(i&( a n$#ber &onsists (as been ta en 'ro# or added to t(e n$#ber. it is no lon)er t(e sa#e n$#ber. b$t a di''erent one. e+en i' it is t(e +ery s#allest ,art t(at (as been ta en a%ay or added. so t(e de'inition and t(e essen&e %ill no lon)er re#ain %(en anyt(in) (as been ta en a%ay or added. And /30 t(e n$#ber #$st be so#et(in) in +irt$e o' %(i&( it is one. and t(is t(ese t(in ers &annot state. %(at #a es it one. i' it is one /'or eit(er it is not one b$t a sort o' (ea,. or i' it is. %e o$)(t to say %(at it is t(at #a es one o$t o' #any0* and t(e de'inition is one. b$t si#ilarly t(ey &annot say %(at #a es it one. And t(is is a nat$ral res$lt* 'or t(e sa#e reason is a,,li&able. and s$bstan&e is one in t(e sense %(i&( %e (a+e e1,lained. and not. as so#e say. by bein) a sort o' $nit or ,oint* ea&( is a &o#,lete reality and a de'inite nat$re. And /=0 as n$#ber does not ad#it o' t(e #ore and t(e less. neit(er does s$bstan&e. in t(e sense o' 'or#. b$t i' any s$bstan&e does. it is only t(e s$bstan&e %(i&( in+ol+es #atter. "et t(is. t(en. s$''i&e 'or an a&&o$nt o' t(e )eneration and destr$&tion o' so5&alled s$bstan&es in %(at sense it is ,ossible and in %(at sense i#,ossible55and o' t(e red$&tion o' t(in)s to n$#ber. = Re)ardin) #aterial s$bstan&e %e #$st not 'or)et t(at e+en i' all t(in)s &o#e 'ro# t(e sa#e 'irst &a$se or (a+e t(e sa#e t(in)s 'or t(eir 'irst &a$ses. and i' t(e sa#e #atter ser+es as startin)5,oint 'or t(eir )eneration. yet t(ere is a #atter ,ro,er to ea&(. e.). 'or ,(le)# t(e s%eet or t(e 'at. and 'or bile t(e bitter. or so#et(in) else* t(o$)( ,er(a,s t(ese &o#e 'ro# t(e sa#e ori)inal #atter. And t(ere &o#e to be se+eral #atters 'or t(e sa#e t(in). %(en t(e one #atter is #atter 'or t(e ot(er* e.). ,(le)# &o#es 'ro# t(e 'at and 'ro# t(e s%eet. i' t(e 'at &o#es 'ro# t(e s%eet* and it &o#es 'ro# bile by analysis o' t(e bile into its $lti#ate #atter. -or one t(in)

&o#es 'ro# anot(er in t%o senses. eit(er be&a$se it %ill be 'o$nd at a later sta)e. or be&a$se it is ,rod$&ed i' t(e ot(er is analysed into its ori)inal &onstit$ents. W(en t(e #atter is one. di''erent t(in)s #ay be ,rod$&ed o%in) to di''eren&e in t(e #o+in) &a$se* e.). 'ro# %ood #ay be #ade bot( a &(est and a bed. B$t so#e di''erent t(in)s #$st (a+e t(eir #atter di''erent* e.). a sa% &o$ld not be #ade o' %ood. nor is t(is in t(e ,o%er o' t(e #o+in) &a$se* 'or it &o$ld not #a e a sa% o' %ool or o' %ood. B$t i'. as a #atter o' 'a&t. t(e sa#e t(in) &an be #ade o' di''erent #aterial. &learly t(e art. i.e. t(e #o+in) ,rin&i,le. is t(e sa#e* 'or i' bot( t(e #atter and t(e #o+in) &a$se %ere di''erent. t(e ,rod$&t %o$ld be so too. W(en one in8$ires into t(e &a$se o' so#et(in). one s(o$ld. sin&e 3&a$ses3 are s,o en o' in se+eral senses. state all t(e ,ossible &a$ses. %(at is t(e #aterial &a$se o' #an< S(all %e say 3t(e #enstr$al 'l$id3< W(at is #o+in) &a$se< S(all %e say 3t(e seed3< T(e 'or#al &a$se< His essen&e. T(e 'inal &a$se< His end. B$t ,er(a,s t(e latter t%o are t(e sa#e.5It is t(e ,ro1i#ate &a$ses %e #$st state. W(at is t(e #aterial &a$se< We #$st na#e not 'ire or eart(. b$t t(e #atter ,e&$liar to t(e t(in). Re)ardin) t(e s$bstan&es t(at are nat$ral and )enerable. i' t(e &a$ses are really t(ese and o' t(is n$#ber and %e (a+e to learn t(e &a$ses. %e #$st in8$ire t($s. i' %e are to in8$ire ri)(tly. B$t in t(e &ase o' nat$ral b$t eternal s$bstan&es anot(er a&&o$nt #$st be )i+en. -or ,er(a,s so#e (a+e no #atter. or not #atter o' t(is sort b$t only s$&( as &an be #o+ed in res,e&t o' ,la&e. 2or does #atter belon) to t(ose t(in)s %(i&( e1ist by nat$re b$t are not s$bstan&es* t(eir s$bstrat$# is t(e s$bstan&e. E.) %(at is t(e &a$se o' e&li,se< W(at is its #atter< T(ere is none* t(e #oon is t(at %(i&( s$''ers e&li,se. W(at is t(e #o+in) &a$se %(i&( e1tin)$is(ed t(e li)(t< T(e eart(. T(e 'inal &a$se ,er(a,s does not e1ist. T(e 'or#al ,rin&i,le is t(e de'initory 'or#$la. b$t t(is is obs&$re i' it does not in&l$de t(e &a$se. E.). %(at is e&li,se< De,ri+ation o' li)(t. B$t i' %e add 3by t(e eart(3s &o#in) in bet%een3. t(is is t(e 'or#$la %(i&( in&l$des t(e &a$se. In t(e &ase o' slee, it is not &lear %(at it is t(at ,ro1i#ately (as t(is a''e&tion. S(all %e say t(at it is t(e ani#al< Yes. b$t t(e ani#al in +irt$e o' %(at. i.e. %(at is t(e ,ro1i#ate s$b4e&t< T(e (eart or so#e ot(er ,art. 2e1t. by %(at is it ,rod$&ed< 2e1t. %(at is t(e a''e&tion5t(at o' t(e ,ro1i#ate s$b4e&t. not o' t(e %(ole ani#al< S(all %e say t(at it is i##obility o' s$&( and s$&( a ind< Yes. b$t to %(at ,ro&ess in t(e ,ro1i#ate s$b4e&t is t(is d$e< 5 Sin&e so#e t(in)s are and are not. %it(o$t &o#in) to be and &easin) to be. e.). ,oints. i' t(ey &an be said to be. and in )eneral 'or#s /'or it is not 3%(ite3 &o#es to be. b$t t(e %ood &o#es to be %(ite. i' e+eryt(in) t(at &o#es to be &o#es 'ro# so#et(in) and &o#es to be so#et(in)0. not all &ontraries &an &o#e 'ro# one anot(er. b$t it is in di''erent senses t(at a ,ale #an &o#es 'ro# a dar #an. and ,ale &o#es 'ro# dar . 2or (as e+eryt(in) #atter. b$t only t(ose t(in)s %(i&( &o#e to be and &(an)e into one anot(er. T(ose t(in)s %(i&(. %it(o$t e+er bein) in &o$rse o' &(an)in). are or are not. (a+e no #atter. T(ere is di''i&$lty in t(e 8$estion (o% t(e #atter o' ea&( t(in) is related to its &ontrary states. E.). i' t(e body is ,otentially (ealt(y. and disease is &ontrary to (ealt(. is it ,otentially bot( (ealt(y and diseased< And is %ater ,otentially %ine and +ine)ar< We ans%er t(at it is t(e #atter o' one in +irt$e o' its ,ositi+e state and its 'or#. and o' t(e ot(er in +irt$e o' t(e ,ri+ation o' its ,ositi+e state and t(e &orr$,tion o' it &ontrary to its nat$re. It is also (ard to say %(y %ine is not said to be t(e #atter o' +ine)ar nor ,otentially +ine)ar /t(o$)( +ine)ar is ,rod$&ed 'ro# it0. and %(y a li+in) #an is not said to be ,otentially dead. In 'a&t t(ey are not. b$t t(e &orr$,tions in 8$estion are a&&idental. and it is t(e

#atter o' t(e ani#al t(at is itsel' in +irt$e o' its &orr$,tion t(e ,oten&y and #atter o' a &or,se. and it is %ater t(at is t(e #atter o' +ine)ar. -or t(e &or,se &o#es 'ro# t(e ani#al. and +ine)ar 'ro# %ine. as ni)(t 'ro# day. And all t(e t(in)s %(i&( &(an)e t($s into one anot(er #$st )o ba& to t(eir #atter* e.). i' 'ro# a &or,se is ,rod$&ed an ani#al. t(e &or,se 'irst )oes ba& to its #atter. and only t(en be&o#es an ani#al* and +ine)ar 'irst )oes ba& to %ater. and only t(en be&o#es %ine. @ To ret$rn to t(e di''i&$lty %(i&( (as been stated %it( res,e&t bot( to de'initions and to n$#bers. %(at is t(e &a$se o' t(eir $nity< In t(e &ase o' all t(in)s %(i&( (a+e se+eral ,arts and in %(i&( t(e totality is not. as it %ere. a #ere (ea,. b$t t(e %(ole is so#et(in) beside t(e ,arts. t(ere is a &a$se* 'or e+en in bodies &onta&t is t(e &a$se o' $nity in so#e &ases. and in ot(ers +is&osity or so#e ot(er s$&( 8$ality. And a de'inition is a set o' %ords %(i&( is one not by bein) &onne&ted to)et(er. li e t(e Iliad. b$t by dealin) %it( one ob4e&t.5W(at t(en. is it t(at #a es #an one* %(y is (e one and not #any. e.). ani#al G bi,ed. es,e&ially i' t(ere are. as so#e say. an ani#al5itsel' and a bi,ed5itsel'< W(y are not t(ose -or#s t(e#sel+es t(e #an. so t(at #en %o$ld e1ist by ,arti&i,ation not in #an. nor in5one -or#. b$t in t%o. ani#al and bi,ed. and in )eneral #an %o$ld be not one b$t #ore t(an one t(in). ani#al and bi,ed< Clearly. t(en. i' ,eo,le ,ro&eed t($s in t(eir $s$al #anner o' de'inition and s,ee&(. t(ey &annot e1,lain and sol+e t(e di''i&$lty. B$t i'. as %e say. one ele#ent is #atter and anot(er is 'or#. and one is ,otentially and t(e ot(er a&t$ally. t(e 8$estion %ill no lon)er be t(o$)(t a di''i&$lty. -or t(is di''i&$lty is t(e sa#e as %o$ld arise i' 3ro$nd bron6e3 %ere t(e de'inition o' 3&loa 3* 'or t(is %ord %o$ld be a si)n o' t(e de'initory 'or#$la. so t(at t(e 8$estion is. %(at is t(e &a$se o' t(e $nity o' 3ro$nd3 and 3bron6e3< T(e di''i&$lty disa,,ears. be&a$se t(e one is #atter. t(e ot(er 'or#. W(at. t(en. &a$ses t(is5t(at %(i&( %as ,otentially to be a&t$ally5e1&e,t. in t(e &ase o' t(in)s %(i&( are )enerated. t(e a)ent< -or t(ere is no ot(er &a$se o' t(e ,otential s,(ere3s be&o#in) a&t$ally a s,(ere. b$t t(is %as t(e essen&e o' eit(er. ;' #atter so#e is intelli)ible. so#e ,er&e,tible. and in a 'or#$la t(ere is al%ays an ele#ent o' #atter as %ell as one o' a&t$ality* e.). t(e &ir&le is 3a ,lane 'i)$re3. B$t o' t(e t(in)s %(i&( (a+e no #atter. eit(er intelli)ible or ,er&e,tible. ea&( is by its nat$re essentially a ind o' $nity. as it is essentially a ind o' bein)5indi+id$al s$bstan&e. 8$ality. or 8$antity /and so neit(er 3e1istent3 nor 3one3 is ,resent in t(eir de'initions0. and t(e essen&e o' ea&( o' t(e# is by its +ery nat$re a ind o' $nity as it is a ind o' bein)5and so none o' t(ese (as any reason o$tside itsel'. 'or bein) one. nor 'or bein) a ind o' bein)* 'or ea&( is by its nat$re a ind o' bein) and a ind o' $nity. not as bein) in t(e )en$s 3bein)3 or 3one3 nor in t(e sense t(at bein) and $nity &an e1ist a,art 'ro# ,arti&$lars. ;%in) to t(e di''i&$lty abo$t $nity so#e s,ea o' 3,arti&i,ation3. and raise t(e 8$estion. %(at is t(e &a$se o' ,arti&i,ation and %(at is it to ,arti&i,ate* and ot(ers s,ea o' 3&o##$nion3. as "y&o,(ron says no%led)e is a &o##$nion o' no%in) %it( t(e so$l* and ot(ers say li'e is a 3&o#,osition3 or 3&onne1ion3 o' so$l %it( body. Yet t(e sa#e a&&o$nt a,,lies to all &ases* 'or bein) (ealt(y. too. %ill on t(is s(o%in) be eit(er a 3&o##$nion3 or a 3&onne1ion3 or a 3&o#,osition3 o' so$l and (ealt(. and t(e 'a&t t(at t(e bron6e is a trian)le %ill be a 3&o#,osition3 o' bron6e and trian)le. and t(e 'a&t t(at a t(in) is %(ite %ill be a 3&o#,osition3 o' s$r'a&e and %(iteness. T(e reason is t(at ,eo,le loo 'or a $ni'yin) 'or#$la. and a di''eren&e. bet%een ,oten&y and &o#,lete reality. B$t. as (as been said. t(e ,ro1i#ate #atter and t(e 'or# are one and t(e sa#e t(in). t(e one ,otentially. and t(e ot(er a&t$ally. T(ere'ore it is li e as in)

%(at in )eneral is t(e &a$se o' $nity and o' a t(in)3s bein) one* 'or ea&( t(in) is a $nity. and t(e ,otential and t(e a&t$al are so#e(o% one. T(ere'ore t(ere is no ot(er &a$se (ere $nless t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( &a$sed t(e #o+e#ent 'ro# ,oten&y into a&t$ality. And all t(in)s %(i&( (a+e no #atter are %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation essentially $nities. Boo I? ! WE (a+e treated o' t(at %(i&( is ,ri#arily and to %(i&( all t(e ot(er &ate)ories o' bein) are re'erred5i.e. o' s$bstan&e. -or it is in +irt$e o' t(e &on&e,t o' s$bstan&e t(at t(e ot(ers also are said to be58$antity and 8$ality and t(e li e* 'or all %ill be 'o$nd to in+ol+e t(e &on&e,t o' s$bstan&e. as %e said in t(e 'irst ,art o' o$r %or . And sin&e 3bein)3 is in one %ay di+ided into indi+id$al t(in). 8$ality. and 8$antity. and is in anot(er %ay distin)$is(ed in res,e&t o' ,oten&y and &o#,lete reality. and o' '$n&tion. let $s no% add a dis&$ssion o' ,oten&y and &o#,lete reality. And 'irst let $s e1,lain ,oten&y in t(e stri&test sense. %(i&( is. (o%e+er. not t(e #ost $se'$l 'or o$r ,resent ,$r,ose. -or ,oten&y and a&t$ality e1tend beyond t(e &ases t(at in+ol+e a re'eren&e to #otion. B$t %(en %e (a+e s,o en o' t(is 'irst ind. %e s(all in o$r dis&$ssions o' a&t$ality3 e1,lain t(e ot(er inds o' ,oten&y as %ell. We (a+e ,ointed o$t else%(ere t(at 3,oten&y3 and t(e %ord 3&an3 (a+e se+eral senses. ;' t(ese %e #ay ne)le&t all t(e ,oten&ies t(at are so &alled by an e8$i+o&ation. -or so#e are &alled so by analo)y. as in )eo#etry %e say one t(in) is or is not a 3,o%er3 o' anot(er by +irt$e o' t(e ,resen&e or absen&e o' so#e relation bet%een t(e#. B$t all ,oten&ies t(at &on'or# to t(e sa#e ty,e are ori)inati+e so$r&es o' so#e ind. and are &alled ,oten&ies in re'eren&e to one ,ri#ary ind o' ,oten&y. %(i&( is an ori)inati+e so$r&e o' &(an)e in anot(er t(in) or in t(e t(in) itsel' 8$a ot(er. -or one ind is a ,oten&y o' bein) a&ted on. i.e. t(e ori)inati+e so$r&e. in t(e +ery t(in) a&ted on. o' its bein) ,assi+ely &(an)ed by anot(er t(in) or by itsel' 8$a ot(er* and anot(er ind is a state o' ins$s&e,tibility to &(an)e 'or t(e %orse and to destr$&tion by anot(er t(in) or by t(e t(in) itsel' 8$a ot(er by +irt$e o' an ori)inati+e so$r&e o' &(an)e. In all t(ese de'initions is i#,lied t(e 'or#$la i' ,oten&y in t(e ,ri#ary sense.5And a)ain t(ese so5&alled ,oten&ies are ,oten&ies eit(er o' #erely a&tin) or bein) a&ted on. or o' a&tin) or bein) a&ted on %ell. so t(at e+en in t(e 'or#$lae o' t(e latter t(e 'or#$lae o' t(e ,rior inds o' ,oten&y are so#e(o% i#,lied. ;b+io$sly. t(en. in a sense t(e ,oten&y o' a&tin) and o' bein) a&ted on is one /'or a t(in) #ay be 3&a,able3 eit(er be&a$se it &an itsel' be a&ted on or be&a$se so#et(in) else &an be a&ted on by it0. b$t in a sense t(e ,oten&ies are di''erent. -or t(e one is in t(e t(in) a&ted on* it is be&a$se it &ontains a &ertain ori)inati+e so$r&e. and be&a$se e+en t(e #atter is an ori)inati+e so$r&e. t(at t(e t(in) a&ted on is a&ted on. and one t(in) by one. anot(er by anot(er* 'or t(at %(i&( is oily &an be b$rnt. and t(at %(i&( yields in a ,arti&$lar %ay &an be &r$s(ed* and si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. B$t t(e ot(er ,oten&y is in t(e a)ent. e.). (eat and t(e art o' b$ildin) are ,resent. one in t(at %(i&( &an ,rod$&e (eat and t(e ot(er in t(e #an %(o &an b$ild. And so. in so 'ar as a t(in) is an or)ani& $nity. it &annot be a&ted on by itsel'* 'or it is one and not t%o di''erent t(in)s. And 3i#,oten&e3and 3i#,otent3 stand 'or t(e ,ri+ation %(i&( is &ontrary to ,oten&y o' t(is sort. so t(at e+ery ,oten&y belon)s to t(e sa#e s$b4e&t and re'ers to t(e sa#e ,ro&ess as a &orres,ondin) i#,oten&e. Pri+ation (as se+eral senses* 'or it #eans /!0 t(at %(i&( (as not a &ertain 8$ality and /70 t(at %(i&( #i)(t nat$rally (a+e it b$t (as not it. eit(er /a0 in )eneral or /b0 %(en it #i)(t nat$rally (a+e it. and eit(er /a0 in so#e ,arti&$lar %ay. e.). %(en it (as not it &o#,letely. or /b0 %(en it (as not it at all. And in &ertain &ases i' t(in)s %(i&( nat$rally (a+e a 8$ality lose it by +iolen&e. %e

say t(ey (a+e s$''ered ,ri+ation.

Sin&e so#e s$&( ori)inati+e so$r&es are ,resent in so$lless t(in)s. and ot(ers in t(in)s ,ossessed o' so$l. and in so$l. and in t(e rational ,art o' t(e so$l. &learly so#e ,oten&ies %ill. be non5rational and so#e %ill be non5rational and so#e %ill be a&&o#,anied by a rational 'or#$la. T(is is %(y all arts. i.e. all ,rod$&ti+e 'or#s o' no%led)e. are ,oten&ies* t(ey are ori)inati+e so$r&es o' &(an)e in anot(er t(in) or in t(e artist (i#sel' &onsidered as ot(er. And ea&( o' t(ose %(i&( are a&&o#,anied by a rational 'or#$la is ali e &a,able o' &ontrary e''e&ts. b$t one non5rational ,o%er ,rod$&es one e''e&t* e.). t(e (ot is &a,able only o' (eatin). b$t t(e #edi&al art &an ,rod$&e bot( disease and (ealt(. T(e reason is t(at s&ien&e is a rational 'or#$la. and t(e sa#e rational 'or#$la e1,lains a t(in) and its ,ri+ation. only not in t(e sa#e %ay* and in a sense it a,,lies to bot(. b$t in a sense it a,,lies rat(er to t(e ,ositi+e 'a&t. T(ere'ore s$&( s&ien&es #$st deal %it( &ontraries. b$t %it( one in +irt$e o' t(eir o%n nat$re and %it( t(e ot(er not in +irt$e o' t(eir nat$re* 'or t(e rational 'or#$la a,,lies to one ob4e&t in +irt$e o' t(at ob4e&t3s nat$re. and to t(e ot(er. in a sense. a&&identally. -or it is by denial and re#o+al t(at it e1(ibits t(e &ontrary* 'or t(e &ontrary is t(e ,ri#ary ,ri+ation. and t(is is t(e re#o+al o' t(e ,ositi+e ter#. 2o% sin&e &ontraries do not o&&$r in t(e sa#e t(in). b$t s&ien&e is a ,oten&y %(i&( de,ends on t(e ,ossession o' a rational 'or#$la. and t(e so$l ,ossesses an ori)inati+e so$r&e o' #o+e#ent* t(ere'ore. %(ile t(e %(oleso#e ,rod$&es only (ealt( and t(e &alori'i& only (eat and t(e 'ri)ori'i& only &old. t(e s&ienti'i& #an ,rod$&es bot( t(e &ontrary e''e&ts. -or t(e rational 'or#$la is one %(i&( a,,lies to bot(. t(o$)( not in t(e sa#e %ay. and it is in a so$l %(i&( ,ossesses an ori)inati+e so$r&e o' #o+e#ent* so t(at t(e so$l %ill start bot( ,ro&esses 'ro# t(e sa#e ori)inati+e so$r&e. (a+in) lin ed t(e# $, %it( t(e sa#e t(in). And so t(e t(in)s %(ose ,oten&y is a&&ordin) to a rational 'or#$la a&t &ontrari%ise to t(e t(in)s %(ose ,oten&y is non5rational* 'or t(e ,rod$&ts o' t(e 'or#er are in&l$ded $nder one ori)inati+e so$r&e. t(e rational 'or#$la. It is ob+io$s also t(at t(e ,oten&y o' #erely doin) a t(in) or (a+in) it done to one is i#,lied in t(at o' doin) it or (a+in) it done %ell. b$t t(e latter is not al%ays i#,lied in t(e 'or#er> 'or (e %(o does a t(in) %ell #$st also do it. b$t (e %(o does it #erely need not also do it %ell. 3 T(ere are so#e %(o say. as t(e Me)ari& s&(ool does. t(at a t(in) 3&an3 a&t only %(en it is a&tin). and %(en it is not a&tin) it 3&annot3 a&t. e.). t(at (e %(o is not b$ildin) &annot b$ild. b$t only (e %(o is b$ildin). %(en (e is b$ildin)* and so in all ot(er &ases. It is not (ard to see t(e abs$rdities t(at attend t(is +ie%. -or it is &lear t(at on t(is +ie% a #an %ill not be a b$ilder $nless (e is b$ildin) /'or to be a b$ilder is to be able to b$ild0. and so %it( t(e ot(er arts. I'. t(en. it is i#,ossible to (a+e s$&( arts i' one (as not at so#e ti#e learnt and a&8$ired t(e#. and it is t(en i#,ossible not to (a+e t(e# i' one (as not so#eti#e lost t(e# /eit(er by 'or)et'$lness or by so#e a&&ident or by ti#e* 'or it &annot be by t(e destr$&tion o' t(e ob4e&t. 'or t(at lasts 'or e+er0. a #an %ill not (a+e t(e art %(en (e (as &eased to $se it. and yet (e #ay i##ediately b$ild a)ain* (o% t(en %ill (e (a+e )ot t(e art< And si#ilarly %it( re)ard to li'eless t(in)s* not(in) %ill be eit(er &old or (ot or s%eet or ,er&e,tible at all i' ,eo,le are not ,er&ei+in) it* so t(at t(e $,(olders o' t(is +ie% %ill (a+e to #aintain t(e do&trine o' Prota)oras. B$t. indeed. not(in) %ill e+en (a+e ,er&e,tion i' it is not ,er&ei+in). i.e. e1er&isin) its ,er&e,tion. I'. t(en. t(at is blind %(i&( (as not si)(t t(o$)( it

%o$ld nat$rally (a+e it. %(en it %o$ld nat$rally (a+e it and %(en it still e1ists. t(e sa#e ,eo,le %ill be blind #any ti#es in t(e day5and dea' too. A)ain. i' t(at %(i&( is de,ri+ed o' ,oten&y is in&a,able. t(at %(i&( is not (a,,enin) %ill be in&a,able o' (a,,enin)* b$t (e %(o says o' t(at %(i&( is in&a,able o' (a,,enin) eit(er t(at it is or t(at it %ill be %ill say %(at is $ntr$e* 'or t(is is %(at in&a,a&ity #eant. T(ere'ore t(ese +ie%s do a%ay %it( bot( #o+e#ent and be&o#in). -or t(at %(i&( stands %ill al%ays stand. and t(at %(i&( sits %ill al%ays sit. sin&e i' it is sittin) it %ill not )et $,* 'or t(at %(i&(. as %e are told. &annot )et $, %ill be in&a,able o' )ettin) $,. B$t %e &annot say t(is. so t(at e+idently ,oten&y and a&t$ality are di''erent /b$t t(ese +ie%s #a e ,oten&y and a&t$ality t(e sa#e. and so it is no s#all t(in) t(ey are see in) to anni(ilate0. so t(at it is ,ossible t(at a t(in) #ay be &a,able o' bein) and not (e. and &a,able o' not bein) and yet (e. and si#ilarly %it( t(e ot(er inds o' ,redi&ate* it #ay be &a,able o' %al in) and yet not %al . or &a,able o' not %al in) and yet %al . And a t(in) is &a,able o' doin) so#et(in) i' t(ere %ill be not(in) i#,ossible in its (a+in) t(e a&t$ality o' t(at o' %(i&( it is said to (a+e t(e &a,a&ity. I #ean. 'or instan&e. i' a t(in) is &a,able o' sittin) and it is o,en to it to sit. t(ere %ill be not(in) i#,ossible in its a&t$ally sittin)* and si#ilarly i' it is &a,able o' bein) #o+ed or #o+in). or o' standin) or #a in) to stand. or o' bein) or &o#in) to be. or o' not bein) or not &o#in) to be. T(e %ord 3a&t$ality3. %(i&( %e &onne&t %it( 3&o#,lete reality3. (as. in t(e #ain. been e1tended 'ro# #o+e#ents to ot(er t(in)s* 'or a&t$ality in t(e stri&t sense is t(o$)(t to be identi&al %it( #o+e#ent. And so ,eo,le do not assi)n #o+e#ent to non5e1istent t(in)s. t(o$)( t(ey do assi)n so#e ot(er ,redi&ates. E.). t(ey say t(at non5e1istent t(in)s are ob4e&ts o' t(o$)(t and desire. b$t not t(at t(ey are #o+ed* and t(is be&a$se. %(ile e1 (y,ot(esi t(ey do not a&t$ally e1ist. t(ey %o$ld (a+e to e1ist a&t$ally i' t(ey %ere #o+ed. -or o' non5e1istent t(in)s so#e e1ist ,otentially* b$t t(ey do not e1ist. be&a$se t(ey do not e1ist in &o#,lete reality. = I' %(at %e (a+e des&ribed is identi&al %it( t(e &a,able or &on+ertible %it( it. e+idently it &annot be tr$e to say 3t(is is &a,able o' bein) b$t %ill not be3. %(i&( %o$ld i#,ly t(at t(e t(in)s in&a,able o' bein) %o$ld on t(is s(o%in) +anis(. S$,,ose. 'or instan&e. t(at a #an5one %(o did not ta e a&&o$nt o' t(at %(i&( is in&a,able o' bein)5%ere to say t(at t(e dia)onal o' t(e s8$are is &a,able o' bein) #eas$red b$t %ill not be #eas$red. be&a$se a t(in) #ay %ell be &a,able o' bein) or &o#in) to be. and yet not be or be abo$t to be. B$t 'ro# t(e ,re#isses t(is ne&essarily 'ollo%s. t(at i' %e a&t$ally s$,,osed t(at %(i&( is not. b$t is &a,able o' bein). to be or to (a+e &o#e to be. t(ere %ill be not(in) i#,ossible in t(is* b$t t(e res$lt %ill be i#,ossible. 'or t(e #eas$rin) o' t(e dia)onal is i#,ossible. -or t(e 'alse and t(e i#,ossible are not t(e sa#e* t(at yo$ are standin) no% is 'alse. b$t t(at yo$ s(o$ld be standin) is not i#,ossible. At t(e sa#e ti#e it is &lear t(at i'. %(en A is real. B #$st be real. t(en. %(en A is ,ossible. B also #$st be ,ossible. -or i' B need not be ,ossible. t(ere is not(in) to ,re+ent its not bein) ,ossible. 2o% let A be s$,,osed ,ossible. T(en. %(en A %as ,ossible. %e a)reed t(at not(in) i#,ossible 'ollo%ed i' A %ere s$,,osed to be real* and t(en B #$st o' &o$rse be real. B$t %e s$,,osed B to be i#,ossible. "et it be i#,ossible t(en. I'. t(en. B is i#,ossible. A also #$st be so. B$t t(e 'irst %as s$,,osed i#,ossible* t(ere'ore t(e se&ond also is i#,ossible. I'. t(en. A is ,ossible. B also %ill be ,ossible. i' t(ey %ere so related t(at i' A.is real. B #$st be real. I'. t(en. A and B bein) t($s related. B is not ,ossible on t(is &ondition. and B %ill not be related as %as s$,,osed. And i' %(en A is ,ossible. B #$st be ,ossible. t(en i' A is real. B also #$st be real. -or to say t(at B

#$st be ,ossible. i' A is ,ossible. #eans t(is. t(at i' A is real bot( at t(e ti#e %(en and in t(e %ay in %(i&( it %as s$,,osed &a,able o' bein) real. B also #$st t(en and in t(at %ay be real. 5 As all ,oten&ies are eit(er innate. li e t(e senses. or &o#e by ,ra&ti&e. li e t(e ,o%er o' ,layin) t(e 'l$te. or by learnin). li e artisti& ,o%er. t(ose %(i&( &o#e by ,ra&ti&e or by rational 'or#$la %e #$st a&8$ire by ,re+io$s e1er&ise b$t t(is is not ne&essary %it( t(ose %(i&( are not o' t(is nat$re and %(i&( i#,ly ,assi+ity. Sin&e t(at %(i&( is 3&a,able3 is &a,able o' so#et(in) and at so#e ti#e in so#e %ay /%it( all t(e ot(er 8$ali'i&ations %(i&( #$st be ,resent in t(e de'inition0. and sin&e so#e t(in)s &an ,rod$&e &(an)e a&&ordin) to a rational 'or#$la and t(eir ,oten&ies in+ol+e s$&( a 'or#$la. %(ile ot(er t(in)s are nonrational and t(eir ,oten&ies are non5rational. and t(e 'or#er ,oten&ies #$st be in a li+in) t(in). %(ile t(e latter &an be bot( in t(e li+in) and in t(e li'eless* as re)ards ,oten&ies o' t(e latter ind. %(en t(e a)ent and t(e ,atient #eet in t(e %ay a,,ro,riate to t(e ,oten&y in 8$estion. t(e one #$st a&t and t(e ot(er be a&ted on. b$t %it( t(e 'or#er ind o' ,oten&y t(is is not ne&essary. -or t(e nonrational ,oten&ies are all ,rod$&ti+e o' one e''e&t ea&(. b$t t(e rational ,rod$&e &ontrary e''e&ts. so t(at i' t(ey ,rod$&ed t(eir e''e&ts ne&essarily t(ey %o$ld ,rod$&e &ontrary e''e&ts at t(e sa#e ti#e* b$t t(is is i#,ossible. T(ere #$st. t(en. be so#et(in) else t(at de&ides* I #ean by t(is. desire or %ill. -or %(i&(e+er o' t%o t(in)s t(e ani#al desires de&isi+ely. it %ill do. %(en it is ,resent. and #eets t(e ,assi+e ob4e&t. in t(e %ay a,,ro,riate to t(e ,oten&y in 8$estion. T(ere'ore e+eryt(in) %(i&( (as a rational ,oten&y. %(en it desires t(at 'or %(i&( it (as a ,oten&y and in t(e &ir&$#stan&es in %(i&( it (as t(e ,oten&y. #$st do t(is. And it (as t(e ,oten&y in 8$estion %(en t(e ,assi+e ob4e&t is ,resent and is in a &ertain state* i' not it %ill not be able to a&t. /To add t(e 8$ali'i&ation 3i' not(in) e1ternal ,re+ents it3 is not '$rt(er ne&essary* 'or it (as t(e ,oten&y on t(e ter#s on %(i&( t(is is a ,oten&y o' a&tin). and it is t(is not in all &ir&$#stan&es b$t on &ertain &onditions. a#on) %(i&( %ill be t(e e1&l$sion o' e1ternal (indran&es* 'or t(ese are barred by so#e o' t(e ,ositi+e 8$ali'i&ations.0 And so e+en i' one (as a rational %is(. or an a,,etite. to do t%o t(in)s or &ontrary t(in)s at t(e sa#e ti#e. one %ill not do t(e#* 'or it is not on t(ese ter#s t(at one (as t(e ,oten&y 'or t(e#. nor is it a ,oten&y o' doin) bot( at t(e sa#e ti#e. sin&e one %ill do t(e t(in)s %(i&( it is a ,oten&y o' doin). on t(e ter#s on %(i&( one (as t(e ,oten&y. @ Sin&e %e (a+e treated o' t(e ind o' ,oten&y %(i&( is related to #o+e#ent. let $s dis&$ss a&t$ality5%(at. and %(at ind o' t(in). a&t$ality is. -or in t(e &o$rse o' o$r analysis it %ill also be&o#e &lear. %it( re)ard to t(e ,otential. t(at %e not only as&ribe ,oten&y to t(at %(ose nat$re it is to #o+e so#et(in) else. or to be #o+ed by so#et(in) else. eit(er %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation or in so#e ,arti&$lar %ay. b$t also $se t(e %ord in anot(er sense. %(i&( is t(e reason o' t(e in8$iry in t(e &o$rse o' %(i&( %e (a+e dis&$ssed t(ese ,re+io$s senses also. A&t$ality. t(en. is t(e e1isten&e o' a t(in) not in t(e %ay %(i&( %e e1,ress by 3,otentially3* %e say t(at ,otentially. 'or instan&e. a stat$e o' Her#es is in t(e blo& o' %ood and t(e (al'5line is in t(e %(ole. be&a$se it #i)(t be se,arated o$t. and %e &all e+en t(e #an %(o is not st$dyin) a #an o' s&ien&e. i' (e is &a,able o' st$dyin)* t(e t(in) t(at stands in &ontrast to ea&( o' t(ese e1ists a&t$ally. ;$r #eanin) &an be seen in t(e ,arti&$lar &ases by ind$&tion. and %e #$st not see a de'inition o' e+eryt(in) b$t be &ontent to )ras, t(e analo)y. t(at it is as t(at %(i&( is b$ildin) is to t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' b$ildin). and t(e %a in) to t(e slee,in). and t(at %(i&( is seein) to t(at %(i&( (as its eyes s($t b$t

(as si)(t. and t(at %(i&( (as been s(a,ed o$t o' t(e #atter to t(e #atter. and t(at %(i&( (as been %ro$)(t $, to t(e $n%ro$)(t. "et a&t$ality be de'ined by one #e#ber o' t(is antit(esis. and t(e ,otential by t(e ot(er. B$t all t(in)s are not said in t(e sa#e sense to e1ist a&t$ally. b$t only by analo)y5as A is in B or to B. C is in D or to D* 'or so#e are as #o+e#ent to ,oten&y. and t(e ot(ers as s$bstan&e to so#e sort o' #atter. B$t also t(e in'inite and t(e +oid and all si#ilar t(in)s are said to e1ist ,otentially and a&t$ally in a di''erent sense 'ro# t(at %(i&( a,,lies to #any ot(er t(in)s. e.). to t(at %(i&( sees or %al s or is seen. -or o' t(e latter &lass t(ese ,redi&ates &an at so#e ti#e be also tr$ly asserted %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation* 'or t(e seen is so &alled so#eti#es be&a$se it is bein) seen. so#eti#es be&a$se it is &a,able o' bein) seen. B$t t(e in'inite does not e1ist ,otentially in t(e sense t(at it %ill e+er a&t$ally (a+e se,arate e1isten&e* it e1ists ,otentially only 'or no%led)e. -or t(e 'a&t t(at t(e ,ro&ess o' di+idin) ne+er &o#es to an end ens$res t(at t(is a&ti+ity e1ists ,otentially. b$t not t(at t(e in'inite e1ists se,arately. Sin&e o' t(e a&tions %(i&( (a+e a li#it none is an end b$t all are relati+e to t(e end. e.). t(e re#o+in) o' 'at. or 'at5re#o+al. and t(e bodily ,arts t(e#sel+es %(en one is #a in) t(e# t(in are in #o+e#ent in t(is %ay /i.e. %it(o$t bein) already t(at at %(i&( t(e #o+e#ent ai#s0. t(is is not an a&tion or at least not a &o#,lete one /'or it is not an end0* b$t t(at #o+e#ent in %(i&( t(e end is ,resent is an a&tion. E.). at t(e sa#e ti#e %e are seein) and (a+e seen. are $nderstandin) and (a+e $nderstood. are t(in in) and (a+e t(o$)(t /%(ile it is not tr$e t(at at t(e sa#e ti#e %e are learnin) and (a+e learnt. or are bein) &$red and (a+e been &$red0. At t(e sa#e ti#e %e are li+in) %ell and (a+e li+ed %ell. and are (a,,y and (a+e been (a,,y. I' not. t(e ,ro&ess %o$ld (a+e (ad so#eti#e to &ease. as t(e ,ro&ess o' #a in) t(in &eases> b$t. as t(in)s are. it does not &ease* %e are li+in) and (a+e li+ed. ;' t(ese ,ro&esses. t(en. %e #$st &all t(e one set #o+e#ents. and t(e ot(er a&t$alities. -or e+ery #o+e#ent is in&o#,lete5#a in) t(in. learnin). %al in). b$ildin)* t(ese are #o+e#ents. and in&o#,lete at t(at. -or it is not tr$e t(at at t(e sa#e ti#e a t(in) is %al in) and (as %al ed. or is b$ildin) and (as b$ilt. or is &o#in) to be and (as &o#e to be. or is bein) #o+ed and (as been #o+ed. b$t %(at is bein) #o+ed is di''erent 'ro# %(at (as been #o+ed. and %(at is #o+in) 'ro# %(at (as #o+ed. B$t it is t(e sa#e t(in) t(at at t(e sa#e ti#e (as seen and is seein). seein). or is t(in in) and (as t(o$)(t. T(e latter sort o' ,ro&ess. t(en. I &all an a&t$ality. and t(e 'or#er a #o+e#ent. A W(at. and %(at ind o' t(in). t(e a&t$al is. #ay be ta en as e1,lained by t(ese and si#ilar &onsiderations. B$t %e #$st distin)$is( %(en a t(in) e1ists ,otentially and %(en it does not* 'or it is not at any and e+ery ti#e. E.). is eart( ,otentially a #an< 2o5b$t rat(er %(en it (as already be&o#e seed. and ,er(a,s not e+en t(en. It is 4$st as it is %it( bein) (ealed* not e+eryt(in) &an be (ealed by t(e #edi&al art or by l$& . b$t t(ere is a &ertain ind o' t(in) %(i&( is &a,able o' it. and only t(is is ,otentially (ealt(y. And /!0 t(e deli#itin) #ar o' t(at %(i&( as a res$lt o' t(o$)(t &o#es to e1ist in &o#,lete reality 'ro# (a+in) e1isted ,otentially is t(at i' t(e a)ent (as %illed it it &o#es to ,ass i' not(in) e1ternal (inders. %(ile t(e &ondition on t(e ot(er side5+i6. in t(at %(i&( is (ealed5is t(at not(in) in it (inders t(e res$lt. It is on si#ilar ter#s t(at %e (a+e %(at is ,otentially a (o$se* i' not(in) in t(e t(in) a&ted on5i.e. in t(e #atter5,re+ents it 'ro# be&o#in) a (o$se. and i' t(ere is not(in) %(i&( #$st be added or ta en a%ay or &(an)ed. t(is is ,otentially a (o$se* and t(e sa#e is tr$e o' all ot(er t(in)s t(e so$r&e o' %(ose be&o#in) is e1ternal. And /70 in t(e &ases in %(i&( t(e so$r&e o' t(e be&o#in) is in t(e +ery t(in) %(i&( &o#es to be. a t(in) is ,otentially all t(ose t(in)s %(i&( it

%ill be o' itsel' i' not(in) e1ternal (inders it. E.). t(e seed is not yet ,otentially a #an* 'or it #$st be de,osited in so#et(in) ot(er t(an itsel' and $nder)o a &(an)e. B$t %(en t(ro$)( its o%n #oti+e ,rin&i,le it (as already )ot s$&( and s$&( attrib$tes. in t(is state it is already ,otentially a #an* %(ile in t(e 'or#er state it needs anot(er #oti+e ,rin&i,le. 4$st as eart( is not yet ,otentially a stat$e /'or it #$st 'irst &(an)e in order to be&o#e brass.0 It see#s t(at %(en %e &all a t(in) not so#et(in) else b$t 3t(aten35e.). a &as et is not 3%ood3 b$t 3%ooden3. and %ood is not 3eart(3 b$t 3eart(en3. and a)ain eart( %ill ill$strate o$r ,oint i' it is si#ilarly not so#et(in) else b$t 3t(aten35t(at ot(er t(in) is al%ays ,otentially /in t(e '$ll sense o' t(at %ord0 t(e t(in) %(i&( &o#es a'ter it in t(is series. E.). a &as et is not 3eart(en3 nor 3eart(3. b$t 3%ooden3* 'or t(is is ,otentially a &as et and t(is is t(e #atter o' a &as et. %ood in )eneral o' a &as et in )eneral. and t(is ,arti&$lar %ood o' t(is ,arti&$lar &as et. And i' t(ere is a 'irst t(in). %(i&( is no lon)er. in re'eren&e to so#et(in) else. &alled 3t(aten3. t(is is ,ri#e #atter* e.). i' eart( is 3airy3 and air is not 3'ire3 b$t 3'iery3. 'ire is ,ri#e #atter. %(i&( is not a 3t(is3. -or t(e s$b4e&t or s$bstrat$# is di''erentiated by bein) a 3t(is3 or not bein) one* i.e. t(e s$bstrat$# o' #odi'i&ations is. e.). a #an. i.e. a body and a so$l. %(ile t(e #odi'i&ation is 3#$si&al3 or 3,ale3. /T(e s$b4e&t is &alled. %(en #$si& &o#es to be ,resent in it. not 3#$si&3 b$t 3#$si&al3. and t(e #an is not 3,aleness3 b$t 3,ale3. and not 3a#b$lation3 or 3#o+e#ent3 b$t 3%al in)3 or 3#o+in)3.5%(i&( is a in to t(e 3t(aten3.0 W(ere+er t(is is so. t(en. t(e $lti#ate s$b4e&t is a s$bstan&e* b$t %(en t(is is not so b$t t(e ,redi&ate is a 'or# and a 3t(is3. t(e $lti#ate s$b4e&t is #atter and #aterial s$bstan&e. And it is only ri)(t t(at 3t(aten3 s(o$ld be $sed %it( re'eren&e bot( to t(e #atter and to t(e a&&idents* 'or bot( are indeter#inates. We (a+e stated. t(en. %(en a t(in) is to be said to e1ist ,otentially and %(en it is not. B -ro# o$r dis&$ssion o' t(e +ario$s senses o' 3,rior3. it is &lear t(at a&t$ality is ,rior to ,oten&y. And I #ean by ,oten&y not only t(at de'inite ind %(i&( is said to be a ,rin&i,le o' &(an)e in anot(er t(in) or in t(e t(in) itsel' re)arded as ot(er. b$t in )eneral e+ery ,rin&i,le o' #o+e#ent or o' rest. -or nat$re also is in t(e sa#e )en$s as ,oten&y* 'or it is a ,rin&i,le o' #o+e#ent5not. (o%e+er. in so#et(in) else b$t in t(e t(in) itsel' 8$a itsel'. To all s$&( ,oten&y. t(en. a&t$ality is ,rior bot( in 'or#$la and in s$bstantiality* and in ti#e it is ,rior in one sense. and in anot(er not. /!0 Clearly it is ,rior in 'or#$la* 'or t(at %(i&( is in t(e ,ri#ary sense ,otential is ,otential be&a$se it is ,ossible 'or it to be&o#e a&ti+e* e.). I #ean by 3&a,able o' b$ildin)3 t(at %(i&( &an b$ild. and by 3&a,able o' seein)3 t(at %(i&( &an see. and by 3+isible3 t(at %(i&( &an be seen. And t(e sa#e a&&o$nt a,,lies to all ot(er &ases. so t(at t(e 'or#$la and t(e no%led)e o' t(e one #$st ,re&ede t(e no%led)e o' t(e ot(er. /70 In ti#e it is ,rior in t(is sense> t(e a&t$al %(i&( is identi&al in s,e&ies t(o$)( not in n$#ber %it( a ,otentially e1istin) t(in) is to it. I #ean t(at to t(is ,arti&$lar #an %(o no% e1ists a&t$ally and to t(e &orn and to t(e seein) s$b4e&t t(e #atter and t(e seed and t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' seein). %(i&( are ,otentially a #an and &orn and seein). b$t not yet a&t$ally so. are ,rior in ti#e* b$t ,rior in ti#e to t(ese are ot(er a&t$ally e1istin) t(in)s. 'ro# %(i&( t(ey %ere ,rod$&ed. -or 'ro# t(e ,otentially e1istin) t(e a&t$ally e1istin) is al%ays ,rod$&ed by an a&t$ally e1istin) t(in). e.). #an 'ro# #an. #$si&ian by #$si&ian* t(ere is al%ays a 'irst #o+er. and t(e #o+er already e1ists a&t$ally. We (a+e said in o$r a&&o$nt o' s$bstan&e t(at e+eryt(in)

t(at is ,rod$&ed is so#et(in) ,rod$&ed 'ro# so#et(in) and by so#et(in). and t(at t(e sa#e in s,e&ies as it. T(is is %(y it is t(o$)(t i#,ossible to be a b$ilder i' one (as b$ilt not(in) or a (ar,er i' one (as ne+er ,layed t(e (ar,* 'or (e %(o learns to ,lay t(e (ar, learns to ,lay it by ,layin) it. and all ot(er learners do si#ilarly. And t(en&e arose t(e so,(isti&al 8$ibble. t(at one %(o does not ,ossess a s&ien&e %ill be doin) t(at %(i&( is t(e ob4e&t o' t(e s&ien&e* 'or (e %(o is learnin) it does not ,ossess it. B$t sin&e. o' t(at %(i&( is &o#in) to be. so#e ,art #$st (a+e &o#e to be. and. o' t(at %(i&(. in )eneral. is &(an)in). so#e ,art #$st (a+e &(an)ed /t(is is s(o%n in t(e treatise on #o+e#ent0. (e %(o is learnin) #$st. it %o$ld see#. ,ossess so#e ,art o' t(e s&ien&e. B$t (ere too. t(en. it is &lear t(at a&t$ality is in t(is sense also. +i6. in order o' )eneration and o' ti#e. ,rior to ,oten&y. B$t /30 it is also ,rior in s$bstantiality* 'irstly. /a0 be&a$se t(e t(in)s t(at are ,osterior in be&o#in) are ,rior in 'or# and in s$bstantiality /e.). #an is ,rior to boy and ($#an bein) to seed* 'or t(e one already (as its 'or#. and t(e ot(er (as not0. and be&a$se e+eryt(in) t(at &o#es to be #o+es to%ards a ,rin&i,le. i.e. an end /'or t(at 'or t(e sa e o' %(i&( a t(in) is. is its ,rin&i,le. and t(e be&o#in) is 'or t(e sa e o' t(e end0. and t(e a&t$ality is t(e end. and it is 'or t(e sa e o' t(is t(at t(e ,oten&y is a&8$ired. -or ani#als do not see in order t(at t(ey #ay (a+e si)(t. b$t t(ey (a+e si)(t t(at t(ey #ay see. And si#ilarly #en (a+e t(e art o' b$ildin) t(at t(ey #ay b$ild. and t(eoreti&al s&ien&e t(at t(ey #ay t(eori6e* b$t t(ey do not t(eori6e t(at t(ey #ay (a+e t(eoreti&al s&ien&e. e1&e,t t(ose %(o are learnin) by ,ra&ti&e* and t(ese do not t(eori6e e1&e,t in a li#ited sense. or be&a$se t(ey (a+e no need to t(eori6e. -$rt(er. #atter e1ists in a ,otential state. 4$st be&a$se it #ay &o#e to its 'or#* and %(en it e1ists a&t$ally. t(en it is in its 'or#. And t(e sa#e (olds )ood in all &ases. e+en t(ose in %(i&( t(e end is a #o+e#ent. And so. as tea&(ers t(in t(ey (a+e a&(ie+ed t(eir end %(en t(ey (a+e e1(ibited t(e ,$,il at %or . nat$re does li e%ise. -or i' t(is is not t(e &ase. %e s(all (a+e Pa$son3s Her#es o+er a)ain. sin&e it %ill be (ard to say abo$t t(e no%led)e. as abo$t t(e 'i)$re in t(e ,i&t$re. %(et(er it is %it(in or %it(o$t. -or t(e a&tion is t(e end. and t(e a&t$ality is t(e a&tion. And so e+en t(e %ord 3a&t$ality3 is deri+ed 'ro# 3a&tion3. and ,oints to t(e &o#,lete reality. And %(ile in so#e &ases t(e e1er&ise is t(e $lti#ate t(in) /e.). in si)(t t(e $lti#ate t(in) is seein). and no ot(er ,rod$&t besides t(is res$lts 'ro# si)(t0. b$t 'ro# so#e t(in)s a ,rod$&t 'ollo%s /e.). 'ro# t(e art o' b$ildin) t(ere res$lts a (o$se as %ell as t(e a&t o' b$ildin)0. yet none t(e less t(e a&t is in t(e 'or#er &ase t(e end and in t(e latter #ore o' an end t(an t(e ,oten&y is. -or t(e a&t o' b$ildin) is reali6ed in t(e t(in) t(at is bein) b$ilt. and &o#es to be. and is. at t(e sa#e ti#e as t(e (o$se. W(ere. t(en. t(e res$lt is so#et(in) a,art 'ro# t(e e1er&ise. t(e a&t$ality is in t(e t(in) t(at is bein) #ade. e.). t(e a&t o' b$ildin) is in t(e t(in) t(at is bein) b$ilt and t(at o' %ea+in) in t(e t(in) t(at is bein) %o+en. and si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. and in )eneral t(e #o+e#ent is in t(e t(in) t(at is bein) #o+ed* b$t %(ere t(ere is no ,rod$&t a,art 'ro# t(e a&t$ality. t(e a&t$ality is ,resent in t(e a)ents. e.). t(e a&t o' seein) is in t(e seein) s$b4e&t and t(at o' t(eori6in) in t(e t(eori6in) s$b4e&t and t(e li'e is in t(e so$l /and t(ere'ore %ell5bein) also* 'or it is a &ertain ind o' li'e0. ;b+io$sly. t(ere'ore. t(e s$bstan&e or 'or# is a&t$ality. A&&ordin) to t(is ar)$#ent. t(en. it is ob+io$s t(at a&t$ality is ,rior in s$bstantial bein) to ,oten&y* and as %e (a+e said. one a&t$ality al%ays ,re&edes anot(er in ti#e ri)(t ba& to t(e a&t$ality o' t(e eternal ,ri#e #o+er. B$t /b0 a&t$ality is ,rior in a stri&ter sense also* 'or eternal t(in)s are ,rior in s$bstan&e to ,eris(able t(in)s. and no eternal

t(in) e1ists ,otentially. T(e reason is t(is. E+ery ,oten&y is at one and t(e sa#e ti#e a ,oten&y o' t(e o,,osite* 'or. %(ile t(at %(i&( is not &a,able o' bein) ,resent in a s$b4e&t &annot be ,resent. e+eryt(in) t(at is &a,able o' bein) #ay ,ossibly not be a&t$al. T(at. t(en. %(i&( is &a,able o' bein) #ay eit(er be or not be* t(e sa#e t(in). t(en. is &a,able bot( o' bein) and o' not bein). And t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' not bein) #ay ,ossibly not be* and t(at %(i&( #ay ,ossibly not be is ,eris(able. eit(er in t(e '$ll sense. or in t(e ,re&ise sense in %(i&( it is said t(at it ,ossibly #ay not be. i.e. in res,e&t eit(er o' ,la&e or o' 8$antity or 8$ality* 3in t(e '$ll sense3 #eans 3in res,e&t o' s$bstan&e3. 2ot(in). t(en. %(i&( is in t(e '$ll sense i#,eris(able is in t(e '$ll sense ,otentially e1istent /t(o$)( t(ere is not(in) to ,re+ent its bein) so in so#e res,e&t. e.). ,otentially o' a &ertain 8$ality or in a &ertain ,la&e0* all i#,eris(able t(in)s. t(en. e1ist a&t$ally. 2or &an anyt(in) %(i&( is o' ne&essity e1ist ,otentially* yet t(ese t(in)s are ,ri#ary* 'or i' t(ese did not e1ist. not(in) %o$ld e1ist. 2or does eternal #o+e#ent. i' t(ere be s$&(. e1ist ,otentially* and. i' t(ere is an eternal #obile. it is not in #otion in +irt$e o' a ,otentiality. e1&e,t in res,e&t o' 3%(en&e3 and 3%(it(er3 /t(ere is not(in) to ,re+ent its (a+in) #atter %(i&( #a es it &a,able o' #o+e#ent in +ario$s dire&tions0. And so t(e s$n and t(e stars and t(e %(ole (ea+en are e+er a&ti+e. and t(ere is no 'ear t(at t(ey #ay so#eti#e stand still. as t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers 'ear t(ey #ay. 2or do t(ey tire in t(is a&ti+ity* 'or #o+e#ent is not 'or t(e#. as it is 'or ,eris(able t(in)s. &onne&ted %it( t(e ,otentiality 'or o,,osites. so t(at t(e &ontin$ity o' t(e #o+e#ent s(o$ld be laborio$s* 'or it is t(at ind o' s$bstan&e %(i&( is #atter and ,oten&y. not a&t$ality. t(at &a$ses t(is. I#,eris(able t(in)s are i#itated by t(ose t(at are in+ol+ed in &(an)e. e.). eart( and 'ire. -or t(ese also are e+er a&ti+e* 'or t(ey (a+e t(eir #o+e#ent o' t(e#sel+es and in t(e#sel+es. B$t t(e ot(er ,oten&ies. a&&ordin) to o$r ,re+io$s dis&$ssion. are all ,oten&ies 'or o,,osites* 'or t(at %(i&( &an #o+e anot(er in t(is %ay &an also #o+e it not in t(is %ay. i.e. i' it a&ts a&&ordin) to a rational 'or#$la* and t(e sa#e non5rational ,oten&ies %ill ,rod$&e o,,osite res$lts by t(eir ,resen&e or absen&e. I'. t(en. t(ere are any entities or s$bstan&es s$&( as t(e diale&ti&ians say t(e Ideas are. t(ere #$st be so#et(in) #$&( #ore s&ienti'i& t(an s&ien&e5itsel' and so#et(in) #ore #obile t(an #o+e#ent5itsel'* 'or t(ese %ill be #ore o' t(e nat$re o' a&t$alities. %(ile s&ien&e5itsel' and #o+e#ent5itsel' are ,oten&ies 'or t(ese. ;b+io$sly. t(en. a&t$ality is ,rior bot( to ,oten&y and to e+ery ,rin&i,le o' &(an)e. C T(at t(e a&t$ality is also better and #ore +al$able t(an t(e )ood ,oten&y is e+ident 'ro# t(e 'ollo%in) ar)$#ent. E+eryt(in) o' %(i&( %e say t(at it &an do so#et(in). is ali e &a,able o' &ontraries. e.). t(at o' %(i&( %e say t(at it &an be %ell is t(e sa#e as t(at %(i&( &an be ill. and (as bot( ,oten&ies at on&e* 'or t(e sa#e ,oten&y is a ,oten&y o' (ealt( and illness. o' rest and #otion. o' b$ildin) and t(ro%in) do%n. o' bein) b$ilt and bein) t(ro%n do%n. T(e &a,a&ity 'or &ontraries. t(en. is ,resent at t(e sa#e ti#e* b$t &ontraries &annot be ,resent at t(e sa#e ti#e. and t(e a&t$alities also &annot be ,resent at t(e sa#e ti#e. e.). (ealt( and illness. T(ere'ore. %(ile t(e )ood #$st be one o' t(e#. t(e &a,a&ity is bot( ali e. or neit(er* t(e a&t$ality. t(en. is better. Also in t(e &ase o' bad t(in)s t(e end or a&t$ality #$st be %orse t(an t(e ,oten&y* 'or t(at %(i&( 3&an3 is bot( &ontraries ali e. Clearly. t(en. t(e bad does not e1ist a,art 'ro# bad t(in)s* 'or t(e bad is in its nat$re ,osterior to t(e ,oten&y. And t(ere'ore %e #ay also say t(at in t(e t(in)s %(i&( are 'ro# t(e be)innin). i.e. in eternal t(in)s. t(ere

is not(in) bad. not(in) de'e&ti+e. not(in) ,er+erted /'or ,er+ersion is so#et(in) bad0. It is an a&ti+ity also t(at )eo#etri&al &onstr$&tions are dis&o+ered* 'or %e 'ind t(e# by di+idin). I' t(e 'i)$res (ad been already di+ided. t(e &onstr$&tions %o$ld (a+e been ob+io$s* b$t as it is t(ey are ,resent only ,otentially. W(y are t(e an)les o' t(e trian)le e8$al to t%o ri)(t an)les< Be&a$se t(e an)les abo$t one ,oint are e8$al to t%o ri)(t an)les. I'. t(en. t(e line ,arallel to t(e side (ad been already dra%n $,%ards. t(e reason %o$ld (a+e been e+ident to any one as soon as (e sa% t(e 'i)$re. W(y is t(e an)le in a se#i&ir&le in all &ases a ri)(t an)le< I' t(ree lines are e8$al t(e t%o %(i&( 'or# t(e base. and t(e ,er,endi&$lar 'ro# t(e &entre5t(e &on&l$sion is e+ident at a )lan&e to one %(o no%s t(e 'or#er ,ro,osition. ;b+io$sly. t(ere'ore. t(e ,otentially e1istin) &onstr$&tions are dis&o+ered by bein) bro$)(t to a&t$ality* t(e reason is t(at t(e )eo#eter3s t(in in) is an a&t$ality* so t(at t(e ,oten&y ,ro&eeds 'ro# an a&t$ality* and t(ere'ore it is by #a in) &onstr$&tions t(at ,eo,le &o#e to no% t(e# /t(o$)( t(e sin)le a&t$ality is later in )eneration t(an t(e &orres,ondin) ,oten&y0. /See dia)ra#.0 !0 T(e ter#s 3bein)3 and 3non5bein)3 are e#,loyed 'irstly %it( re'eren&e to t(e &ate)ories. and se&ondly %it( re'eren&e to t(e ,oten&y or a&t$ality o' t(ese or t(eir non5,oten&y or nona&t$ality. and t(irdly in t(e sense o' tr$e and 'alse. T(is de,ends. on t(e side o' t(e ob4e&ts. on t(eir bein) &o#bined or se,arated. so t(at (e %(o t(in s t(e se,arated to be se,arated and t(e &o#bined to be &o#bined (as t(e tr$t(. %(ile (e %(ose t(o$)(t is in a state &ontrary to t(at o' t(e ob4e&ts is in error. T(is bein) so. %(en is %(at is &alled tr$t( or 'alsity ,resent. and %(en is it not< We #$st &onsider %(at %e #ean by t(ese ter#s. It is not be&a$se %e t(in tr$ly t(at yo$ are ,ale. t(at yo$ are ,ale. b$t be&a$se yo$ are ,ale %e %(o say t(is (a+e t(e tr$t(. I'. t(en. so#e t(in)s are al%ays &o#bined and &annot be se,arated. and ot(ers are al%ays se,arated and &annot be &o#bined. %(ile ot(ers are &a,able eit(er o' &o#bination or o' se,aration. 3bein)3 is bein) &o#bined and one. and 3not bein)3 is bein) not &o#bined b$t #ore t(an one. Re)ardin) &ontin)ent 'a&ts. t(en. t(e sa#e o,inion or t(e sa#e state#ent &o#es to be 'alse and tr$e. and it is ,ossible 'or it to be at one ti#e &orre&t and at anot(er erroneo$s* b$t re)ardin) t(in)s t(at &annot be ot(er%ise o,inions are not at one ti#e tr$e and at anot(er 'alse. b$t t(e sa#e o,inions are al%ays tr$e or al%ays 'alse. B$t %it( re)ard to in&o#,osites. %(at is bein) or not bein). and tr$t( or 'alsity< A t(in) o' t(is sort is not &o#,osite. so as to 3be3 %(en it is &o#,o$nded. and not to 3be3 i' it is se,arated. li e 3t(at t(e %ood is %(ite3 or 3t(at t(e dia)onal is in&o##ens$rable3* nor %ill tr$t( and 'alsity be still ,resent in t(e sa#e %ay as in t(e ,re+io$s &ases. In 'a&t. as tr$t( is not t(e sa#e in t(ese &ases. so also bein) is not t(e sa#e* b$t /a0 tr$t( or 'alsity is as 'ollo%s55&onta&t and assertion are tr$t( /assertion not bein) t(e sa#e as a''ir#ation0. and i)noran&e is non5&onta&t. -or it is not ,ossible to be in error re)ardin) t(e 8$estion %(at a t(in) is. sa+e in an a&&idental sense* and t(e sa#e (olds )ood re)ardin) non5&o#,osite s$bstan&es /'or it is not ,ossible to be in error abo$t t(e#0. And t(ey all e1ist a&t$ally. not ,otentially* 'or ot(er%ise t(ey %o$ld (a+e &o#e to be and &eased to be* b$t. as it is. bein) itsel' does not &o#e to be /nor &ease to be0* 'or i' it (ad done so it %o$ld (a+e (ad to &o#e o$t o' so#et(in). Abo$t t(e t(in)s. t(en. %(i&( are essen&es and a&t$alities. it is not ,ossible to be in error. b$t only to no% t(e# or not to no% t(e#. B$t %e do in8$ire %(at t(ey are. +i6. %(et(er t(ey are o' s$&( and s$&( a nat$re or not. /b0 As re)ards t(e 3bein)3 t(at ans%ers to tr$t( and t(e

3non5bein)3 t(at ans%ers to 'alsity. in one &ase t(ere is tr$t( i' t(e s$b4e&t and t(e attrib$te are really &o#bined. and 'alsity i' t(ey are not &o#bined* in t(e ot(er &ase. i' t(e ob4e&t is e1istent it e1ists in a ,arti&$lar %ay. and i' it does not e1ist in t(is %ay does not e1ist at all. And tr$t( #eans no%in) t(ese ob4e&ts. and 'alsity does not e1ist. nor error. b$t only i)noran&e5and not an i)noran&e %(i&( is li e blindness* 'or blindness is a in to a total absen&e o' t(e 'a&$lty o' t(in in). It is e+ident also t(at abo$t $n&(an)eable t(in)s t(ere &an be no error in res,e&t o' ti#e. i' %e ass$#e t(e# to be $n&(an)eable. E.). i' %e s$,,ose t(at t(e trian)le does not &(an)e. %e s(all not s$,,ose t(at at one ti#e its an)les are e8$al to t%o ri)(t an)les %(ile at anot(er ti#e t(ey are not /'or t(at %o$ld i#,ly &(an)e0. It is ,ossible. (o%e+er. to s$,,ose t(at one #e#ber o' s$&( a &lass (as a &ertain attrib$te and anot(er (as not* e.). %(ile %e #ay s$,,ose t(at no e+en n$#ber is ,ri#e. %e #ay s$,,ose t(at so#e are and so#e are not. B$t re)ardin) a n$#eri&ally sin)le n$#ber not e+en t(is 'or# o' error is ,ossible* 'or %e &annot in t(is &ase s$,,ose t(at one instan&e (as an attrib$te and anot(er (as not. b$t %(et(er o$r 4$d)e#ent be tr$e or 'alse. it is i#,lied t(at t(e 'a&t is eternal. Boo ? ! WE (a+e said ,re+io$sly. in o$r distin&tion o' t(e +ario$s #eanin)s o' %ords. t(at 3one3 (as se+eral #eanin)s* t(e t(in)s t(at are dire&tly and o' t(eir o%n nat$re and not a&&identally &alled one #ay be s$##ari6ed $nder 'o$r (eads. t(o$)( t(e %ord is $sed in #ore senses. /!0 T(ere is t(e &ontin$o$s. eit(er in )eneral. or es,e&ially t(at %(i&( is &ontin$o$s by nat$re and not by &onta&t nor by bein) to)et(er* and o' t(ese. t(at (as #ore $nity and is ,rior. %(ose #o+e#ent is #ore indi+isible and si#,ler. /70 T(at %(i&( is a %(ole and (as a &ertain s(a,e and 'or# is one in a still (i)(er de)ree* and es,e&ially i' a t(in) is o' t(is sort by nat$re. and not by 'or&e li e t(e t(in)s %(i&( are $ni'ied by )l$e or nails or by bein) tied to)et(er. i.e. i' it (as in itsel' t(e &a$se o' its &ontin$ity. A t(in) is o' t(is sort be&a$se its #o+e#ent is one and indi+isible in ,la&e and ti#e* so t(at e+idently i' a t(in) (as by nat$re a ,rin&i,le o' #o+e#ent t(at is o' t(e 'irst ind /i.e. lo&al #o+e#ent0 and t(e 'irst in t(at ind /i.e. &ir&$lar #o+e#ent0. t(is is in t(e ,ri#ary sense one e1tended t(in). So#e t(in)s. t(en. are one in t(is %ay. 8$a &ontin$o$s or %(ole. and t(e ot(er t(in)s t(at are one are t(ose %(ose de'inition is one. ;' t(is sort are t(e t(in)s t(e t(o$)(t o' %(i&( is one. i.e. t(ose t(e t(o$)(t o' %(i&( is indi+isible* and it is indi+isible i' t(e t(in) is indi+isible in ind or in n$#ber. /30 In n$#ber. t(en. t(e indi+id$al is indi+isible. and /=0 in ind. t(at %(i&( in intelli)ibility and in no%led)e is indi+isible. so t(at t(at %(i&( &a$ses s$bstan&es to be one #$st be one in t(e ,ri#ary sense. 3;ne3. t(en. (as all t(ese #eanin)s5t(e nat$rally &ontin$o$s and t(e %(ole. and t(e indi+id$al and t(e $ni+ersal. And all t(ese are one be&a$se in so#e &ases t(e #o+e#ent. in ot(ers t(e t(o$)(t or t(e de'inition is indi+isible. B$t it #$st be obser+ed t(at t(e 8$estions. %(at sort o' t(in)s are said to be one. and %(at it is to be one and %(at is t(e de'inition o' it. s(o$ld not be ass$#ed to be t(e sa#e. 3;ne3 (as all t(ese #eanin)s. and ea&( o' t(e t(in)s to %(i&( one o' t(ese inds o' $nity belon)s %ill be one* b$t 3to be one3 %ill so#eti#es #ean bein) one o' t(ese t(in)s. and so#eti#es bein) so#et(in) else %(i&( is e+en nearer to t(e #eanin) o' t(e %ord 3one3 %(ile t(ese ot(er t(in)s a,,ro1i#ate to its a,,li&ation. T(is is also tr$e o' 3ele#ent3 or 3&a$se3. i' one (ad bot( to s,e&i'y t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( it is ,redi&able and to render t(e de'inition o' t(e %ord. -or in a sense 'ire is an ele#ent /and do$btless also 3t(e inde'inite3 or so#et(in) else o' t(e sort is by its o%n nat$re t(e ele#ent0. b$t in a sense it is not* 'or it is not t(e sa#e t(in) to be 'ire and to be

an ele#ent. b$t %(ile as a ,arti&$lar t(in) %it( a nat$re o' its o%n 'ire is an ele#ent. t(e na#e 3ele#ent3 #eans t(at it (as t(is attrib$te. t(at t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( is #ade o' it as a ,ri#ary &onstit$ent. And so %it( 3&a$se3 and 3one3 and all s$&( ter#s. -or t(is reason. too. 3to be one3 #eans 3to be indi+isible. bein) essentially one #eans a Kt(isK and &a,able o' bein) isolated eit(er in ,la&e. or in 'or# or t(o$)(t3* or ,er(a,s 3to be %(ole and indi+isible3* b$t it #eans es,e&ially 3to be t(e 'irst #eas$re o' a ind3. and #ost stri&tly o' 8$antity* 'or it is 'ro# t(is t(at it (as been e1tended to t(e ot(er &ate)ories. -or #eas$re is t(at by %(i&( 8$antity is no%n* and 8$antity 8$a 8$antity is no%n eit(er by a 3one3 or by a n$#ber. and all n$#ber is no%n by a 3one3. T(ere'ore all 8$antity 8$a 8$antity is no%n by t(e one. and t(at by %(i&( 8$antities are ,ri#arily no%n is t(e one itsel'* and so t(e one is t(e startin)5,oint o' n$#ber 8$a n$#ber. And (en&e in t(e ot(er &lasses too 3#eas$re3 #eans t(at by %(i&( ea&( is 'irst no%n. and t(e #eas$re o' ea&( is a $nit5in len)t(. in breadt(. in de,t(. in %ei)(t. in s,eed. /T(e %ords 3%ei)(t3 and 3s,eed3 are &o##on to bot( &ontraries* 'or ea&( o' t(e# (as t%o #eanin)s53%ei)(t3 #eans bot( t(at %(i&( (as any a#o$nt o' )ra+ity and t(at %(i&( (as an e1&ess o' )ra+ity. and 3s,eed3 bot( t(at %(i&( (as any a#o$nt o' #o+e#ent and t(at %(i&( (as an e1&ess o' #o+e#ent* 'or e+en t(e slo% (as a &ertain s,eed and t(e &o#,arati+ely li)(t a &ertain %ei)(t.0 In all t(ese. t(en. t(e #eas$re and startin)5,oint is so#et(in) one and indi+isible. sin&e e+en in lines %e treat as indi+isible t(e line a 'oot lon). -or e+ery%(ere %e see as t(e #eas$re so#et(in) one and indi+isible* and t(is is t(at %(i&( is si#,le eit(er in 8$ality or in 8$antity. 2o% %(ere it is t(o$)(t i#,ossible to ta e a%ay or to add. t(ere t(e #eas$re is e1a&t /(en&e t(at o' n$#ber is #ost e1a&t* 'or %e ,osit t(e $nit as indi+isible in e+ery res,e&t0* b$t in all ot(er &ases %e i#itate t(is sort o' #eas$re. -or in t(e &ase o' a '$rlon) or a talent or o' anyt(in) &o#,arati+ely lar)e any addition or s$btra&tion #i)(t #ore easily es&a,e o$r noti&e t(an in t(e &ase o' so#et(in) s#aller* so t(at t(e 'irst t(in) 'ro# %(i&(. as 'ar as o$r ,er&e,tion )oes. not(in) &an be s$btra&ted. all #en #a e t(e #eas$re. %(et(er o' li8$ids or o' solids. %(et(er o' %ei)(t or o' si6e* and t(ey t(in t(ey no% t(e 8$antity %(en t(ey no% it by #eans o' t(is #eas$re. And indeed t(ey no% #o+e#ent too by t(e si#,le #o+e#ent and t(e 8$i& est* 'or t(is o&&$,ies least ti#e. And so in astrono#y a 3one3 o' t(is sort is t(e startin)5,oint and #eas$re /'or t(ey ass$#e t(e #o+e#ent o' t(e (ea+ens to be $ni'or# and t(e 8$i& est. and 4$d)e t(e ot(ers by re'eren&e to it0. and in #$si& t(e 8$arter5tone /be&a$se it is t(e least inter+al0. and in s,ee&( t(e letter. And all t(ese are ones in t(is sense55not t(at 3one3 is so#et(in) ,redi&able in t(e sa#e sense o' all o' t(ese. b$t in t(e sense %e (a+e #entioned. B$t t(e #eas$re is not al%ays one in n$#ber55so#eti#es t(ere are se+eral* e.). t(e 8$arter5tones /not to t(e ear. b$t as deter#ined by t(e ratios0 are t%o. and t(e arti&$late so$nds by %(i&( %e #eas$re are #ore t(an one. and t(e dia)onal o' t(e s8$are and its side are #eas$red by t%o 8$antities. and all s,atial #a)nit$des re+eal si#ilar +arieties o' $nit. T($s. t(en. t(e one is t(e #eas$re o' all t(in)s. be&a$se %e &o#e to no% t(e ele#ents in t(e s$bstan&e by di+idin) t(e t(in)s eit(er in res,e&t o' 8$antity or in res,e&t o' ind. And t(e one is indi+isible 4$st be&a$se t(e 'irst o' ea&( &lass o' t(in)s is indi+isible. B$t it is not in t(e sa#e %ay t(at e+ery 3one3 is indi+isible e.). a 'oot and a $nit* t(e latter is indi+isible in e+ery res,e&t. %(ile t(e 'or#er #$st be ,la&ed a#on) t(in)s %(i&( are $ndi+ided to ,er&e,tion. as (as been said already5only to ,er&e,tion. 'or do$btless e+ery &ontin$o$s t(in) is di+isible. T(e #eas$re is al%ays (o#o)eneo$s %it( t(e t(in) #eas$red* t(e #eas$re o' s,atial #a)nit$des is a s,atial #a)nit$de. and in ,arti&$lar t(at o' len)t( is a len)t(. t(at o' breadt( a breadt(. t(at

o' arti&$late so$nd an arti&$late so$nd. t(at o' %ei)(t a %ei)(t. t(at o' $nits a $nit. /-or %e #$st state t(e #atter so. and not say t(at t(e #eas$re o' n$#bers is a n$#ber* %e o$)(t indeed to say t(is i' %e %ere to $se t(e &orres,ondin) 'or# o' %ords. b$t t(e &lai# does not really &orres,ond5it is as i' one &lai#ed t(at t(e #eas$re o' $nits is $nits and not a $nit* n$#ber is a ,l$rality o' $nits.0 Ino%led)e. also. and ,er&e,tion. %e &all t(e #eas$re o' t(in)s 'or t(e sa#e reason. be&a$se %e &o#e to no% so#et(in) by t(e#5%(ile as a #atter o' 'a&t t(ey are #eas$red rat(er t(an #eas$re ot(er t(in)s. B$t it is %it( $s as i' so#e one else #eas$red $s and %e &a#e to no% (o% bi) %e are by seein) t(at (e a,,lied t(e &$bit5#eas$re to s$&( and s$&( a 'ra&tion o' $s. B$t Prota)oras says 3#an is t(e #eas$re o' all t(in)s3. as i' (e (ad said 3t(e #an %(o no%s3 or 3t(e #an %(o ,er&ei+es3* and t(ese be&a$se t(ey (a+e res,e&ti+ely no%led)e and ,er&e,tion. %(i&( %e say are t(e #eas$res o' ob4e&ts. S$&( t(in ers are sayin) not(in). t(en. %(ile t(ey a,,ear to be sayin) so#et(in) re#ar able. E+idently. t(en. $nity in t(e stri&test sense. i' %e de'ine it a&&ordin) to t(e #eanin) o' t(e %ord. is a #eas$re. and #ost ,ro,erly o' 8$antity. and se&ondly o' 8$ality. And so#e t(in)s %ill be one i' t(ey are indi+isible in 8$antity. and ot(ers i' t(ey are indi+isible in 8$ality* and so t(at %(i&( is one is indi+isible. eit(er absol$tely or 8$a one. 7 Wit( re)ard to t(e s$bstan&e and nat$re o' t(e one %e #$st as in %(i&( o' t%o %ays it e1ists. T(is is t(e +ery 8$estion t(at %e re+ie%ed in o$r dis&$ssion o' ,roble#s. +i6. %(at t(e one is and (o% %e #$st &on&ei+e o' it. %(et(er %e #$st ta e t(e one itsel' as bein) a s$bstan&e /as bot( t(e Pyt(a)oreans say in earlier and Plato in later ti#es0. or t(ere is. rat(er. an $nderlyin) nat$re and t(e one s(o$ld be des&ribed #ore intelli)ibly and #ore in t(e #anner o' t(e ,(ysi&al ,(iloso,(ers. o' %(o# one says t(e one is lo+e. anot(er says it is air. and anot(er t(e inde'inite. I'. t(en. no $ni+ersal &an be a s$bstan&e. as (as been said o$r dis&$ssion o' s$bstan&e and bein). and i' bein) itsel' &annot be a s$bstan&e in t(e sense o' a one a,art 'ro# t(e #any /'or it is &o##on to t(e #any0. b$t is only a ,redi&ate. &learly $nity also &annot be a s$bstan&e* 'or bein) and $nity are t(e #ost $ni+ersal o' all ,redi&ates. T(ere'ore. on t(e one (and. )enera are not &ertain entities and s$bstan&es se,arable 'ro# ot(er t(in)s* and on t(e ot(er (and t(e one &annot be a )en$s. 'or t(e sa#e reasons 'or %(i&( bein) and s$bstan&e &annot be )enera. -$rt(er. t(e ,osition #$st be si#ilar in all t(e inds o' $nity. 2o% 3$nity3 (as 4$st as #any #eanin)s as 3bein)3* so t(at sin&e in t(e s,(ere o' 8$alities t(e one is so#et(in) de'inite5so#e ,arti&$lar ind o' t(in)5and si#ilarly in t(e s,(ere o' 8$antities. &learly %e #$st in e+ery &ate)ory as %(at t(e one is. as %e #$st as %(at t(e e1istent is. sin&e it is not eno$)( to say t(at its nat$re is 4$st to be one or e1istent. B$t in &olo$rs t(e one is a &olo$r. e.). %(ite. and t(en t(e ot(er &olo$rs are obser+ed to be ,rod$&ed o$t o' t(is and bla& . and bla& is t(e ,ri+ation o' %(ite. as dar ness o' li)(t. T(ere'ore i' all e1istent t(in)s %ere &olo$rs. e1istent t(in)s %o$ld (a+e been a n$#ber. indeed. b$t o' %(at< Clearly o' &olo$rs* and t(e 3one3 %o$ld (a+e been a ,arti&$lar 3one3. i.e. %(ite. And si#ilarly i' all e1istin) t(in)s %ere t$nes. t(ey %o$ld (a+e been a n$#ber. b$t a n$#ber o' 8$arter5tones. and t(eir essen&e %o$ld not (a+e been n$#ber* and t(e one %o$ld (a+e been so#et(in) %(ose s$bstan&e %as not to be one b$t to be t(e 8$arter5tone. And si#ilarly i' all e1istent t(in)s (ad been arti&$late so$nds. t(ey %o$ld (a+e been a n$#ber o' letters. and t(e one %o$ld (a+e been a +o%el. And i' all e1istent t(in)s %ere re&tilinear 'i)$res. t(ey %o$ld (a+e been a n$#ber o' 'i)$res. and t(e one %o$ld (a+e been t(e trian)le. And t(e sa#e ar)$#ent a,,lies to all ot(er &lasses. Sin&e. t(ere'ore. %(ile t(ere

are n$#bers and a one bot( in a''e&tions and in 8$alities and in 8$antities and in #o+e#ent. in all &ases t(e n$#ber is a n$#ber o' ,arti&$lar t(in)s and t(e one is one so#et(in). and its s$bstan&e is not 4$st to be one. t(e sa#e #$st be tr$e o' s$bstan&es also* 'or it is tr$e o' all &ases ali e. T(at t(e one. t(en. in e+ery &lass is a de'inite t(in). and in no &ase is its nat$re 4$st t(is. $nity. is e+ident* b$t as in &olo$rs t(e one5itsel' %(i&( %e #$st see is one &olo$r. so too in s$bstan&e t(e one5itsel' is one s$bstan&e. T(at in a sense $nity #eans t(e sa#e as bein) is &lear 'ro# t(e 'a&ts t(at its #eanin)s &orres,ond to t(e &ate)ories one to one. and it is not &o#,rised %it(in any &ate)ory /e.). it is &o#,rised neit(er in 3%(at a t(in) is3 nor in 8$ality. b$t is related to t(e# 4$st as bein) is0* t(at in 3one #an3 not(in) #ore is ,redi&ated t(an in 3#an3 /4$st as bein) is not(in) a,art 'ro# s$bstan&e or 8$ality or 8$antity0* and t(at to be one is 4$st to be a ,arti&$lar t(in). 3 T(e one and t(e #any are o,,osed in se+eral %ays. o' %(i&( one is t(e o,,osition o' t(e one and ,l$rality as indi+isible and di+isible* 'or t(at %(i&( is eit(er di+ided or di+isible is &alled a ,l$rality. and t(at %(i&( is indi+isible or not di+ided is &alled one. 2o% sin&e o,,osition is o' 'o$r inds. and one o' t(ese t%o ter#s is ,ri+ati+e in #eanin). t(ey #$st be &ontraries. and neit(er &ontradi&tory nor &orrelati+e in #eanin). And t(e one deri+es its na#e and its e1,lanation 'ro# its &ontrary. t(e indi+isible 'ro# t(e di+isible. be&a$se ,l$rality and t(e di+isible is #ore ,er&e,tible t(an t(e indi+isible. so t(at in de'inition ,l$rality is ,rior to t(e indi+isible. be&a$se o' t(e &onditions o' ,er&e,tion. To t(e one belon). as %e indi&ated )ra,(i&ally in o$r distin&tion o' t(e &ontraries. t(e sa#e and t(e li e and t(e e8$al. and to ,l$rality belon) t(e ot(er and t(e $nli e and t(e $ne8$al. 3T(e sa#e3 (as se+eral #eanin)s* /!0 %e so#eti#es #ean 3t(e sa#e n$#eri&ally3* a)ain. /70 %e &all a t(in) t(e sa#e i' it is one bot( in de'inition and in n$#ber. e.). yo$ are one %it( yo$rsel' bot( in 'or# and in #atter* and a)ain. /30 i' t(e de'inition o' its ,ri#ary essen&e is one* e.). e8$al strai)(t lines are t(e sa#e. and so are e8$al and e8$al5an)led 8$adrilaterals* t(ere are #any s$&(. b$t in t(ese e8$ality &onstit$tes $nity. T(in)s are li e i'. not bein) absol$tely t(e sa#e. nor %it(o$t di''eren&e in res,e&t o' t(eir &on&rete s$bstan&e. t(ey are t(e sa#e in 'or#* e.). t(e lar)er s8$are is li e t(e s#aller. and $ne8$al strai)(t lines are li e* t(ey are li e. b$t not absol$tely t(e sa#e. ;t(er t(in)s are li e. i'. (a+in) t(e sa#e 'or#. and bein) t(in)s in %(i&( di''eren&e o' de)ree is ,ossible. t(ey (a+e no di''eren&e o' de)ree. ;t(er t(in)s. i' t(ey (a+e a 8$ality t(at is in 'or# one and sa#e5e.). %(iteness5in a )reater or less de)ree. are &alled li e be&a$se t(eir 'or# is one. ;t(er t(in)s are &alled li e i' t(e 8$alities t(ey (a+e in &o##on are #ore n$#ero$s t(an t(ose in %(i&( t(ey di''er5eit(er t(e 8$alities in )eneral or t(e ,ro#inent 8$alities* e.). tin is li e sil+er. 8$a %(ite. and )old is li e 'ire. 8$a yello% and red. E+idently. t(en. 3ot(er3 and 3$nli e3 also (a+e se+eral #eanin)s. And t(e ot(er in one sense is t(e o,,osite o' t(e sa#e /so t(at e+eryt(in) is eit(er t(e sa#e as or ot(er t(an e+eryt(in) else0. In anot(er sense t(in)s are ot(er $nless bot( t(eir #atter and t(eir de'inition are one /so t(at yo$ are ot(er t(an yo$r nei)(bo$r0. T(e ot(er in t(e t(ird sense is e1e#,li'ied in t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. 3;t(er or t(e sa#e3 &an t(ere'ore be ,redi&ated o' e+eryt(in) %it( re)ard to e+eryt(in) else5b$t only i' t(e t(in)s are one and e1istent. 'or 3ot(er3 is not t(e &ontradi&tory o' 3t(e sa#e3* %(i&( is %(y it is not ,redi&ated o' non5e1istent t(in)s /%(ile 3not t(e sa#e3 is so ,redi&ated0. It is ,redi&ated o' all e1istin) t(in)s* 'or e+eryt(in) t(at is e1istent and one is by its +ery

nat$re eit(er one or not one %it( anyt(in) else. T(e ot(er. t(en. and t(e sa#e are t($s o,,osed. B$t di''eren&e is not t(e sa#e as ot(erness. -or t(e ot(er and t(at %(i&( it is ot(er t(an need not be ot(er in so#e de'inite res,e&t /'or e+eryt(in) t(at is e1istent is eit(er ot(er or t(e sa#e0. b$t t(at %(i&( is di''erent is di''erent 'ro# so#e ,arti&$lar t(in) in so#e ,arti&$lar res,e&t. so t(at t(ere #$st be so#et(in) identi&al %(ereby t(ey di''er. And t(is identi&al t(in) is )en$s or s,e&ies* 'or e+eryt(in) t(at di''ers di''ers eit(er in )en$s or in s,e&ies. in )en$s i' t(e t(in)s (a+e not t(eir #atter in &o##on and are not )enerated o$t o' ea&( ot(er /i.e. i' t(ey belon) to di''erent 'i)$res o' ,redi&ation0. and in s,e&ies i' t(ey (a+e t(e sa#e )en$s /3)en$s3 #eanin) t(at identi&al t(in) %(i&( is essentially ,redi&ated o' bot( t(e di''erent t(in)s0. Contraries are di''erent. and &ontrariety is a ind o' di''eren&e. T(at %e are ri)(t in t(is s$,,osition is s(o%n by ind$&tion. -or all o' t(ese too are seen to be di''erent* t(ey are not #erely ot(er. b$t so#e are ot(er in )en$s. and ot(ers are in t(e sa#e line o' ,redi&ation. and t(ere'ore in t(e sa#e )en$s. and t(e sa#e in )en$s. We (a+e distin)$is(ed else%(ere %(at sort o' t(in)s are t(e sa#e or ot(er in )en$s. = Sin&e t(in)s %(i&( di''er #ay di''er 'ro# one anot(er #ore or less. t(ere is also a )reatest di''eren&e. and t(is I &all &ontrariety. T(at &ontrariety is t(e )reatest di''eren&e is #ade &lear by ind$&tion. -or t(in)s %(i&( di''er in )en$s (a+e no %ay to one anot(er. b$t are too 'ar distant and are not &o#,arable* and 'or t(in)s t(at di''er in s,e&ies t(e e1tre#es 'ro# %(i&( )eneration ta es ,la&e are t(e &ontraries. and t(e distan&e bet%een e1tre#es5and t(ere'ore t(at bet%een t(e &ontraries5is t(e )reatest. B$t s$rely t(at %(i&( is )reatest in ea&( &lass is &o#,lete. -or t(at is )reatest %(i&( &annot be e1&eeded. and t(at is &o#,lete beyond %(i&( not(in) &an be 'o$nd. -or t(e &o#,lete di''eren&e #ar s t(e end o' a series /4$st as t(e ot(er t(in)s %(i&( are &alled &o#,lete are so &alled be&a$se t(ey (a+e attained an end0. and beyond t(e end t(ere is not(in)* 'or in e+eryt(in) it is t(e e1tre#e and in&l$des all else. and t(ere'ore t(ere is not(in) beyond t(e end. and t(e &o#,lete needs not(in) '$rt(er. -ro# t(is. t(en. it is &lear t(at &ontrariety is &o#,lete di''eren&e* and as &ontraries are so &alled in se+eral senses. t(eir #odes o' &o#,leteness %ill ans%er to t(e +ario$s #odes o' &ontrariety %(i&( atta&( to t(e &ontraries. T(is bein) so. it is &lear t(at one t(in) (a+e #ore t(an one &ontrary /'or neit(er &an t(ere be anyt(in) #ore e1tre#e t(an t(e e1tre#e. nor &an t(ere be #ore t(an t%o e1tre#es 'or t(e one inter+al0. and. to ,$t t(e #atter )enerally. t(is is &lear i' &ontrariety is a di''eren&e. and i' di''eren&e. and t(ere'ore also t(e &o#,lete di''eren&e. #$st be bet%een t%o t(in)s. And t(e ot(er &o##only a&&e,ted de'initions o' &ontraries are also ne&essarily tr$e. -or not only is /!0 t(e &o#,lete di''eren&e t(e )reatest di''eren&e /'or %e &an )et no di''eren&e beyond it o' t(in)s di''erin) eit(er in )en$s or in s,e&ies* 'or it (as been s(o%n t(at t(ere is no 3di''eren&e3 bet%een anyt(in) and t(e t(in)s o$tside its )en$s. and a#on) t(e t(in)s %(i&( di''er in s,e&ies t(e &o#,lete di''eren&e is t(e )reatest0* b$t also /70 t(e t(in)s in t(e sa#e )en$s %(i&( di''er #ost are &ontrary /'or t(e &o#,lete di''eren&e is t(e )reatest di''eren&e bet%een s,e&ies o' t(e sa#e )en$s0* and /30 t(e t(in)s in t(e sa#e re&e,ti+e #aterial %(i&( di''er #ost are &ontrary /'or t(e #atter is t(e sa#e 'or &ontraries0* and /=0 o' t(e t(in)s %(i&( 'all $nder t(e sa#e 'a&$lty t(e #ost di''erent are &ontrary /'or one s&ien&e deals %it( one &lass o' t(in)s. and in t(ese t(e &o#,lete di''eren&e is t(e )reatest0. T(e ,ri#ary &ontrariety is t(at bet%een ,ositi+e state and ,ri+ation5not e+ery ,ri+ation. (o%e+er /'or 3,ri+ation3 (as se+eral

#eanin)s0. b$t t(at %(i&( is &o#,lete. And t(e ot(er &ontraries #$st be &alled so %it( re'eren&e to t(ese. so#e be&a$se t(ey ,ossess t(ese. ot(ers be&a$se t(ey ,rod$&e or tend to ,rod$&e t(e#. ot(ers be&a$se t(ey are a&8$isitions or losses o' t(ese or o' ot(er &ontraries. 2o% i' t(e inds o' o,,osition are &ontradi&tion and ,ri+ation and &ontrariety and relation. and o' t(ese t(e 'irst is &ontradi&tion. and &ontradi&tion ad#its o' no inter#ediate. %(ile &ontraries ad#it o' one. &learly &ontradi&tion and &ontrariety are not t(e sa#e. B$t ,ri+ation is a ind o' &ontradi&tion* 'or %(at s$''ers ,ri+ation. eit(er in )eneral or in so#e deter#inate %ay. eit(er t(at %(i&( is 8$ite in&a,able o' (a+in) so#e attrib$te or t(at %(i&(. bein) o' s$&( a nat$re as to (a+e it. (as it not* (ere %e (a+e already a +ariety o' #eanin)s. %(i&( (a+e been distin)$is(ed else%(ere. Pri+ation. t(ere'ore. is a &ontradi&tion or in&a,a&ity %(i&( is deter#inate or ta en alon) %it( t(e re&e,ti+e #aterial. T(is is t(e reason %(y. %(ile &ontradi&tion does not ad#it o' an inter#ediate. ,ri+ation so#eti#es does* 'or e+eryt(in) is e8$al or not e8$al. b$t not e+eryt(in) is e8$al or $ne8$al. or i' it is. it is only %it(in t(e s,(ere o' t(at %(i&( is re&e,ti+e o' e8$ality. I'. t(en. t(e &o#in)s5to5be %(i&( (a,,en to t(e #atter start 'ro# t(e &ontraries. and ,ro&eed eit(er 'ro# t(e 'or# and t(e ,ossession o' t(e 'or# or 'ro# a ,ri+ation o' t(e 'or# or s(a,e. &learly all &ontrariety #$st be ,ri+ation. b$t ,res$#ably not all ,ri+ation is &ontrariety /t(e reason bein) t(at t(at (as s$''ered ,ri+ation #ay (a+e s$''ered it in se+eral %ays0* 'or it is only t(e e1tre#es 'ro# %(i&( &(an)es ,ro&eed t(at are &ontraries. And t(is is ob+io$s also by ind$&tion. -or e+ery &ontrariety in+ol+es. as one o' its ter#s. a ,ri+ation. b$t not all &ases are ali e* ine8$ality is t(e ,ri+ation o' e8$ality and $nli eness o' li eness. and on t(e ot(er (and +i&e is t(e ,ri+ation o' +irt$e. B$t t(e &ases di''er in a %ay already des&ribed* in one &ase %e #ean si#,ly t(at t(e t(in) (as s$''ered ,ri+ation. in anot(er &ase t(at it (as done so eit(er at a &ertain ti#e or in a &ertain ,art /e.). at a &ertain a)e or in t(e do#inant ,art0. or t(ro$)(o$t. T(is is %(y in so#e &ases t(ere is a #ean /t(ere are #en %(o are neit(er )ood nor bad0. and in ot(ers t(ere is not /a n$#ber #$st be eit(er odd or e+en0. -$rt(er. so#e &ontraries (a+e t(eir s$b4e&t de'ined. ot(ers (a+e not. T(ere'ore it is e+ident t(at one o' t(e &ontraries is al%ays ,ri+ati+e* b$t it is eno$)( i' t(is is tr$e o' t(e 'irst5i.e. t(e )eneri&5&ontraries. e.). t(e one and t(e #any* 'or t(e ot(ers &an be red$&ed to t(ese. 5 Sin&e one t(in) (as one &ontrary. %e #i)(t raise t(e 8$estion (o% t(e one is o,,osed to t(e #any. and t(e e8$al to t(e )reat and t(e s#all. -or i' %e $sed t(e %ord 3%(et(er3 only in an antit(esis s$&( as 3%(et(er it is %(ite or bla& 3. or 3%(et(er it is %(ite or not %(ite3 /%e do not as 3%(et(er it is a #an or %(ite30. $nless %e are ,ro&eedin) on a ,rior ass$#,tion and as in) so#et(in) s$&( as 3%(et(er it %as Cleon or So&rates t(at &a#e3 as t(is is not a ne&essary dis4$n&tion in any &lass o' t(in)s* yet e+en t(is is an e1tension 'ro# t(e &ase o' o,,osites* 'or o,,osites alone &annot be ,resent to)et(er* and %e ass$#e t(is in&o#,atibility (ere too in as in) %(i&( o' t(e t%o &a#e* 'or i' t(ey #i)(t bot( (a+e &o#e. t(e 8$estion %o$ld (a+e been abs$rd* b$t i' t(ey #i)(t. e+en so t(is 'alls 4$st as #$&( into an antit(esis. t(at o' t(e 3one or #any3. i.e. 3%(et(er bot( &a#e or one o' t(e t%o3>5i'. t(en. t(e 8$estion 3%(et(er3 is al%ays &on&erned %it( o,,osites. and %e &an as 3%(et(er it is )reater or less or e8$al3. %(at is t(e o,,osition o' t(e e8$al to t(e ot(er t%o< It is not &ontrary eit(er to one alone or to bot(* 'or %(y s(o$ld it be &ontrary to t(e )reater rat(er t(an to t(e less< -$rt(er. t(e e8$al is &ontrary to t(e $ne8$al. T(ere'ore i' it is &ontrary to t(e )reater and t(e less. it %ill be &ontrary to #ore t(in)s t(an one. B$t i' t(e $ne8$al #eans t(e sa#e as bot( t(e )reater and t(e less

to)et(er. t(e e8$al %ill be o,,osite to bot( /and t(e di''i&$lty s$,,orts t(ose %(o say t(e $ne8$al is a 3t%o30. b$t it 'ollo%s t(at one t(in) is &ontrary to t%o ot(ers. %(i&( is i#,ossible. A)ain. t(e e8$al is e+idently inter#ediate bet%een t(e )reat and t(e s#all. b$t no &ontrariety is eit(er obser+ed to be inter#ediate. or. 'ro# its de'inition. &an be so* 'or it %o$ld not be &o#,lete i' it %ere inter#ediate bet%een any t%o t(in)s. b$t rat(er it al%ays (as so#et(in) inter#ediate bet%een its o%n ter#s. It re#ains. t(en. t(at it is o,,osed eit(er as ne)ation or as ,ri+ation. It &annot be t(e ne)ation or ,ri+ation o' one o' t(e t%o* 'or %(y o' t(e )reat rat(er t(an o' t(e s#all< It is. t(en. t(e ,ri+ati+e ne)ation o' bot(. T(is is %(y 3%(et(er3 is said %it( re'eren&e to bot(. not to one o' t(e t%o /e.). 3%(et(er it is )reater or e8$al3 or 3%(et(er it is e8$al or less30* t(ere are al%ays t(ree &ases. B$t it is not a ne&essary ,ri+ation* 'or not e+eryt(in) %(i&( is not )reater or less is e8$al. b$t only t(e t(in)s %(i&( are o' s$&( a nat$re as to (a+e t(ese attrib$tes. T(e e8$al. t(en. is t(at %(i&( is neit(er )reat nor s#all b$t is nat$rally 'itted to be eit(er )reat or s#all* and it is o,,osed to bot( as a ,ri+ati+e ne)ation /and t(ere'ore is also inter#ediate0. And t(at %(i&( is neit(er )ood nor bad is o,,osed to bot(. b$t (as no na#e* 'or ea&( o' t(ese (as se+eral #eanin)s and t(e re&i,ient s$b4e&t is not one* b$t t(at %(i&( is neit(er %(ite nor bla& (as #ore &lai# to $nity. Yet e+en t(is (as not one na#e. t(o$)( t(e &olo$rs o' %(i&( t(is ne)ation is ,ri+ati+ely ,redi&ated are in a %ay li#ited* 'or t(ey #$st be eit(er )rey or yello% or so#et(in) else o' t(e ind. T(ere'ore it is an in&orre&t &riti&is# t(at is ,assed by t(ose %(o t(in t(at all s$&( ,(rases are $sed in t(e sa#e %ay. so t(at t(at %(i&( is neit(er a s(oe nor a (and %o$ld be inter#ediate bet%een a s(oe and a (and. sin&e t(at %(i&( is neit(er )ood nor bad is inter#ediate bet%een t(e )ood and t(e bad5as i' t(ere #$st be an inter#ediate in all &ases. B$t t(is does not ne&essarily 'ollo%. -or t(e one ,(rase is a 4oint denial o' o,,osites bet%een %(i&( t(ere is an inter#ediate and a &ertain nat$ral inter+al* b$t bet%een t(e ot(er t%o t(ere is no 3di''eren&e3* 'or t(e t(in)s. t(e denials o' %(i&( are &o#bined. belon) to di''erent &lasses. so t(at t(e s$bstrat$# is not one. @ We #i)(t raise si#ilar 8$estions abo$t t(e one and t(e #any. -or i' t(e #any are absol$tely o,,osed to t(e one. &ertain i#,ossible res$lts 'ollo%. ;ne %ill t(en be 'e%. %(et(er 'e% be treated (ere as sin)$lar or ,l$ral* 'or t(e #any are o,,osed also to t(e 'e%. -$rt(er. t%o %ill be #any. sin&e t(e do$ble is #$lti,le and 3do$ble3 deri+es its #eanin) 'ro# 3t%o3* t(ere'ore one %ill be 'e%* 'or %(at is t(at in &o#,arison %it( %(i&( t%o are #any. e1&e,t one. %(i&( #$st t(ere'ore be 'e%< -or t(ere is not(in) 'e%er. -$rt(er. i' t(e #$&( and t(e little are in ,l$rality %(at t(e lon) and t(e s(ort are in len)t(. and %(ate+er is #$&( is also #any. and t(e #any are #$&( /$nless. indeed. t(ere is a di''eren&e in t(e &ase o' an easily5bo$nded &ontin$$#0. t(e little /or 'e%0 %ill be a ,l$rality. T(ere'ore one is a ,l$rality i' it is 'e%* and t(is it #$st be. i' t%o are #any. B$t ,er(a,s. %(ile t(e 3#any3 are in a sense said to be also 3#$&(3. it is %it( a di''eren&e* e.). %ater is #$&( b$t not #any. B$t 3#any3 is a,,lied to t(e t(in)s t(at are di+isible* in t(e one sense it #eans a ,l$rality %(i&( is e1&essi+e eit(er absol$tely or relati+ely /%(ile 3'e%3 is si#ilarly a ,l$rality %(i&( is de'i&ient0. and in anot(er sense it #eans n$#ber. in %(i&( sense alone it is o,,osed to t(e one. -or %e say 3one or #any3. 4$st as i' one %ere to say 3one and ones3 or 3%(ite t(in) and %(ite t(in)s3. or to &o#,are t(e t(in)s t(at (a+e been #eas$red %it( t(e #eas$re. It is in t(is sense also t(at #$lti,les are so &alled. -or ea&( n$#ber is said to be #any be&a$se it &onsists o' ones and be&a$se ea&( n$#ber is #eas$rable by one* and it is 3#any3 as t(at %(i&( is o,,osed to one. not to t(e 'e%. In

t(is sense. t(en. e+en t%o is #any5not. (o%e+er. in t(e sense o' a ,l$rality %(i&( is e1&essi+e eit(er relati+ely or absol$tely* it is t(e 'irst ,l$rality. B$t %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation t%o is 'e%* 'or it is 'irst ,l$rality %(i&( is de'i&ient /'or t(is reason Ana1a)oras %as not ri)(t in lea+in) t(e s$b4e&t %it( t(e state#ent t(at 3all t(in)s %ere to)et(er. bo$ndless bot( in ,l$rality and in s#allness35%(ere 'or 3and in s#allness3 (e s(o$ld (a+e said 3and in 'e%ness3* 'or t(ey &o$ld not (a+e been bo$ndless in 'e%ness0. sin&e it is not one. as so#e say. b$t t%o. t(at #a e a 'e%. T(e one is o,,osed t(en to t(e #any in n$#bers as #eas$re to t(in) #eas$rable* and t(ese are o,,osed as are t(e relati+es %(i&( are not 'ro# t(eir +ery nat$re relati+es. We (a+e distin)$is(ed else%(ere t(e t%o senses in %(i&( relati+es are so &alled>5/!0 as &ontraries* /70 as no%led)e to t(in) no%n. a ter# bein) &alled relati+e be&a$se anot(er is relati+e to it. T(ere is not(in) to ,re+ent one 'ro# bein) 'e%er t(an so#et(in). e.). t(an t%o* 'or i' one is 'e%er. it is not t(ere'ore 'e%. Pl$rality is as it %ere t(e &lass to %(i&( n$#ber belon)s* 'or n$#ber is ,l$rality #eas$rable by one. and one and n$#ber are in a sense o,,osed. not as &ontrary. b$t as %e (a+e said so#e relati+e ter#s are o,,osed* 'or inas#$&( as one is #eas$re and t(e ot(er #eas$rable. t(ey are o,,osed. T(is is %(y not e+eryt(in) t(at is one is a n$#ber* i.e. i' t(e t(in) is indi+isible it is not a n$#ber. B$t t(o$)( no%led)e is si#ilarly s,o en o' as relati+e to t(e no%able. t(e relation does not %or o$t si#ilarly* 'or %(ile no%led)e #i)(t be t(o$)(t to be t(e #eas$re. and t(e no%able t(e t(in) #eas$red. t(e 'a&t t(at all no%led)e is no%able. b$t not all t(at is no%able is no%led)e. be&a$se in a sense no%led)e is #eas$red by t(e no%able.5Pl$rality is &ontrary neit(er to t(e 'e% /t(e #any bein) &ontrary to t(is as e1&essi+e ,l$rality to ,l$rality e1&eeded0. nor to t(e one in e+ery sense* b$t in t(e one sense t(ese are &ontrary. as (as been said. be&a$se t(e 'or#er is di+isible and t(e latter indi+isible. %(ile in anot(er sense t(ey are relati+e as no%led)e is to no%able. i' ,l$rality is n$#ber and t(e one is a #eas$re. A Sin&e &ontraries ad#it o' an inter#ediate and in so#e &ases (a+e it. inter#ediates #$st be &o#,osed o' t(e &ontraries. -or /!0 all inter#ediates are in t(e sa#e )en$s as t(e t(in)s bet%een %(i&( t(ey stand. -or %e &all t(ose t(in)s inter#ediates. into %(i&( t(at %(i&( &(an)es #$st &(an)e 'irst* e.). i' %e %ere to ,ass 'ro# t(e (i)(est strin) to t(e lo%est by t(e s#allest inter+als. %e s(o$ld &o#e sooner to t(e inter#ediate notes. and in &olo$rs i' %e %ere to ,ass 'ro# %(ite to bla& . %e s(o$ld &o#e sooner to &ri#son and )rey t(an to bla& * and si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. B$t to &(an)e 'ro# one )en$s to anot(er )en$s is not ,ossible e1&e,t in an in&idental %ay. as 'ro# &olo$r to 'i)$re. Inter#ediates. t(en. #$st be in t(e sa#e )en$s bot( as one anot(er and as t(e t(in)s t(ey stand bet%een. B$t /70 all inter#ediates stand bet%een o,,osites o' so#e ind* 'or only bet%een t(ese &an &(an)e ta e ,la&e in +irt$e o' t(eir o%n nat$re /so t(at an inter#ediate is i#,ossible bet%een t(in)s %(i&( are not o,,osite* 'or t(en t(ere %o$ld be &(an)e %(i&( %as not 'ro# one o,,osite to%ards t(e ot(er0. ;' o,,osites. &ontradi&tories ad#it o' no #iddle ter#* 'or t(is is %(at &ontradi&tion is5an o,,osition. one or ot(er side o' %(i&( #$st atta&( to anyt(in) %(ate+er. i.e. %(i&( (as no inter#ediate. ;' ot(er o,,osites. so#e are relati+e. ot(ers ,ri+ati+e. ot(ers &ontrary. ;' relati+e ter#s. t(ose %(i&( are not &ontrary (a+e no inter#ediate* t(e reason is t(at t(ey are not in t(e sa#e )en$s. -or %(at inter#ediate &o$ld t(ere be bet%een no%led)e and no%able< B$t bet%een )reat and s#all t(ere is one. /30 I' inter#ediates are in t(e sa#e )en$s. as (as been s(o%n. and stand bet%een &ontraries. t(ey #$st be &o#,osed o' t(ese &ontraries. -or eit(er t(ere %ill be a )en$s in&l$din) t(e &ontraries or t(ere %ill be none. And i' /a0 t(ere is to be a )en$s in s$&( a %ay t(at

it is so#et(in) ,rior to t(e &ontraries. t(e di''erentiae %(i&( &onstit$ted t(e &ontrary s,e&ies5o'5a5)en$s %ill be &ontraries ,rior to t(e s,e&ies* 'or s,e&ies are &o#,osed o' t(e )en$s and t(e di''erentiae. /E.). i' %(ite and bla& are &ontraries. and one is a ,ier&in) &olo$r and t(e ot(er a &o#,ressin) &olo$r. t(ese di''erentiae53,ier&in)3 and 3&o#,ressin)35are ,rior* so t(at t(ese are ,rior &ontraries o' one anot(er.0 B$t. a)ain. t(e s,e&ies %(i&( di''er &ontrari%ise are t(e #ore tr$ly &ontrary s,e&ies. And t(e ot(er.s,e&ies. i.e. t(e inter#ediates. #$st be &o#,osed o' t(eir )en$s and t(eir di''erentiae. /E.). all &olo$rs %(i&( are bet%een %(ite and bla& #$st be said to be &o#,osed o' t(e )en$s. i.e. &olo$r. and &ertain di''erentiae. B$t t(ese di''erentiae %ill not be t(e ,ri#ary &ontraries* ot(er%ise e+ery &olo$r %o$ld be eit(er %(ite or bla& . T(ey are di''erent. t(en. 'ro# t(e ,ri#ary &ontraries* and t(ere'ore t(ey %ill be bet%een t(e ,ri#ary &ontraries* t(e ,ri#ary di''erentiae are 3,ier&in)3 and 3&o#,ressin)3.0 T(ere'ore it is /b0 %it( re)ard to t(ese &ontraries %(i&( do not 'all %it(in a )en$s t(at %e #$st 'irst as o' %(at t(eir inter#ediates are &o#,osed. /-or t(in)s %(i&( are in t(e sa#e )en$s #$st be &o#,osed o' ter#s in %(i&( t(e )en$s is not an ele#ent. or else be t(e#sel+es in&o#,osite.0 2o% &ontraries do not in+ol+e one anot(er in t(eir &o#,osition. and are t(ere'ore 'irst ,rin&i,les* b$t t(e inter#ediates are eit(er all in&o#,osite. or none o' t(e#. B$t t(ere is so#et(in) &o#,o$nded o$t o' t(e &ontraries. so t(at t(ere &an be a &(an)e 'ro# a &ontrary to it sooner t(an to t(e ot(er &ontrary* 'or it %ill (a+e less o' t(e 8$ality in 8$estion t(an t(e one &ontrary and #ore t(an t(e ot(er. T(is also. t(en. %ill &o#e bet%een t(e &ontraries. All t(e ot(er inter#ediates also. t(ere'ore. are &o#,osite* 'or t(at %(i&( (as #ore o' a 8$ality t(an one t(in) and less t(an anot(er is &o#,o$nded so#e(o% o$t o' t(e t(in)s t(an %(i&( it is said to (a+e #ore and less res,e&ti+ely o' t(e 8$ality. And sin&e t(ere are no ot(er t(in)s ,rior to t(e &ontraries and (o#o)eneo$s %it( t(e inter#ediates. all inter#ediates #$st be &o#,o$nded o$t o' t(e &ontraries. T(ere'ore also all t(e in'erior &lasses. bot( t(e &ontraries and t(eir inter#ediates. %ill be &o#,o$nded o$t o' t(e ,ri#ary &ontraries. Clearly. t(en. inter#ediates are /!0 all in t(e sa#e )en$s and /70 inter#ediate bet%een &ontraries. and /30 all &o#,o$nded o$t o' t(e &ontraries. B T(at %(i&( is ot(er in s,e&ies is ot(er t(an so#et(in) in so#et(in). and t(is #$st belon) to bot(* e.). i' it is an ani#al ot(er in s,e&ies. bot( are ani#als. T(e t(in)s. t(en. %(i&( are ot(er in s,e&ies #$st be in t(e sa#e )en$s. -or by )en$s I #ean t(at one identi&al t(in) %(i&( is ,redi&ated o' bot( and is di''erentiated in no #erely a&&idental %ay. %(et(er &on&ei+ed as #atter or ot(er%ise. -or not only #$st t(e &o##on nat$re atta&( to t(e di''erent t(in)s. e.). not only #$st bot( be ani#als. b$t t(is +ery ani#ality #$st also be di''erent 'or ea&( /e.). in t(e one &ase e8$inity. in t(e ot(er ($#anity0. and so t(is &o##on nat$re is s,e&i'i&ally di''erent 'or ea&( 'ro# %(at it is 'or t(e ot(er. ;ne. t(en. %ill be in +irt$e o' its o%n nat$re one sort o' ani#al. and t(e ot(er anot(er. e.). one a (orse and t(e ot(er a #an. T(is di''eren&e. t(en. #$st be an ot(erness o' t(e )en$s. -or I )i+e t(e na#e o' 3di''eren&e in t(e )en$s3 an ot(erness %(i&( #a es t(e )en$s itsel' ot(er. T(is. t(en. %ill be a &ontrariety /as &an be s(o%n also by ind$&tion0. -or all t(in)s are di+ided by o,,osites. and it (as been ,ro+ed t(at &ontraries are in t(e sa#e )en$s. -or &ontrariety %as seen to be &o#,lete di''eren&e* and all di''eren&e in s,e&ies is a di''eren&e 'ro# so#et(in) in so#et(in)* so t(at t(is is t(e sa#e 'or bot( and is t(eir )en$s. /Hen&e also all &ontraries %(i&( are di''erent in s,e&ies and not in )en$s are in t(e sa#e line o' ,redi&ation. and ot(er t(an one anot(er in t(e (i)(est de)ree5'or t(e di''eren&e is &o#,lete5. and &annot be ,resent alon) %it( one

anot(er.0 T(e di''eren&e. t(en. is a &ontrariety. T(is. t(en. is %(at it is to be 3ot(er in s,e&ies35to (a+e a &ontrariety. bein) in t(e sa#e )en$s and bein) indi+isible /and t(ose t(in)s are t(e sa#e in s,e&ies %(i&( (a+e no &ontrariety. bein) indi+isible0* %e say 3bein) indi+isible3. 'or in t(e ,ro&ess o' di+ision &ontrarieties arise in t(e inter#ediate sta)es be'ore %e &o#e to t(e indi+isibles. E+idently. t(ere'ore. %it( re'eren&e to t(at %(i&( is &alled t(e )en$s. none o' t(e s,e&ies5o'5a5)en$s is eit(er t(e sa#e as it or ot(er t(an it in s,e&ies /and t(is is 'ittin)* 'or t(e #atter is indi&ated by ne)ation. and t(e )en$s is t(e #atter o' t(at o' %(i&( it is &alled t(e )en$s. not in t(e sense in %(i&( %e s,ea o' t(e )en$s or 'a#ily o' t(e Hera&lidae. b$t in t(at in %(i&( t(e )en$s is an ele#ent in a t(in)3s nat$re0. nor is it so %it( re'eren&e to t(in)s %(i&( are not in t(e sa#e )en$s. b$t it %ill di''er in )en$s 'ro# t(e#. and in s,e&ies 'ro# t(in)s in t(e sa#e )en$s. -or a t(in)3s di''eren&e 'ro# t(at 'ro# %(i&( it di''ers in s,e&ies #$st be a &ontrariety* and t(is belon)s only to t(in)s in t(e sa#e )en$s. C ;ne #i)(t raise t(e 8$estion. %(y %o#an does not di''er 'ro# #an in s,e&ies. %(en 'e#ale and #ale are &ontrary and t(eir di''eren&e is a &ontrariety* and %(y a 'e#ale and a #ale ani#al are not di''erent in s,e&ies. t(o$)( t(is di''eren&e belon)s to ani#al in +irt$e o' its o%n nat$re. and not as ,aleness or dar ness does* bot( 3'e#ale3 and 3#ale3 belon) to it 8$a ani#al. T(is 8$estion is al#ost t(e sa#e as t(e ot(er. %(y one &ontrariety #a es t(in)s di''erent in s,e&ies and anot(er does not. e.). 3%it( 'eet3 and 3%it( %in)s3 do. b$t ,aleness and dar ness do not. Per(a,s it is be&a$se t(e 'or#er are #odi'i&ations ,e&$liar to t(e )en$s. and t(e latter are less so. And sin&e one ele#ent is de'inition and one is #atter. &ontrarieties %(i&( are in t(e de'inition #a e a di''eren&e in s,e&ies. b$t t(ose %(i&( are in t(e t(in) ta en as in&l$din) its #atter do not #a e one. And so ,aleness in a #an. or dar ness. does not #a e one. nor is t(ere a di''eren&e in s,e&ies bet%een t(e ,ale #an and t(e dar #an. not e+en i' ea&( o' t(e# be denoted by one %ord. -or #an is (ere bein) &onsidered on (is #aterial side. and #atter does not &reate a di''eren&e* 'or it does not #a e indi+id$al #en s,e&ies o' #an. t(o$)( t(e 'les( and t(e bones o' %(i&( t(is #an and t(at #an &onsist are ot(er. T(e &on&rete t(in) is ot(er. b$t not ot(er in s,e&ies. be&a$se in t(e de'inition t(ere is no &ontrariety. T(is is t(e $lti#ate indi+isible ind. Callias is de'inition G #atter. t(e ,ale #an. t(en. is so also. be&a$se it is t(e indi+id$al Callias t(at is ,ale* #an. t(en. is ,ale only in&identally. 2eit(er do a bra6en and a %ooden &ir&le. t(en. di''er in s,e&ies* and i' a bra6en trian)le and a %ooden &ir&le di''er in s,e&ies. it is not be&a$se o' t(e #atter. b$t be&a$se t(ere is a &ontrariety in t(e de'inition. B$t does t(e #atter not #a e t(in)s ot(er in s,e&ies. %(en it is ot(er in a &ertain %ay. or is t(ere a sense in %(i&( it does< -or %(y is t(is (orse ot(er t(an t(is #an in s,e&ies. alt(o$)( t(eir #atter is in&l$ded %it( t(eir de'initions< Do$btless be&a$se t(ere is a &ontrariety in t(e de'inition. -or %(ile t(ere is a &ontrariety also bet%een ,ale #an and dar (orse. and it is a &ontrariety in s,e&ies. it does not de,end on t(e ,aleness o' t(e one and t(e dar ness o' t(e ot(er. sin&e e+en i' bot( (ad been ,ale. yet t(ey %o$ld (a+e been ot(er in s,e&ies. B$t #ale and 'e#ale. %(ile t(ey are #odi'i&ations ,e&$liar to 3ani#al3. are so not in +irt$e o' its essen&e b$t in t(e #atter. ie. t(e body. T(is is %(y t(e sa#e seed be&o#es 'e#ale or #ale by bein) a&ted on in a &ertain %ay. We (a+e stated. t(en. %(at it is to be ot(er in s,e&ies. and %(y so#e t(in)s di''er in s,e&ies and ot(ers do not. !0 Sin&e &ontraries are ot(er in 'or#. and t(e ,eris(able and t(e

i#,eris(able are &ontraries /'or ,ri+ation is a deter#inate in&a,a&ity0. t(e ,eris(able and t(e i#,eris(able #$st be di''erent in ind. 2o% so 'ar %e (a+e s,o en o' t(e )eneral ter#s t(e#sel+es. so t(at it #i)(t be t(o$)(t not to be ne&essary t(at e+ery i#,eris(able t(in) s(o$ld be di''erent 'ro# e+ery ,eris(able t(in) in 'or#. 4$st as not e+ery ,ale t(in) is di''erent in 'or# 'ro# e+ery dar t(in). -or t(e sa#e t(in) &an be bot(. and e+en at t(e sa#e ti#e i' it is a $ni+ersal /e.). #an &an be bot( ,ale and dar 0. and i' it is an indi+id$al it &an still be bot(* 'or t(e sa#e #an &an be. t(o$)( not at t(e sa#e ti#e. ,ale and dar . Yet ,ale is &ontrary to dar . B$t %(ile so#e &ontraries belon) to &ertain t(in)s by a&&ident /e.). bot( t(ose no% #entioned and #any ot(ers0. ot(ers &annot. and a#on) t(ese are 3,eris(able3 and 3i#,eris(able3. -or not(in) is by a&&ident ,eris(able. -or %(at is a&&idental is &a,able o' not bein) ,resent. b$t ,eris(ableness is one o' t(e attrib$tes t(at belon) o' ne&essity to t(e t(in)s to %(i&( t(ey belon)* or else one and t(e sa#e t(in) #ay be ,eris(able and i#,eris(able. i' ,eris(ableness is &a,able o' not belon)in) to it. Peris(ableness t(en #$st eit(er be t(e essen&e or be ,resent in t(e essen&e o' ea&( ,eris(able t(in). T(e sa#e a&&o$nt (olds )ood 'or i#,eris(ableness also* 'or bot( are attrib$tes %(i&( are ,resent o' ne&essity. T(e &(ara&teristi&s. t(en. in res,e&t o' %(i&( and in dire&t &onse8$en&e o' %(i&( one t(in) is ,eris(able and anot(er i#,eris(able. are o,,osite. so t(at t(e t(in)s #$st be di''erent in ind. E+idently. t(en. t(ere &annot be -or#s s$&( as so#e #aintain. 'or t(en one #an %o$ld be ,eris(able and anot(er i#,eris(able. Yet t(e -or#s are said to be t(e sa#e in 'or# %it( t(e indi+id$als and not #erely to (a+e t(e sa#e na#e* b$t t(in)s %(i&( di''er in ind are 'art(er a,art t(an t(ose %(i&( di''er in 'or#. Boo ?I ! THAT Wisdo# is a s&ien&e o' 'irst ,rin&i,les is e+ident 'ro# t(e introd$&tory &(a,ters. in %(i&( %e (a+e raised ob4e&tions to t(e state#ents o' ot(ers abo$t t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les* b$t one #i)(t as t(e 8$estion %(et(er Wisdo# is to be &on&ei+ed as one s&ien&e or as se+eral. I' as one. it #ay be ob4e&ted t(at one s&ien&e al%ays deals %it( &ontraries. b$t t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les are not &ontrary. I' it is not one. %(at sort o' s&ien&es are t(ose %it( %(i&( it is to be identi'ied< -$rt(er. is it t(e b$siness o' one s&ien&e. or o' #ore t(an one. to e1a#ine t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les o' de#onstration< I' o' one. %(y o' t(is rat(er t(an o' any ot(er< I' o' #ore. %(at sort o' s&ien&es #$st t(ese be said to be< -$rt(er. does Wisdo# in+esti)ate all s$bstan&es or not< I' not all. it is (ard to say %(i&(* b$t i'. bein) one. it in+esti)ates t(e# all. it is do$bt'$l (o% t(e sa#e s&ien&e &an e#bra&e se+eral s$b4e&t5#atters. -$rt(er. does it deal %it( s$bstan&es only or also %it( t(eir attrib$tes< I' in t(e &ase o' attrib$tes de#onstration is ,ossible. in t(at o' s$bstan&es it is not. B$t i' t(e t%o s&ien&es are di''erent. %(at is ea&( o' t(e# and %(i&( is Wisdo#< I' %e t(in o' it as de#onstrati+e. t(e s&ien&e o' t(e attrib$tes is Wisdo#. b$t i' as dealin) %it( %(at is ,ri#ary. t(e s&ien&e o' s$bstan&es &lai#s t(e tide. B$t a)ain t(e s&ien&e %e are loo in) 'or #$st not be s$,,osed to deal %it( t(e &a$ses %(i&( (a+e been #entioned in t(e P(ysi&s. -or /A0 it does not deal %it( t(e 'inal &a$se /'or t(at is t(e nat$re o' t(e )ood. and t(is is 'o$nd in t(e 'ield o' a&tion and #o+e#ent* and it is t(e 'irst #o+er5'or t(at is t(e nat$re o' t(e end5b$t in t(e &ase o' t(in)s $n#o+able t(ere is not(in) t(at #o+ed t(e# 'irst0. and /B0 in )eneral it is (ard to say %(et(er ,er&(an&e t(e s&ien&e %e are no% loo in) 'or deals %it( ,er&e,tible s$bstan&es or not %it( t(e#. b$t

%it( &ertain ot(ers. I' %it( ot(ers. it #$st deal eit(er %it( t(e -or#s or %it( t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. 2o% /a0 e+idently t(e -or#s do not e1ist. /B$t it is (ard to say. e+en i' one s$,,ose t(e# to e1ist. %(y in t(e %orld t(e sa#e is not tr$e o' t(e ot(er t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ere are -or#s. as o' t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. I #ean t(at t(ese t(in ers ,la&e t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s bet%een t(e -or#s and ,er&e,tible t(in)s. as a ind o' t(ird set o' t(in)s a,art bot( 'ro# t(e -or#s and 'ro# t(e t(in)s in t(is %orld* b$t t(ere is not a t(ird #an or (orse besides t(e ideal and t(e indi+id$als. I' on t(e ot(er (and it is not as t(ey say. %it( %(at sort o' t(in)s #$st t(e #at(e#ati&ian be s$,,osed to deal< Certainly not %it( t(e t(in)s in t(is %orld* 'or none o' t(ese is t(e sort o' t(in) %(i&( t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es de#and.0 2or /b0 does t(e s&ien&e %(i&( %e are no% see in) treat o' t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s* 'or none o' t(e# &an e1ist se,arately. B$t a)ain it does not deal %it( ,er&e,tible s$bstan&es* 'or t(ey are ,eris(able. In )eneral one #i)(t raise t(e 8$estion. to %(at ind o' s&ien&e it belon)s to dis&$ss t(e di''i&$lties abo$t t(e #atter o' t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. 2eit(er to ,(ysi&s /be&a$se t(e %(ole in8$iry o' t(e ,(ysi&ist is abo$t t(e t(in)s t(at (a+e in t(e#sel+es a ,rin&i,le. o' #o+e#ent and rest0. nor yet to t(e s&ien&e %(i&( in8$ires into de#onstration and s&ien&e* 'or t(is is 4$st t(e s$b4e&t %(i&( it in+esti)ates. It re#ains t(en t(at it is t(e ,(iloso,(y %(i&( %e (a+e set be'ore o$rsel+es t(at treats o' t(ose s$b4e&ts. ;ne #i)(t dis&$ss t(e 8$estion %(et(er t(e s&ien&e %e are see in) s(o$ld be said to deal %it( t(e ,rin&i,les %(i&( are by so#e &alled ele#ents* all #en s$,,ose t(ese to be ,resent in &o#,osite t(in)s. B$t it #i)(t be t(o$)(t t(at t(e s&ien&e %e see s(o$ld treat rat(er o' $ni+ersals* 'or e+ery de'inition and e+ery s&ien&e is o' $ni+ersals and not o' in'i#ae s,e&ies. so t(at as 'ar as t(is )oes it %o$ld deal %it( t(e (i)(est )enera. T(ese %o$ld t$rn o$t to be bein) and $nity* 'or t(ese #i)(t #ost o' all be s$,,osed to &ontain all t(in)s t(at are. and to be #ost li e ,rin&i,les be&a$se t(ey are by nat$re* 'or i' t(ey ,eris( all ot(er t(in)s are destroyed %it( t(e#* 'or e+eryt(in) is and is one. B$t inas#$&( as. i' one is to s$,,ose t(e# to be )enera. t(ey #$st be ,redi&able o' t(eir di''erentiae. and no )en$s is ,redi&able o' any o' its di''erentiae. in t(is %ay it %o$ld see# t(at %e s(o$ld not #a e t(e# )enera nor ,rin&i,les. -$rt(er. i' t(e si#,ler is #ore o' a ,rin&i,le t(an t(e less si#,le. and t(e $lti#ate #e#bers o' t(e )en$s are si#,ler t(an t(e )enera /'or t(ey are indi+isible. b$t t(e )enera are di+ided into #any and di''erin) s,e&ies0. t(e s,e&ies #i)(t see# to be t(e ,rin&i,les. rat(er t(an t(e )enera. B$t inas#$&( as t(e s,e&ies are in+ol+ed in t(e destr$&tion o' t(e )enera. t(e )enera are #ore li e ,rin&i,les* 'or t(at %(i&( in+ol+es anot(er in its destr$&tion is a ,rin&i,le o' it. T(ese and ot(ers o' t(e ind are t(e s$b4e&ts t(at in+ol+e di''i&$lties. 7 -$rt(er. #$st %e s$,,ose so#et(in) a,art 'ro# indi+id$al t(in)s. or is it t(ese t(at t(e s&ien&e %e are see in) treats o'< B$t t(ese are in'inite in n$#ber. Yet t(e t(in)s t(at are a,art 'ro# t(e indi+id$als are )enera or s,e&ies* b$t t(e s&ien&e %e no% see treats o' neit(er o' t(ese. T(e reason %(y t(is is i#,ossible (as been stated. Indeed. it is in )eneral (ard to say %(et(er one #$st ass$#e t(at t(ere is a se,arable s$bstan&e besides t(e sensible s$bstan&es /i.e. t(e s$bstan&es in t(is %orld0. or t(at t(ese are t(e real t(in)s and Wisdo# is &on&erned %it( t(e#. -or %e see# to see anot(er ind o' s$bstan&e. and t(is is o$r ,roble#. i.e. to see i' t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( &an e1ist a,art by itsel' and belon)s to no sensible t(in).5-$rt(er. i' t(ere is anot(er s$bstan&e a,art 'ro# and &orres,ondin) to sensible s$bstan&es. %(i&( inds o' sensible s$bstan&e #$st be s$,,osed to (a+e t(is &orres,ondin) to t(e#< W(y s(o$ld one s$,,ose #en or (orses to (a+e it. #ore t(an eit(er t(e

ot(er ani#als or e+en all li'eless t(in)s< ;n t(e ot(er (and to set $, ot(er and eternal s$bstan&es e8$al in n$#ber to t(e sensible and ,eris(able s$bstan&es %o$ld see# to 'all beyond t(e bo$nds o' ,robability.5B$t i' t(e ,rin&i,le %e no% see is not se,arable 'ro# &or,oreal t(in)s. %(at (as a better &lai# to t(e na#e #atter< T(is. (o%e+er. does not e1ist in a&t$ality. b$t e1ists in ,oten&y. And it %o$ld see# rat(er t(at t(e 'or# or s(a,e is a #ore i#,ortant ,rin&i,le t(an t(is* b$t t(e 'or# is ,eris(able. so t(at t(ere is no eternal s$bstan&e at all %(i&( &an e1ist a,art and inde,endent. B$t t(is is ,arado1i&al* 'or s$&( a ,rin&i,le and s$bstan&e see#s to e1ist and is so$)(t by nearly all t(e #ost re'ined t(in ers as so#et(in) t(at e1ists* 'or (o% is t(ere to be order $nless t(ere is so#et(in) eternal and inde,endent and ,er#anent< -$rt(er. i' t(ere is a s$bstan&e or ,rin&i,le o' s$&( a nat$re as t(at %(i&( %e are no% see in). and i' t(is is one 'or all t(in)s. and t(e sa#e 'or eternal and 'or ,eris(able t(in)s. it is (ard to say %(y in t(e %orld. i' t(ere is t(e sa#e ,rin&i,le. so#e o' t(e t(in)s t(at 'all $nder t(e ,rin&i,le are eternal. and ot(ers are not eternal* t(is is ,arado1i&al. B$t i' t(ere is one ,rin&i,le o' ,eris(able and anot(er o' eternal t(in)s. %e s(all be in a li e di''i&$lty i' t(e ,rin&i,le o' ,eris(able t(in)s. as %ell as t(at o' eternal. is eternal* 'or %(y. i' t(e ,rin&i,le is eternal. are not t(e t(in)s t(at 'all $nder t(e ,rin&i,le also eternal< B$t i' it is ,eris(able anot(er ,rin&i,le is in+ol+ed to a&&o$nt 'or it. and anot(er to a&&o$nt 'or t(at. and t(is %ill )o on to in'inity. I' on t(e ot(er (and %e are to set $, %(at are t(o$)(t to be t(e #ost $n&(an)eable ,rin&i,les. bein) and $nity. 'irstly. i' ea&( o' t(ese does not indi&ate a 3t(is3 or s$bstan&e. (o% %ill t(ey be se,arable and inde,endent< Yet %e e1,e&t t(e eternal and ,ri#ary ,rin&i,les to be so. B$t i' ea&( o' t(e# does si)ni'y a 3t(is3 or s$bstan&e. all t(in)s t(at are are s$bstan&es* 'or bein) is ,redi&ated o' all t(in)s /and $nity also o' so#e0* b$t t(at all t(in)s t(at are are s$bstan&e is 'alse. -$rt(er. (o% &an t(ey be ri)(t %(o say t(at t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le is $nity and t(is is s$bstan&e. and )enerate n$#ber as t(e 'irst ,rod$&t 'ro# $nity and 'ro# #atter. assert t(at n$#ber is s$bstan&e< Ho% are %e to t(in o' 3t%o3. and ea&( o' t(e ot(er n$#bers &o#,osed o' $nits. as one< ;n t(is ,oint neit(er do t(ey say anyt(in) nor is it easy to say anyt(in). B$t i' %e are to s$,,ose lines or %(at &o#es a'ter t(ese /I #ean t(e ,ri#ary s$r'a&es0 to be ,rin&i,les. t(ese at least are not se,arable s$bstan&es. b$t se&tions and di+isions5t(e 'or#er o' s$r'a&es. t(e latter o' bodies /%(ile ,oints are se&tions and di+isions o' lines0* and '$rt(er t(ey are li#its o' t(ese sa#e t(in)s* and all t(ese are in ot(er t(in)s and none is se,arable. -$rt(er. (o% are %e to s$,,ose t(at t(ere is a s$bstan&e o' $nity and t(e ,oint< E+ery s$bstan&e &o#es into bein) by a )rad$al ,ro&ess. b$t a ,oint does not* 'or t(e ,oint is a di+ision. A '$rt(er di''i&$lty is raised by t(e 'a&t t(at all no%led)e is o' $ni+ersals and o' t(e 3s$&(3. b$t s$bstan&e is not a $ni+ersal. b$t is rat(er a 3t(is35a se,arable t(in). so t(at i' t(ere is no%led)e abo$t t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. t(e 8$estion arises. (o% are %e to s$,,ose t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le to be s$bstan&e< -$rt(er. is t(ere anyt(in) a,art 'ro# t(e &on&rete t(in) /by %(i&( I #ean t(e #atter and t(at %(i&( is 4oined %it( it0. or not< I' not. %e are #et by t(e ob4e&tion t(at all t(in)s t(at are in #atter are ,eris(able. B$t i' t(ere is so#et(in). it #$st be t(e 'or# or s(a,e. 2o% it is (ard to deter#ine in %(i&( &ases t(is e1ists a,art and in %(i&( it does not* 'or in so#e &ases t(e 'or# is e+idently not se,arable. e.). in t(e &ase o' a (o$se. -$rt(er. are t(e ,rin&i,les t(e sa#e in ind or in n$#ber< I' t(ey are one in n$#ber. all t(in)s %ill be t(e sa#e. 3 Sin&e t(e s&ien&e o' t(e ,(iloso,(er treats o' bein) 8$a bein)

$ni+ersally and not in res,e&t o' a ,art o' it. and 3bein)3 (as #any senses and is not $sed in one only. it 'ollo%s t(at i' t(e %ord is $sed e8$i+o&ally and in +irt$e o' not(in) &o##on to its +ario$s $ses. bein) does not 'all $nder one s&ien&e /'or t(e #eanin)s o' an e8$i+o&al ter# do not 'or# one )en$s0* b$t i' t(e %ord is $sed in +irt$e o' so#et(in) &o##on. bein) %ill 'all $nder one s&ien&e. T(e ter# see#s to be $sed in t(e %ay %e (a+e #entioned. li e 3#edi&al3 and 3(ealt(y3. -or ea&( o' t(ese also %e $se in #any senses. Ter#s are $sed in t(is %ay by +irt$e o' so#e ind o' re'eren&e. in t(e one &ase to #edi&al s&ien&e. in t(e ot(er to (ealt(. in ot(ers to so#et(in) else. b$t in ea&( &ase to one identi&al &on&e,t. -or a dis&$ssion and a ni'e are &alled #edi&al be&a$se t(e 'or#er ,ro&eeds 'ro# #edi&al s&ien&e. and t(e latter is $se'$l to it. And a t(in) is &alled (ealt(y in a si#ilar %ay* one t(in) be&a$se it is indi&ati+e o' (ealt(. anot(er be&a$se it is ,rod$&ti+e o' it. And t(e sa#e is tr$e in t(e ot(er &ases. E+eryt(in) t(at is. t(en. is said to 3be3 in t(is sa#e %ay* ea&( t(in) t(at is is said to 3be3 be&a$se it is a #odi'i&ation o' bein) 8$a bein) or a ,er#anent or a transient state or a #o+e#ent o' it. or so#et(in) else o' t(e sort. And sin&e e+eryt(in) t(at is #ay be re'erred to so#et(in) sin)le and &o##on. ea&( o' t(e &ontrarieties also #ay be re'erred to t(e 'irst di''eren&es and &ontrarieties o' bein). %(et(er t(e 'irst di''eren&es o' bein) are ,l$rality and $nity. or li eness and $nli eness. or so#e ot(er di''eren&es* let t(ese be ta en as already dis&$ssed. It #a es no di''eren&e %(et(er t(at %(i&( is be re'erred to bein) or to $nity. -or e+en i' t(ey are not t(e sa#e b$t di''erent. at least t(ey are &on+ertible* 'or t(at %(i&( is one is also so#e(o% bein). and t(at %(i&( is bein) is one. B$t sin&e e+ery ,air o' &ontraries 'alls to be e1a#ined by one and t(e sa#e s&ien&e. and in ea&( ,air one ter# is t(e ,ri+ati+e o' t(e ot(er t(o$)( one #i)(t re)ardin) so#e &ontraries raise t(e 8$estion. (o% t(ey &an be ,ri+ately related. +i6. t(ose %(i&( (a+e an inter#ediate. e.). $n4$st and 4$st5in all s$&( &ases one #$st #aintain t(at t(e ,ri+ation is not o' t(e %(ole de'inition. b$t o' t(e in'i#a s,e&ies. i' t(e 4$st #an is 3by +irt$e o' so#e ,er#anent dis,osition obedient to t(e la%s3. t(e $n4$st #an %ill not in e+ery &ase (a+e t(e %(ole de'inition denied o' (i#. b$t #ay be #erely 3in so#e res,e&t de'i&ient in obedien&e to t(e la%s3. and in t(is res,e&t t(e ,ri+ation %ill atta&( to (i#* and si#ilarly in all ot(er &ases. As t(e #at(e#ati&ian in+esti)ates abstra&tions /'or be'ore be)innin) (is in+esti)ation (e stri,s o'' all t(e sensible 8$alities. e.). %ei)(t and li)(tness. (ardness and its &ontrary. and also (eat and &old and t(e ot(er sensible &ontrarieties. and lea+es only t(e 8$antitati+e and &ontin$o$s. so#eti#es in one. so#eti#es in t%o. so#eti#es in t(ree di#ensions. and t(e attrib$tes o' t(ese 8$a 8$antitati+e and &ontin$o$s. and does not &onsider t(e# in any ot(er res,e&t. and e1a#ines t(e relati+e ,ositions o' so#e and t(e attrib$tes o' t(ese. and t(e &o##ens$rabilities and in&o##ens$rabilities o' ot(ers. and t(e ratios o' ot(ers* b$t yet %e ,osit one and t(e sa#e s&ien&e o' all t(ese t(in)s55)eo#etry055t(e sa#e is tr$e %it( re)ard to bein). -or t(e attrib$tes o' t(is in so 'ar as it is bein). and t(e &ontrarieties in it 8$a bein). it is t(e b$siness o' no ot(er s&ien&e t(an ,(iloso,(y to in+esti)ate* 'or to ,(ysi&s one %o$ld assi)n t(e st$dy o' t(in)s not 8$a bein). b$t rat(er 8$a s(arin) in #o+e#ent* %(ile diale&ti& and so,(isti& deal %it( t(e attrib$tes o' t(in)s t(at are. b$t not o' t(in)s 8$a bein). and not %it( bein) itsel' in so 'ar as it is bein)* t(ere'ore it re#ains t(at it is t(e ,(iloso,(er %(o st$dies t(e t(in)s %e (a+e na#ed. in so 'ar as t(ey are bein). Sin&e all t(at is is to 3be3 in +irt$e o' so#et(in) sin)le and &o##on. t(o$)( t(e ter# (as #any #eanin)s. and &ontraries are in t(e sa#e &ase /'or t(ey are re'erred to t(e 'irst &ontrarieties and di''eren&es o' bein)0. and t(in)s o' t(is sort &an 'all $nder one s&ien&e. t(e di''i&$lty %e stated at t(e be)innin) a,,ears to be sol+ed.5I #ean t(e 8$estion (o% t(ere &an be a sin)le

s&ien&e o' t(in)s %(i&( are #any and di''erent in )en$s. = Sin&e e+en t(e #at(e#ati&ian $ses t(e &o##on a1io#s only in a s,e&ial a,,li&ation. it #$st be t(e b$siness o' 'irst ,(iloso,(y to e1a#ine t(e ,rin&i,les o' #at(e#ati&s also. T(at %(en e8$als are ta en 'ro# e8$als t(e re#ainders are e8$al. is &o##on to all 8$antities. b$t #at(e#ati&s st$dies a ,art o' its ,ro,er #atter %(i&( it (as deta&(ed. e.). lines or an)les or n$#bers or so#e ot(er ind o' 8$antity5not. (o%e+er. 8$a bein) b$t in so 'ar as ea&( o' t(e# is &ontin$o$s in one or t%o or t(ree di#ensions* b$t ,(iloso,(y does not in8$ire abo$t ,arti&$lar s$b4e&ts in so 'ar as ea&( o' t(e# (as so#e attrib$te or ot(er. b$t s,e&$lates abo$t bein). in so 'ar as ea&( ,arti&$lar t(in) is.5P(ysi&s is in t(e sa#e ,osition as #at(e#ati&s* 'or ,(ysi&s st$dies t(e attrib$tes and t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(e t(in)s t(at are. 8$a #o+in) and not 8$a bein) /%(ereas t(e ,ri#ary s&ien&e. %e (a+e said. deals %it( t(ese. only in so 'ar as t(e $nderlyin) s$b4e&ts are e1istent. and not in +irt$e o' any ot(er &(ara&ter0* and so bot( ,(ysi&s and #at(e#ati&s #$st be &lassed as ,arts o' Wisdo#. 5 T(ere is a ,rin&i,le in t(in)s. abo$t %(i&( %e &annot be de&ei+ed. b$t #$st al%ays. on t(e &ontrary re&o)ni6e t(e tr$t(.5+i6. t(at t(e sa#e t(in) &annot at one and t(e sa#e ti#e be and not be. or ad#it any ot(er si#ilar ,air o' o,,osites. Abo$t s$&( #atters t(ere is no ,roo' in t(e '$ll sense. t(o$)( t(ere is ,roo' ad (o#ine#. -or it is not ,ossible to in'er t(is tr$t( itsel' 'ro# a #ore &ertain ,rin&i,le. yet t(is is ne&essary i' t(ere is to be &o#,leted ,roo' o' it in t(e '$ll sense. B$t (e %(o %ants to ,ro+e to t(e asserter o' o,,osites t(at (e is %ron) #$st )et 'ro# (i# an ad#ission %(i&( s(all be identi&al %it( t(e ,rin&i,le t(at t(e sa#e t(in) &annot be and not be at one and t(e sa#e ti#e. b$t s(all not see# to be identi&al* 'or t($s alone &an (is t(esis be de#onstrated to t(e #an %(o asserts t(at o,,osite state#ents &an be tr$ly #ade abo$t t(e sa#e s$b4e&t. T(ose. t(en. %(o are to 4oin in ar)$#ent %it( one anot(er #$st to so#e e1tent $nderstand one anot(er* 'or i' t(is does not (a,,en (o% are t(ey to 4oin in ar)$#ent %it( one anot(er< T(ere'ore e+ery %ord #$st be intelli)ible and indi&ate so#et(in). and not #any t(in)s b$t only one* and i' it si)ni'ies #ore t(an one t(in). it #$st be #ade ,lain to %(i&( o' t(ese t(e %ord is bein) a,,lied. He. t(en. %(o says 3t(is is and is not3 denies %(at (e a''ir#s. so t(at %(at t(e %ord si)ni'ies. (e says it does not si)ni'y* and t(is is i#,ossible. T(ere'ore i' 3t(is is3 si)ni'ies so#et(in). one &annot tr$ly assert its &ontradi&tory. -$rt(er. i' t(e %ord si)ni'ies so#et(in) and t(is is asserted tr$ly. t(is &onne1ion #$st be ne&essary* and it is not ,ossible t(at t(at %(i&( ne&essarily is s(o$ld e+er not be* it is not ,ossible t(ere'ore to #a e t(e o,,osed a''ir#ations and ne)ations tr$ly o' t(e sa#e s$b4e&t. -$rt(er. i' t(e a''ir#ation is no #ore tr$e t(an t(e ne)ation. (e %(o says 3#an3 %ill be no #ore ri)(t t(an (e %(o says 3not5#an3. It %o$ld see# also t(at in sayin) t(e #an is not a (orse one %o$ld be eit(er #ore or not less ri)(t t(an in sayin) (e is not a #an. so t(at one %ill also be ri)(t in sayin) t(at t(e sa#e ,erson is a (orse* 'or it %as ass$#ed to be ,ossible to #a e o,,osite state#ents e8$ally tr$ly. It 'ollo%s t(en t(at t(e sa#e ,erson is a #an and a (orse. or any ot(er ani#al. W(ile. t(en. t(ere is no ,roo' o' t(ese t(in)s in t(e '$ll sense. t(ere is a ,roo' %(i&( #ay s$''i&e a)ainst one %(o %ill #a e t(ese s$,,ositions. And ,er(a,s i' one (ad 8$estioned Hera&lit$s (i#sel' in t(is %ay one #i)(t (a+e 'or&ed (i# to &on'ess t(at o,,osite state#ents &an ne+er be tr$e o' t(e sa#e s$b4e&ts. B$t. as it is. (e ado,ted t(is o,inion %it(o$t $nderstandin) %(at (is state#ent in+ol+es. B$t in any &ase i' %(at is said by (i# is tr$e. not e+en t(is itsel' %ill be tr$e5+i6. t(at t(e sa#e t(in) &an at one and t(e

sa#e ti#e bot( be and not be. -or as. %(en t(e state#ents are se,arated. t(e a''ir#ation is no #ore tr$e t(an t(e ne)ation. in t(e sa#e %ay5t(e &o#bined and &o#,le1 state#ent bein) li e a sin)le a''ir#ation5t(e %(ole ta en as an a''ir#ation %ill be no #ore tr$e t(an t(e ne)ation. -$rt(er. i' it is not ,ossible to a''ir# anyt(in) tr$ly. t(is itsel' %ill be 'alse5t(e assertion t(at t(ere is no tr$e a''ir#ation. B$t i' a tr$e a''ir#ation e1ists. t(is a,,ears to re'$te %(at is said by t(ose %(o raise s$&( ob4e&tions and $tterly destroy rational dis&o$rse. @ T(e sayin) o' Prota)oras is li e t(e +ie%s %e (a+e #entioned* (e said t(at #an is t(e #eas$re o' all t(in)s. #eanin) si#,ly t(at t(at %(i&( see#s to ea&( #an also ass$redly is. I' t(is is so. it 'ollo%s t(at t(e sa#e t(in) bot( is and is not. and is bad and )ood. and t(at t(e &ontents o' all ot(er o,,osite state#ents are tr$e. be&a$se o'ten a ,arti&$lar t(in) a,,ears bea$ti'$l to so#e and t(e &ontrary o' bea$ti'$l to ot(ers. and t(at %(i&( a,,ears to ea&( #an is t(e #eas$re. T(is di''i&$lty #ay be sol+ed by &onsiderin) t(e so$r&e o' t(is o,inion. It see#s to (a+e arisen in so#e &ases 'ro# t(e do&trine o' t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers. and in ot(ers 'ro# t(e 'a&t t(at all #en (a+e not t(e sa#e +ie%s abo$t t(e sa#e t(in)s. b$t a ,arti&$lar t(in) a,,ears ,leasant to so#e and t(e &ontrary o' ,leasant to ot(ers. T(at not(in) &o#es to be o$t o' t(at %(i&( is not. b$t e+eryt(in) o$t o' t(at %(i&( is. is a do)#a &o##on to nearly all t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers. Sin&e. t(en. %(ite &annot &o#e to be i' t(e ,er'e&tly %(ite and in no res,e&t not5%(ite e1isted be'ore. t(at %(i&( be&o#es %(ite #$st &o#e 'ro# t(at %(i&( is not %(ite* so t(at it #$st &o#e to be o$t o' t(at %(i&( is not /so t(ey ar)$e0. $nless t(e sa#e t(in) %as at t(e be)innin) %(ite and not5%(ite. B$t it is not (ard to sol+e t(is di''i&$lty* 'or %e (a+e said in o$r %or s on ,(ysi&s in %(at sense t(in)s t(at &o#e to be &o#e to be 'ro# t(at %(i&( is not. and in %(at sense 'ro# t(at %(i&( is. B$t to attend e8$ally to t(e o,inions and t(e 'an&ies o' dis,$tin) ,arties is &(ildis(* 'or &learly one o' t(e# #$st be #ista en. And t(is is e+ident 'ro# %(at (a,,ens in res,e&t o' sensation* 'or t(e sa#e t(in) ne+er a,,ears s%eet to so#e and t(e &ontrary o' s%eet to ot(ers. $nless in t(e one &ase t(e sense5or)an %(i&( dis&ri#inates t(e a'oresaid 'la+o$rs (as been ,er+erted and in4$red. And i' t(is is so t(e one ,arty #$st be ta en to be t(e #eas$re. and t(e ot(er #$st not. And say t(e sa#e o' )ood and bad. and bea$ti'$l and $)ly. and all ot(er s$&( 8$alities. -or to #aintain t(e +ie% %e are o,,osin) is 4$st li e #aintainin) t(at t(e t(in)s t(at a,,ear to ,eo,le %(o ,$t t(eir 'in)er $nder t(eir eye and #a e t(e ob4e&t a,,ear t%o instead o' one #$st be t%o /be&a$se t(ey a,,ear to be o' t(at n$#ber0 and a)ain one /'or to t(ose %(o do not inter'ere %it( t(eir eye t(e one ob4e&t a,,ears one0. In )eneral. it is abs$rd to #a e t(e 'a&t t(at t(e t(in)s o' t(is eart( are obser+ed to &(an)e and ne+er to re#ain in t(e sa#e state. t(e basis o' o$r 4$d)e#ent abo$t t(e tr$t(. -or in ,$rs$in) t(e tr$t( one #$st start 'ro# t(e t(in)s t(at are al%ays in t(e sa#e state and s$''er no &(an)e. S$&( are t(e (ea+enly bodies* 'or t(ese do not a,,ear to be no% o' one nat$re and a)ain o' anot(er. b$t are #ani'estly al%ays t(e sa#e and s(are in no &(an)e. -$rt(er. i' t(ere is #o+e#ent. t(ere is also so#et(in) #o+ed. and e+eryt(in) is #o+ed o$t o' so#et(in) and into so#et(in)* it 'ollo%s t(at t(at t(at %(i&( is #o+ed #$st 'irst be in t(at o$t o' %(i&( it is to be #o+ed. and t(en not be in it. and #o+e into t(e ot(er and &o#e to be in it. and t(at t(e &ontradi&tory state#ents are not tr$e at t(e sa#e ti#e. as t(ese t(in ers assert t(ey are. And i' t(e t(in)s o' t(is eart( &ontin$o$sly 'lo% and #o+e in res,e&t o' 8$antity5i' one %ere to s$,,ose t(is. alt(o$)( it is not tr$e5%(y s(o$ld t(ey not end$re in res,e&t o' 8$ality< -or t(e

assertion o' &ontradi&tory state#ents abo$t t(e sa#e t(in) see#s to (a+e arisen lar)ely 'ro# t(e belie' t(at t(e 8$antity o' bodies does not end$re. %(i&(. o$r o,,onents (old. 4$sti'ies t(e# in sayin) t(at t(e sa#e t(in) bot( is and is not 'o$r &$bits lon). B$t essen&e de,ends on 8$ality. and t(is is o' deter#inate nat$re. t(o$)( 8$antity is o' indeter#inate. -$rt(er. %(en t(e do&tor orders ,eo,le to ta e so#e ,arti&$lar 'ood. %(y do t(ey ta e it< In %(at res,e&t is 3t(is is bread3 tr$er t(an 3t(is is not bread3< And so it %o$ld #a e no di''eren&e %(et(er one ate or not. B$t as a #atter o' 'a&t t(ey ta e t(e 'ood %(i&( is ordered. ass$#in) t(at t(ey no% t(e tr$t( abo$t it and t(at it is bread. Yet t(ey s(o$ld not. i' t(ere %ere no 'i1ed &onstant nat$re in sensible t(in)s. b$t all nat$res #o+ed and 'lo%ed 'or e+er. A)ain. i' %e are al%ays &(an)in) and ne+er re#ain t(e sa#e. %(at %onder is it i' to $s. as to t(e si& . t(in)s ne+er a,,ear t(e sa#e< /-or to t(e# also. be&a$se t(ey are not in t(e sa#e &ondition as %(en t(ey %ere %ell. sensible 8$alities do not a,,ear ali e* yet. 'or all t(at. t(e sensible t(in)s t(e#sel+es need not s(are in any &(an)e. t(o$)( t(ey ,rod$&e di''erent. and not identi&al. sensations in t(e si& . And t(e sa#e #$st s$rely (a,,en to t(e (ealt(y i' t(e a'ore5said &(an)e ta es ,la&e.0 B$t i' %e do not &(an)e b$t re#ain t(e sa#e. t(ere %ill be so#et(in) t(at end$res. As 'or t(ose to %(o# t(e di''i&$lties #entioned are s$))ested by reasonin). it is not easy to sol+e t(e di''i&$lties to t(eir satis'a&tion. $nless t(ey %ill ,osit so#et(in) and no lon)er de#and a reason 'or it* 'or it is only t($s t(at all reasonin) and all ,roo' is a&&o#,lis(ed* i' t(ey ,osit not(in). t(ey destroy dis&$ssion and all reasonin). T(ere'ore %it( s$&( #en t(ere is no reasonin). B$t as 'or t(ose %(o are ,er,le1ed by t(e traditional di''i&$lties. it is easy to #eet t(e# and to dissi,ate t(e &a$ses o' t(eir ,er,le1ity. T(is is e+ident 'ro# %(at (as been said. It is #ani'est. t(ere'ore. 'ro# t(ese ar)$#ents t(at &ontradi&tory state#ents &annot be tr$ly #ade abo$t t(e sa#e s$b4e&t at one ti#e. nor &an &ontrary state#ents. be&a$se e+ery &ontrariety de,ends on ,ri+ation. T(is is e+ident i' %e red$&e t(e de'initions o' &ontraries to t(eir ,rin&i,le. Si#ilarly. no inter#ediate bet%een &ontraries &an be ,redi&ated o' one and t(e sa#e s$b4e&t. o' %(i&( one o' t(e &ontraries is ,redi&ated. I' t(e s$b4e&t is %(ite %e s(all be %ron) in sayin) it is neit(er bla& nor %(ite. 'or t(en it 'ollo%s t(at it is and is not %(ite* 'or t(e se&ond o' t(e t%o ter#s %e (a+e ,$t to)et(er is tr$e o' it. and t(is is t(e &ontradi&tory o' %(ite. We &o$ld not be ri)(t. t(en. in a&&e,tin) t(e +ie%s eit(er o' Hera&lit$s or o' Ana1a)oras. I' %e %ere. it %o$ld 'ollo% t(at &ontraries %o$ld be ,redi&ated o' t(e sa#e s$b4e&t* 'or %(en Ana1a)oras says t(at in e+eryt(in) t(ere is a ,art o' e+eryt(in). (e says not(in) is s%eet any #ore t(an it is bitter. and so %it( any ot(er ,air o' &ontraries. sin&e in e+eryt(in) e+eryt(in) is ,resent not ,otentially only. b$t a&t$ally and se,arately. And si#ilarly all state#ents &annot be 'alse nor all tr$e. bot( be&a$se o' #any ot(er di''i&$lties %(i&( #i)(t be add$&ed as arisin) 'ro# t(is ,osition. and be&a$se i' all are 'alse it %ill not be tr$e to say e+en t(is. and i' all are tr$e it %ill not be 'alse to say all are 'alse. A E+ery s&ien&e see s &ertain ,rin&i,les and &a$ses 'or ea&( o' its ob4e&ts5e.). #edi&ine and )y#nasti&s and ea&( o' t(e ot(er s&ien&es. %(et(er ,rod$&ti+e or #at(e#ati&al. -or ea&( o' t(ese #ar s o'' a &ertain &lass o' t(in)s 'or itsel' and b$sies itsel' abo$t t(is as abo$t so#et(in) e1istin) and real.5not (o%e+er 8$a real* t(e s&ien&e t(at does t(is is anot(er distin&t 'ro# t(ese. ;' t(e s&ien&es #entioned ea&( )ets so#e(o% t(e 3%(at3 in so#e &lass o' t(in)s and tries to ,ro+e t(e ot(er tr$t(s. %it( #ore or less ,re&ision. So#e )et t(e 3%(at3 t(ro$)( ,er&e,tion. ot(ers by (y,ot(esis* so t(at it is

&lear 'ro# an ind$&tion o' t(is sort t(at t(ere is no de#onstration. o' t(e s$bstan&e or 3%(at3. T(ere is a s&ien&e o' nat$re. and e+idently it #$st be di''erent bot( 'ro# ,ra&ti&al and 'ro# ,rod$&ti+e s&ien&e. -or in t(e &ase o' ,rod$&ti+e s&ien&e t(e ,rin&i,le o' #o+e#ent is in t(e ,rod$&er and not in t(e ,rod$&t. and is eit(er an art or so#e ot(er 'a&$lty. And si#ilarly in ,ra&ti&al s&ien&e t(e #o+e#ent is not in t(e t(in) done. b$t rat(er in t(e doers. B$t t(e s&ien&e o' t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(er deals %it( t(e t(in)s t(at (a+e in t(e#sel+es a ,rin&i,le o' #o+e#ent. It is &lear 'ro# t(ese 'a&ts. t(en. t(at nat$ral s&ien&e #$st be neit(er ,ra&ti&al nor ,rod$&ti+e. b$t t(eoreti&al /'or it #$st 'all into so#e one o' t(ese &lasses0. And sin&e ea&( o' t(e s&ien&es #$st so#e(o% no% t(e 3%(at3 and $se t(is as a ,rin&i,le. %e #$st not 'all to obser+e (o% t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(er s(o$ld de'ine t(in)s and (o% (e s(o$ld state t(e de'inition o' t(e essen&e5%(et(er as a in to 3sn$b3 or rat(er to 3&on&a+e3. -or o' t(ese t(e de'inition o' 3sn$b3 in&l$des t(e #atter o' t(e t(in). b$t t(at o' 3&on&a+e3 is inde,endent o' t(e #atter* 'or sn$bness is 'o$nd in a nose. so t(at %e loo 'or its de'inition %it(o$t eli#inatin) t(e nose. 'or %(at is sn$b is a &on&a+e nose. E+idently t(en t(e de'inition o' 'les( also and o' t(e eye and o' t(e ot(er ,arts #$st al%ays be stated %it(o$t eli#inatin) t(e #atter. Sin&e t(ere is a s&ien&e o' bein) 8$a bein) and &a,able o' e1istin) a,art. %e #$st &onsider %(et(er t(is is to be re)arded as t(e sa#e as ,(ysi&s or rat(er as di''erent. P(ysi&s deals %it( t(e t(in)s t(at (a+e a ,rin&i,le o' #o+e#ent in t(e#sel+es* #at(e#ati&s is t(eoreti&al. and is a s&ien&e t(at deals %it( t(in)s t(at are at rest. b$t its s$b4e&ts &annot e1ist a,art. T(ere'ore abo$t t(at %(i&( &an e1ist a,art and is $n#o+able t(ere is a s&ien&e di''erent 'ro# bot( o' t(ese. i' t(ere is a s$bstan&e o' t(is nat$re /I #ean se,arable and $n#o+able0. as %e s(all try to ,ro+e t(ere is. And i' t(ere is s$&( a ind o' t(in) in t(e %orld. (ere #$st s$rely be t(e di+ine. and t(is #$st be t(e 'irst and #ost do#inant ,rin&i,le. E+idently. t(en. t(ere are t(ree inds o' t(eoreti&al s&ien&es5,(ysi&s. #at(e#ati&s. t(eolo)y. T(e &lass o' t(eoreti&al s&ien&es is t(e best. and o' t(ese t(e#sel+es t(e last na#ed is best* 'or it deals %it( t(e (i)(est o' e1istin) t(in)s. and ea&( s&ien&e is &alled better or %orse in +irt$e o' its ,ro,er ob4e&t. ;ne #i)(t raise t(e 8$estion %(et(er t(e s&ien&e o' bein) 8$a bein) is to be re)arded as $ni+ersal or not. Ea&( o' t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es deals %it( so#e one deter#inate &lass o' t(in)s. b$t $ni+ersal #at(e#ati&s a,,lies ali e to all. 2o% i' nat$ral s$bstan&es are t(e 'irst o' e1istin) t(in)s. ,(ysi&s #$st be t(e 'irst o' s&ien&es* b$t i' t(ere is anot(er entity and s$bstan&e. se,arable and $n#o+able. t(e no%led)e o' it #$st be di''erent and ,rior to ,(ysi&s and $ni+ersal be&a$se it is ,rior. B Sin&e 3bein)3 in )eneral (as se+eral senses. o' %(i&( one is 3bein) by a&&ident3. %e #$st &onsider 'irst t(at %(i&( 3is3 in t(is sense. E+idently none o' t(e traditional s&ien&es b$sies itsel' abo$t t(e a&&idental. -or neit(er does ar&(ite&t$re &onsider %(at %ill (a,,en to t(ose %(o are to $se t(e (o$se /e.). %(et(er t(ey (a+e a ,ain'$l li'e in it or not0. nor does %ea+in). or s(oe#a in). or t(e &on'e&tioner3s art. do t(e li e* b$t ea&( o' t(ese s&ien&es &onsiders only %(at is ,e&$liar to it. i.e. its ,ro,er end. And as 'or t(e ar)$#ent t(at 3%(en (e %(o is #$si&al be&o#es lettered (e3ll be bot( at on&e. not (a+in) been bot( be'ore* and t(at %(i&( is. not al%ays (a+in) been. #$st (a+e &o#e to be* t(ere'ore (e #$st (a+e at on&e be&o#e #$si&al and lettered3.5t(is none o' t(e re&o)ni6ed s&ien&es &onsiders. b$t only so,(isti&* 'or t(is alone b$sies itsel' abo$t t(e a&&idental. so t(at Plato is not 'ar %ron) %(en (e says t(at t(e so,(ist s,ends (is ti#e on non5bein). T(at a s&ien&e o' t(e a&&idental is not e+en ,ossible %ill be

e+ident i' %e try to see %(at t(e a&&idental really is. We say t(at e+eryt(in) eit(er is al%ays and o' ne&essity /ne&essity not in t(e sense o' +iolen&e. b$t t(at %(i&( %e a,,eal to in de#onstrations0. or is 'or t(e #ost ,art. or is neit(er 'or t(e #ost ,art. nor al%ays and o' ne&essity. b$t #erely as it &(an&es* e.). t(ere #i)(t be &old in t(e do)days. b$t t(is o&&$rs neit(er al%ays and o' ne&essity. nor 'or t(e #ost ,art. t(o$)( it #i)(t (a,,en so#eti#es. T(e a&&idental. t(en. is %(at o&&$rs. b$t not al%ays nor o' ne&essity. nor 'or t(e #ost ,art. 2o% %e (a+e said %(at t(e a&&idental is. and it is ob+io$s %(y t(ere is no s&ien&e o' s$&( a t(in)* 'or all s&ien&e is o' t(at %(i&( is al%ays or 'or t(e #ost ,art. b$t t(e a&&idental is in neit(er o' t(ese &lasses. E+idently t(ere are not &a$ses and ,rin&i,les o' t(e a&&idental. o' t(e sa#e ind as t(ere are o' t(e essential* 'or i' t(ere %ere. e+eryt(in) %o$ld be o' ne&essity. I' A is %(en B is. and B is %(en C is. and i' C e1ists not by &(an&e b$t o' ne&essity. t(at also o' %(i&( C %as &a$se %ill e1ist o' ne&essity. do%n to t(e last &a$sat$# as it is &alled /b$t t(is %as s$,,osed to be a&&idental0. T(ere'ore all t(in)s %ill be o' ne&essity. and &(an&e and t(e ,ossibility o' a t(in)3s eit(er o&&$rrin) or not o&&$rrin) are re#o+ed entirely 'ro# t(e ran)e o' e+ents. And i' t(e &a$se be s$,,osed not to e1ist b$t to be &o#in) to be. t(e sa#e res$lts %ill 'ollo%* e+eryt(in) %ill o&&$r o' ne&essity. -or to5#orro%3s e&li,se %ill o&&$r i' A o&&$rs. and A i' B o&&$rs. and B i' C o&&$rs* and in t(is %ay i' %e s$btra&t ti#e 'ro# t(e li#ited ti#e bet%een no% and to5#orro% %e s(all &o#e so#eti#e to t(e already e1istin) &ondition. T(ere'ore sin&e t(is e1ists. e+eryt(in) a'ter t(is %ill o&&$r o' ne&essity. so t(at all t(in)s o&&$r o' ne&essity. As to t(at %(i&( 3is3 in t(e sense o' bein) tr$e or o' bein) by a&&ident. t(e 'or#er de,ends on a &o#bination in t(o$)(t and is an a''e&tion o' t(o$)(t /%(i&( is t(e reason %(y it is t(e ,rin&i,les. not o' t(at %(i&( 3is3 in t(is sense. b$t o' t(at %(i&( is o$tside and &an e1ist a,art. t(at are so$)(t0* and t(e latter is not ne&essary b$t indeter#inate /I #ean t(e a&&idental0* and o' s$&( a t(in) t(e &a$ses are $nordered and inde'inite. Ada,tation to an end is 'o$nd in e+ents t(at (a,,en by nat$re or as t(e res$lt o' t(o$)(t. It is 3l$& 3 %(en one o' t(ese e+ents (a,,ens by a&&ident. -or as a t(in) #ay e1ist. so it #ay be a &a$se. eit(er by its o%n nat$re or by a&&ident. "$& is an a&&idental &a$se at %or in s$&( e+ents ada,ted to an end as are $s$ally e''e&ted in a&&ordan&e %it( ,$r,ose. And so l$& and t(o$)(t are &on&erned %it( t(e sa#e s,(ere* 'or ,$r,ose &annot e1ist %it(o$t t(o$)(t. T(e &a$ses 'ro# %(i&( l$& y res$lts #i)(t (a,,en are indeter#inate* and so l$& is obs&$re to ($#an &al&$lation and is a &a$se by a&&ident. b$t in t(e $n8$ali'ied sense a &a$se o' not(in). It is )ood or bad l$& %(en t(e res$lt is )ood or e+il* and ,ros,erity or #is'ort$ne %(en t(e s&ale o' t(e res$lts is lar)e. Sin&e not(in) a&&idental is ,rior to t(e essential. neit(er are a&&idental &a$ses ,rior. I'. t(en. l$& or s,ontaneity is a &a$se o' t(e #aterial $ni+erse. reason and nat$re are &a$ses be'ore it. C So#e t(in)s are only a&t$ally. so#e ,otentially. so#e ,otentially and a&t$ally. %(at t(ey are. +i6. in one &ase a ,arti&$lar reality. in anot(er. &(ara&teri6ed by a ,arti&$lar 8$antity. or t(e li e. T(ere is no #o+e#ent a,art 'ro# t(in)s* 'or &(an)e is al%ays a&&ordin) to t(e &ate)ories o' bein). and t(ere is not(in) &o##on to t(ese and in no one &ate)ory. B$t ea&( o' t(e &ate)ories belon)s to all its s$b4e&ts in eit(er o' t%o %ays /e.). 3t(is5ness35'or one ind o' it is 3,ositi+e 'or#3. and t(e ot(er is 3,ri+ation3* and as re)ards 8$ality one ind is 3%(ite3 and t(e ot(er 3bla& 3. and as re)ards 8$antity one ind is 3&o#,lete3 and t(e ot(er 3in&o#,lete3. and as re)ards s,atial #o+e#ent one is 3$,%ards3 and t(e ot(er 3do%n%ards3. or one t(in) is 3li)(t3 and anot(er 3(ea+y30* so t(at

t(ere are as #any inds o' #o+e#ent and &(an)e as o' bein). T(ere bein) a distin&tion in ea&( &lass o' t(in)s bet%een t(e ,otential and t(e &o#,letely real. I &all t(e a&t$ality o' t(e ,otential as s$&(. #o+e#ent. T(at %(at %e say is tr$e. is ,lain 'ro# t(e 'ollo%in) 'a&ts. W(en t(e 3b$ildable3. in so 'ar as it is %(at %e #ean by 3b$ildable3. e1ists a&t$ally. it is bein) b$ilt. and t(is is t(e ,ro&ess o' b$ildin). Si#ilarly %it( learnin). (ealin). %al in). lea,in). a)ein). ri,enin). Mo+e#ent ta es %(en t(e &o#,lete reality itsel' e1ists. and neit(er earlier nor later. T(e &o#,lete reality. t(en. o' t(at %(i&( e1ists ,otentially. %(en it is &o#,letely real and a&t$al. not 8$a itsel'. b$t 8$a #o+able. is #o+e#ent. By 8$a I #ean t(is> bron6e is ,otentially a stat$e* b$t yet it is not t(e &o#,lete reality o' bron6e 8$a bron6e t(at is #o+e#ent. -or it is not t(e sa#e t(in) to be bron6e and to be a &ertain ,oten&y. I' it %ere absol$tely t(e sa#e in its de'inition. t(e &o#,lete reality o' bron6e %o$ld (a+e been a #o+e#ent. B$t it is not t(e sa#e. /T(is is e+ident in t(e &ase o' &ontraries* 'or to be &a,able o' bein) %ell and to be &a,able o' bein) ill are not t(e sa#e5'or i' t(ey %ere. bein) %ell and bein) ill %o$ld (a+e been t(e sa#e5it is t(at %(i&( $nderlies and is (ealt(y or diseased. %(et(er it is #oist$re or blood. t(at is one and t(e sa#e.0 And sin&e it is not. t(e sa#e. as &olo$r and t(e +isible are not t(e sa#e. it is t(e &o#,lete reality o' t(e ,otential. and as ,otential. t(at is #o+e#ent. T(at it is t(is. and t(at #o+e#ent ta es ,la&e %(en t(e &o#,lete reality itsel' e1ists. and neit(er earlier nor later. is e+ident. -or ea&( t(in) is &a,able o' bein) so#eti#es a&t$al. so#eti#es not. e.). t(e b$ildable 8$a b$ildable* and t(e a&t$ality o' t(e b$ildable 8$a b$ildable is b$ildin). -or t(e a&t$ality is eit(er t(is5t(e a&t o' b$ildin)5or t(e (o$se. B$t %(en t(e (o$se e1ists. it is no lon)er b$ildable* t(e b$ildable is %(at is bein) b$ilt. T(e a&t$ality. t(en. #$st be t(e a&t o' b$ildin). and t(is is a #o+e#ent. And t(e sa#e a&&o$nt a,,lies to all ot(er #o+e#ents. T(at %(at %e (a+e said is ri)(t is e+ident 'ro# %(at all ot(ers say abo$t #o+e#ent. and 'ro# t(e 'a&t t(at it is not easy to de'ine it ot(er%ise. -or 'irstly one &annot ,$t it in any &lass. T(is is e+ident 'ro# %(at ,eo,le say. So#e &all it ot(erness and ine8$ality and t(e $nreal* none o' t(ese. (o%e+er. is ne&essarily #o+ed. and '$rt(er. &(an)e is not eit(er to t(ese or 'ro# t(ese any #ore t(an 'ro# t(eir o,,osites. T(e reason %(y ,eo,le ,$t #o+e#ent in t(ese &lasses is t(at it is t(o$)(t to be so#et(in) inde'inite. and t(e ,rin&i,les in one o' t(e t%o 3&ol$#ns o' &ontraries3 are inde'inite be&a$se t(ey are ,ri+ati+e. 'or none o' t(e# is eit(er a 3t(is3 or a 3s$&(3 or in any o' t(e ot(er &ate)ories. And t(e reason %(y #o+e#ent is t(o$)(t to be inde'inite is t(at it &annot be &lassed eit(er %it( t(e ,oten&y o' t(in)s or %it( t(eir a&t$ality* 'or neit(er t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' bein) o' a &ertain 8$antity. nor t(at %(i&( is a&t$ally o' a &ertain 8$antity. is o' ne&essity #o+ed. and #o+e#ent is t(o$)(t to be an a&t$ality. b$t in&o#,lete* t(e reason is t(at t(e ,otential. %(ose a&t$ality it is. is in&o#,lete. And t(ere'ore it is (ard to )ras, %(at #o+e#ent is* 'or it #$st be &lassed eit(er $nder ,ri+ation or $nder ,oten&y or $nder absol$te a&t$ality. b$t e+idently none o' t(ese is ,ossible. T(ere'ore %(at re#ains is t(at it #$st be %(at %e said5bot( a&t$ality and t(e a&t$ality %e (a+e des&ribed5%(i&( is (ard to dete&t b$t &a,able o' e1istin). And e+idently #o+e#ent is in t(e #o+able* 'or it is t(e &o#,lete reali6ation o' t(is by t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' &a$sin) #o+e#ent. And t(e a&t$ality o' t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' &a$sin) #o+e#ent is no ot(er t(an t(at o' t(e #o+able. -or it #$st be t(e &o#,lete reality o' bot(. -or %(ile a t(in) is &a,able o' &a$sin) #o+e#ent be&a$se it &an do t(is. it is a #o+er be&a$se it is a&ti+e* b$t it is on t(e #o+able t(at it is &a,able o' a&tin). so t(at t(e a&t$ality o' bot( is one. 4$st as t(ere is t(e sa#e inter+al 'ro# one to t%o as 'ro# t%o to one. and as t(e stee, as&ent and t(e stee, des&ent are one. b$t t(e bein) o' t(e# is not one* t(e &ase o' t(e #o+er and t(e #o+ed is

si#ilar.

!0

T(e in'inite is eit(er t(at %(i&( is in&a,able o' bein) tra+ersed be&a$se it is not its nat$re to be tra+ersed /t(is &orres,onds to t(e sense in %(i&( t(e +oi&e is 3in+isible30. or t(at %(i&( ad#its only o' in&o#,lete tra+erse or s&ar&ely ad#its o' tra+erse. or t(at %(i&(. t(o$)( it nat$rally ad#its o' tra+erse. is not tra+ersed or li#ited* '$rt(er. a t(in) #ay be in'inite in res,e&t o' addition or o' s$btra&tion. or bot(. T(e in'inite &annot be a se,arate. inde,endent t(in). -or i' it is neit(er a s,atial #a)nit$de nor a ,l$rality. b$t in'inity itsel' is its s$bstan&e and not an a&&ident o' it. it %ill be indi+isible* 'or t(e di+isible is eit(er #a)nit$de or ,l$rality. B$t i' indi+isible. it is not in'inite. e1&e,t as t(e +oi&e is in+isible* b$t ,eo,le do not #ean t(is. nor are %e e1a#inin) t(is sort o' in'inite. b$t t(e in'inite as $ntra+ersable. -$rt(er. (o% &an an in'inite e1ist by itsel'. $nless n$#ber and #a)nit$de also e1ist by t(e#sel+ess5sin&e in'inity is an attrib$te o' t(ese< -$rt(er. i' t(e in'inite is an a&&ident o' so#et(in) else. it &annot be 8$a in'inite an ele#ent in t(in)s. as t(e in+isible is not an ele#ent in s,ee&(. t(o$)( t(e +oi&e is in+isible. And e+idently t(e in'inite &annot e1ist a&t$ally. -or t(en any ,art o' it t(at #i)(t be ta en %o$ld be in'inite /'or 3to be in'inite3 and 3t(e in'inite3 are t(e sa#e. i' t(e in'inite is s$bstan&e and not ,redi&ated o' a s$b4e&t0. T(ere'ore it is eit(er indi+isible. or i' it is ,artible. it is di+isible into in'inites* b$t t(e sa#e t(in) &annot be #any in'inites /as a ,art o' air is air. so a ,art o' t(e in'inite %o$ld be in'inite. i' t(e in'inite is s$bstan&e and a ,rin&i,le0. T(ere'ore it #$st be i#,artible and indi+isible. B$t t(e a&t$ally in'inite &annot be indi+isible* 'or it #$st be o' a &ertain 8$antity. T(ere'ore in'inity belon)s to its s$b4e&t in&identally. B$t i' so. t(en /as %e (a+e said0 it &annot be it t(at is a ,rin&i,le. b$t t(at o' %(i&( it is an a&&ident5t(e air or t(e e+en n$#ber. T(is in8$iry is $ni+ersal* b$t t(at t(e in'inite is not a#on) sensible t(in)s. is e+ident 'ro# t(e 'ollo%in) ar)$#ent. I' t(e de'inition o' a body is 3t(at %(i&( is bo$nded by ,lanes3. t(ere &annot be an in'inite body eit(er sensible or intelli)ible* nor a se,arate and in'inite n$#ber. 'or n$#ber or t(at %(i&( (as a n$#ber is n$#erable. Con&retely. t(e tr$t( is e+ident 'ro# t(e 'ollo%in) ar)$#ent. T(e in'inite &an neit(er be &o#,osite nor si#,le. -or /a0 it &annot be a &o#,osite body. sin&e t(e ele#ents are li#ited in #$ltit$de. -or t(e &ontraries #$st be e8$al and no one o' t(e# #$st be in'inite* 'or i' one o' t(e t%o bodies 'alls at all s(ort o' t(e ot(er in ,oten&y. t(e 'inite %ill be destroyed by t(e in'inite. And t(at ea&( s(o$ld be in'inite is i#,ossible. -or body is t(at %(i&( (as e1tension in all dire&tions. and t(e in'inite is t(e bo$ndlessly e1tended. so t(at i' t(e in'inite is a body it %ill be in'inite in e+ery dire&tion. 2or /b0 &an t(e in'inite body be one and si#,le5neit(er. as so#e say. so#et(in) a,art 'ro# t(e ele#ents. 'ro# %(i&( t(ey )enerate t(ese /'or t(ere is no s$&( body a,art 'ro# t(e ele#ents* 'or e+eryt(in) &an be resol+ed into t(at o' %(i&( it &onsists. b$t no s$&( ,rod$&t o' analysis is obser+ed e1&e,t t(e si#,le bodies0. nor 'ire nor any ot(er o' t(e ele#ents. -or a,art 'ro# t(e 8$estion (o% any o' t(e# &o$ld be in'inite. t(e All. e+en i' it is 'inite. &annot eit(er be or be&o#e any one o' t(e#. as Hera&lit$s says all t(in)s so#eti#e be&o#e 'ire. T(e sa#e ar)$#ent a,,lies to t(is as to t(e ;ne %(i&( t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers ,osit besides t(e ele#ents. -or e+eryt(in) &(an)es 'ro# &ontrary to &ontrary. e.). 'ro# (ot to &old. -$rt(er. a sensible body is so#e%(ere. and %(ole and ,art (a+e t(e sa#e ,ro,er ,la&e. e.). t(e %(ole eart( and ,art o' t(e eart(. T(ere'ore i' /a0 t(e in'inite body is (o#o)eneo$s. it %ill be $n#o+able or it %ill be al%ays #o+in). B$t t(is is i#,ossible* 'or %(y s(o$ld it rat(er rest. or #o+e. do%n. $,. or any%(ere. rat(er t(an

any%(ere else< E.). i' t(ere %ere a &lod %(i&( %ere ,art o' an in'inite body. %(ere %ill t(is #o+e or rest< T(e ,ro,er ,la&e o' t(e body %(i&( is (o#o)eneo$s %it( it is in'inite. Will t(e &lod o&&$,y t(e %(ole ,la&e. t(en< And (o%< /T(is is i#,ossible.0 W(at t(en is its rest or its #o+e#ent< It %ill eit(er rest e+ery%(ere. and t(en it &annot #o+e* or it %ill #o+e e+ery%(ere. and t(en it &annot be still. B$t /b0 i' t(e All (as $nli e ,arts. t(e ,ro,er ,la&es o' t(e ,arts are $nli e also. and. 'irstly. t(e body o' t(e All is not one e1&e,t by &onta&t. and. se&ondly. t(e ,arts %ill be eit(er 'inite or in'inite in +ariety o' ind. -inite t(ey &annot be* 'or t(en t(ose o' one ind %ill be in'inite in 8$antity and t(ose o' anot(er %ill not /i' t(e All is in'inite0. e.). 'ire or %ater %o$ld be in'inite. b$t s$&( an in'inite ele#ent %o$ld be destr$&tion to t(e &ontrary ele#ents. B$t i' t(e ,arts are in'inite and si#,le. t(eir ,la&es also are in'inite and t(ere %ill be an in'inite n$#ber o' ele#ents* and i' t(is is i#,ossible. and t(e ,la&es are 'inite. t(e All also #$st be li#ited. In )eneral. t(ere &annot be an in'inite body and also a ,ro,er ,la&e 'or bodies. i' e+ery sensible body (as eit(er %ei)(t or li)(tness. -or it #$st #o+e eit(er to%ards t(e #iddle or $,%ards. and t(e in'inite eit(er t(e %(ole or t(e (al' o' it5&annot do eit(er* 'or (o% %ill yo$ di+ide it< ;r (o% %ill ,art o' t(e in'inite be do%n and ,art $,. or ,art e1tre#e and ,art #iddle< -$rt(er. e+ery sensible body is in a ,la&e. and t(ere are si1 inds o' ,la&e. b$t t(ese &annot e1ist in an in'inite body. In )eneral. i' t(ere &annot be an in'inite ,la&e. t(ere &annot be an in'inite body* /and t(ere &annot be an in'inite ,la&e.0 'or t(at %(i&( is in a ,la&e is so#e%(ere. and t(is #eans eit(er $, or do%n or in one o' t(e ot(er dire&tions. and ea&( o' t(ese is a li#it. T(e in'inite is not t(e sa#e in t(e sense t(at it is a sin)le t(in) %(et(er e1(ibited in distan&e or in #o+e#ent or in ti#e. b$t t(e ,osterior a#on) t(ese is &alled in'inite in +irt$e o' its relation to t(e ,rior* i.e. a #o+e#ent is &alled in'inite in +irt$e o' t(e distan&e &o+ered by t(e s,atial #o+e#ent or alteration or )ro%t(. and a ti#e is &alled in'inite be&a$se o' t(e #o+e#ent %(i&( o&&$,ies it. !! ;' t(in)s %(i&( &(an)e. so#e &(an)e in an a&&idental sense. li e t(at in %(i&( 3t(e #$si&al3 #ay be said to %al . and ot(ers are said. %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. to &(an)e. be&a$se so#et(in) in t(e# &(an)es. i.e. t(e t(in)s t(at &(an)e in ,arts* t(e body be&o#es (ealt(y. be&a$se t(e eye does. B$t t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( is by its o%n nat$re #o+ed dire&tly. and t(is is t(e essentially #o+able. T(e sa#e distin&tion is 'o$nd in t(e &ase o' t(e #o+er* 'or it &a$ses #o+e#ent eit(er in an a&&idental sense or in res,e&t o' a ,art o' itsel' or essentially. T(ere is so#et(in) t(at dire&tly &a$ses #o+e#ent* and t(ere is so#et(in) t(at is #o+ed. also t(e ti#e in %(i&( it is #o+ed. and t(at 'ro# %(i&( and t(at into %(i&( it is #o+ed. B$t t(e 'or#s and t(e a''e&tions and t(e ,la&e. %(i&( are t(e ter#inals o' t(e #o+e#ent o' #o+in) t(in)s. are $n#o+able. e.). no%led)e or (eat* it is not (eat t(at is a #o+e#ent. b$t (eatin). C(an)e %(i&( is not a&&idental is 'o$nd not in all t(in)s. b$t bet%een &ontraries. and t(eir inter#ediates. and bet%een &ontradi&tories. We #ay &on+in&e o$rsel+es o' t(is by ind$&tion. T(at %(i&( &(an)es &(an)es eit(er 'ro# ,ositi+e into ,ositi+e. or 'ro# ne)ati+e into ne)ati+e. or 'ro# ,ositi+e into ne)ati+e. or 'ro# ne)ati+e into ,ositi+e. /By ,ositi+e I #ean t(at %(i&( is e1,ressed by an a''ir#ati+e ter#.0 T(ere'ore t(ere #$st be t(ree &(an)es* t(at 'ro# ne)ati+e into ne)ati+e is not &(an)e. be&a$se /sin&e t(e ter#s are neit(er &ontraries nor &ontradi&tories0 t(ere is no o,,osition. T(e &(an)e 'ro# t(e ne)ati+e into t(e ,ositi+e %(i&( is its &ontradi&tory is )eneration5absol$te &(an)e absol$te )eneration. and ,artial &(an)e ,artial )eneration* and t(e &(an)e 'ro#

,ositi+e to ne)ati+e is destr$&tion5absol$te &(an)e absol$te destr$&tion. and ,artial &(an)e ,artial destr$&tion. I'. t(en. 3t(at %(i&( is not3 (as se+eral senses. and #o+e#ent &an atta&( neit(er to t(at %(i&( i#,lies ,$ttin) to)et(er or se,aratin). nor to t(at %(i&( i#,lies ,oten&y and is o,,osed to t(at %(i&( is in t(e '$ll sense /tr$e. t(e not5%(ite or not5)ood &an be #o+ed in&identally. 'or t(e not5%(ite #i)(t be a #an* b$t t(at %(i&( is not a ,arti&$lar t(in) at all &an in no %ise be #o+ed0. t(at %(i&( is not &annot be #o+ed /and i' t(is is so. )eneration &annot be #o+e#ent* 'or t(at %(i&( is not is )enerated* 'or e+en i' %e ad#it to t(e '$ll t(at its )eneration is a&&idental. yet it is tr$e to say t(at 3not5bein)3 is ,redi&able o' t(at %(i&( is )enerated absol$tely0. Si#ilarly rest &annot be lon) to t(at %(i&( is not. T(ese &onse8$en&es. t(en. t$rn o$t to be a% %ard. and also t(is. t(at e+eryt(in) t(at is #o+ed is in a ,la&e. b$t t(at %(i&( is not is not in a ,la&e* 'or t(en it %o$ld be so#e%(ere. 2or is destr$&tion #o+e#ent* 'or t(e &ontrary o' #o+e#ent is rest. b$t t(e &ontrary o' destr$&tion is )eneration. Sin&e e+ery #o+e#ent is a &(an)e. and t(e inds o' &(an)e are t(e t(ree na#ed abo+e. and o' t(ese t(ose in t(e %ay o' )eneration and destr$&tion are not #o+e#ents. and t(ese are t(e &(an)es 'ro# a t(in) to its &ontradi&tory. it 'ollo%s t(at only t(e &(an)e 'ro# ,ositi+e into ,ositi+e is #o+e#ent. And t(e ,ositi+es are eit(er &ontrary or inter#ediate /'or e+en ,ri+ation #$st be re)arded as &ontrary0. and are e1,ressed by an a''ir#ati+e ter#. e.). 3na ed3 or 3toot(less3 or 3bla& 3. !7 I' t(e &ate)ories are &lassi'ied as s$bstan&e. 8$ality. ,la&e. a&tin) or bein) a&ted on. relation. 8$antity. t(ere #$st be t(ree inds o' #o+e#ent5o' 8$ality. o' 8$antity. o' ,la&e. T(ere is no #o+e#ent in res,e&t o' s$bstan&e /be&a$se t(ere is not(in) &ontrary to s$bstan&e0. nor o' relation /'or it is ,ossible t(at i' one o' t%o t(in)s in relation &(an)es. t(e relati+e ter# %(i&( %as tr$e o' t(e ot(er t(in) &eases to be tr$e. t(o$)( t(is ot(er does not &(an)e at all.5so t(at t(eir #o+e#ent is a&&idental0. nor o' a)ent and ,atient. or #o+er and #o+ed. be&a$se t(ere is no #o+e#ent o' #o+e#ent nor )eneration o' )eneration. nor. in )eneral. &(an)e o' &(an)e. -or t(ere #i)(t be #o+e#ent o' #o+e#ent in t%o senses* /!0 #o+e#ent #i)(t be t(e s$b4e&t #o+ed. as a #an is #o+ed be&a$se (e &(an)es 'ro# ,ale to dar .5so t(at on t(is s(o%in) #o+e#ent. too. #ay be eit(er (eated or &ooled or &(an)e its ,la&e or in&rease. B$t t(is is i#,ossible* 'or &(an)e is not a s$b4e&t. ;r /70 so#e ot(er s$b4e&t #i)(t &(an)e 'ro# &(an)e into so#e ot(er 'or# o' e1isten&e /e.). a #an 'ro# disease into (ealt(0. B$t t(is also is not ,ossible e1&e,t in&identally. -or e+ery #o+e#ent is &(an)e 'ro# so#et(in) into so#et(in). /And so are )eneration and destr$&tion* only. t(ese are &(an)es into t(in)s o,,osed in &ertain %ays %(ile t(e ot(er. #o+e#ent. is into t(in)s o,,osed in anot(er %ay.0 A t(in) &(an)es. t(en. at t(e sa#e ti#e 'ro# (ealt( into illness. and 'ro# t(is &(an)e itsel' into anot(er. Clearly. t(en. i' it (as be&o#e ill. it %ill (a+e &(an)ed into %(ate+er #ay be t(e ot(er &(an)e &on&erned /t(o$)( it #ay be at rest0. and. '$rt(er. into a deter#inate &(an)e ea&( ti#e* and t(at ne% &(an)e %ill be 'ro# so#et(in) de'inite into so#e ot(er de'inite t(in)* t(ere'ore it %ill be t(e o,,osite &(an)e. t(at o' )ro%in) %ell. We ans%er t(at t(is (a,,ens only in&identally* e.). t(ere is a &(an)e 'ro# t(e ,ro&ess o' re&olle&tion to t(at o' 'or)ettin). only be&a$se t(at to %(i&( t(e ,ro&ess atta&(es is &(an)in). no% into a state o' no%led)e. no% into one o' i)noran&e. -$rt(er. t(e ,ro&ess %ill )o on to in'inity. i' t(ere is to be &(an)e o' &(an)e and &o#in) to be o' &o#in) to be. W(at is tr$e o' t(e later. t(en. #$st be tr$e o' t(e earlier* e.). i' t(e si#,le &o#in) to be %as on&e &o#in) to be. t(at %(i&( &o#es to be so#et(in) %as also on&e &o#in) to be* t(ere'ore t(at %(i&( si#,ly &o#es to be so#et(in) %as not yet in e1isten&e. b$t so#et(in) %(i&( %as &o#in) to be

&o#in) to be so#et(in) %as already in e1isten&e. And t(is %as on&e &o#in) to be. so t(at at t(at ti#e it %as not yet &o#in) to be so#et(in) else. 2o% sin&e o' an in'inite n$#ber o' ter#s t(ere is not a 'irst. t(e 'irst in t(is series %ill not e1ist. and t(ere'ore no 'ollo%in) ter# e1ist. 2ot(in). t(en. &an eit(er &o#e ter# %i to be or #o+e or &(an)e. -$rt(er. t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' a #o+e#ent is also &a,able o' t(e &ontrary #o+e#ent and rest. and t(at %(i&( &o#es to be also &eases to be. T(ere'ore t(at %(i&( is &o#in) to be is &easin) to be %(en it (as &o#e to be &o#in) to be* 'or it &annot &ease to be as soon as it is &o#in) to be &o#in) to be. nor a'ter it (as &o#e to be* 'or t(at %(i&( is &easin) to be #$st be. -$rt(er. t(ere #$st be a #atter $nderlyin) t(at %(i&( &o#es to be and &(an)es. W(at %ill t(is be. t(en.5%(at is it t(at be&o#es #o+e#ent or be&o#in). as body or so$l is t(at %(i&( s$''ers alteration< And* a)ain. %(at is it t(at t(ey #o+e into< -or it #$st be t(e #o+e#ent or be&o#in) o' so#et(in) 'ro# so#et(in) into so#et(in). Ho%. t(en. &an t(is &ondition be '$l'illed< T(ere &an be no learnin) o' learnin). and t(ere'ore no be&o#in) o' be&o#in). Sin&e t(ere is not #o+e#ent eit(er o' s$bstan&e or o' relation or o' a&ti+ity and ,assi+ity. it re#ains t(at #o+e#ent is in res,e&t o' 8$ality and 8$antity and ,la&e* 'or ea&( o' t(ese ad#its o' &ontrariety. By 8$ality I #ean not t(at %(i&( is in t(e s$bstan&e /'or e+en t(e di''erentia is a 8$ality0. b$t t(e ,assi+e 8$ality. in +irt$e o' %(i&( a t(in) is said to be a&ted on or to be in&a,able o' bein) a&ted on. T(e i##obile is eit(er t(at %(i&( is %(olly in&a,able o' bein) #o+ed. or t(at %(i&( is #o+ed %it( di''i&$lty in a lon) ti#e or be)ins slo%ly. or t(at %(i&( is o' a nat$re to be #o+ed and &an be #o+ed b$t is not #o+ed %(en and %(ere and as it %o$ld nat$rally be #o+ed. T(is alone a#on) i##obiles I des&ribe as bein) at rest* 'or rest is &ontrary to #o+e#ent. so t(at it #$st be a ,ri+ation in t(at %(i&( is re&e,ti+e o' #o+e#ent. T(in)s %(i&( are in one ,ro1i#ate ,la&e are to)et(er in ,la&e. and t(in)s %(i&( are in di''erent ,la&es are a,art> t(in)s %(ose e1tre#es are to)et(er to$&(> t(at at %(i&( a &(an)in) t(in). i' it &(an)es &ontin$o$sly a&&ordin) to its nat$re. nat$rally arri+es be'ore it arri+es at t(e e1tre#e into %(i&( it is &(an)in). is bet%een. T(at %(i&( is #ost distant in a strai)(t line is &ontrary in ,la&e. T(at is s$&&essi+e %(i&( is a'ter t(e be)innin) /t(e order bein) deter#ined by ,osition or 'or# or in so#e ot(er %ay0 and (as not(in) o' t(e sa#e &lass bet%een it and t(at %(i&( it s$&&eeds. e.). lines in t(e &ase o' a line. $nits in t(at o' a $nit. or a (o$se in t(at o' a (o$se. /T(ere is not(in) to ,re+ent a t(in) o' so#e ot(er &lass 'ro# bein) bet%een.0 -or t(e s$&&essi+e s$&&eeds so#et(in) and is so#et(in) later* 3one3 does not s$&&eed 3t%o3. nor t(e 'irst day o' t(e #ont( t(e se&ond. T(at %(i&(. bein) s$&&essi+e. to$&(es. is &onti)$o$s. /Sin&e all &(an)e is bet%een o,,osites. and t(ese are eit(er &ontraries or &ontradi&tories. and t(ere is no #iddle ter# 'or &ontradi&tories. &learly t(at %(i&( is bet%een is bet%een &ontraries.0 T(e &ontin$o$s is a s,e&ies o' t(e &onti)$o$s. I &all t%o t(in)s &ontin$o$s %(en t(e li#its o' ea&(. %it( %(i&( t(ey to$&( and by %(i&( t(ey are e,t to)et(er. be&o#e one and t(e sa#e. so t(at ,lainly t(e &ontin$o$s is 'o$nd in t(e t(in)s o$t o' %(i&( a $nity nat$rally arises in +irt$e o' t(eir &onta&t. And ,lainly t(e s$&&essi+e is t(e 'irst o' t(ese &on&e,ts /'or t(e s$&&essi+e does not ne&essarily to$&(. b$t t(at %(i&( to$&(es is s$&&essi+e* and i' a t(in) is &ontin$o$s. it to$&(es. b$t i' it to$&(es. it is not ne&essarily &ontin$o$s* and in t(in)s in %(i&( t(ere is no to$&(in). t(ere is no or)ani& $nity0* t(ere'ore a ,oint is not t(e sa#e as a $nit* 'or &onta&t belon)s to ,oints. b$t not to $nits. %(i&( (a+e only s$&&ession* and t(ere is so#et(in) bet%een t%o o' t(e 'or#er. b$t not bet%een t%o o' t(e latter. Boo ?II ! T(e s$b4e&t o' o$r in8$iry is s$bstan&e* 'or t(e ,rin&i,les and

t(e &a$ses %e are see in) are t(ose o' s$bstan&es. -or i' t(e $ni+erse is o' t(e nat$re o' a %(ole. s$bstan&e is its 'irst ,art* and i' it &o(eres #erely by +irt$e o' serial s$&&ession. on t(is +ie% also s$bstan&e is 'irst. and is s$&&eeded by 8$ality. and t(en by 8$antity. At t(e sa#e ti#e t(ese latter are not e+en bein) in t(e '$ll sense. b$t are 8$alities and #o+e#ents o' it.5or else e+en t(e not5%(ite and t(e not5strai)(t %o$ld be bein)* at least %e say e+en t(ese are. e.). 3t(ere is a not5%(ite3. -$rt(er. none o' t(e &ate)ories ot(er t(an s$bstan&e &an e1ist a,art. And t(e early ,(iloso,(ers also in ,ra&ti&e testi'y to t(e ,ri#a&y o' s$bstan&e* 'or it %as o' s$bstan&e t(at t(ey so$)(t t(e ,rin&i,les and ele#ents and &a$ses. T(e t(in ers o' t(e ,resent day tend to ran $ni+ersals as s$bstan&es /'or )enera are $ni+ersals. and t(ese t(ey tend to des&ribe as ,rin&i,les and s$bstan&es. o%in) to t(e abstra&t nat$re o' t(eir in8$iry0* b$t t(e t(in ers o' old ran ed ,arti&$lar t(in)s as s$bstan&es. e.). 'ire and eart(. not %(at is &o##on to bot(. body. T(ere are t(ree inds o' s$bstan&e5one t(at is sensible /o' %(i&( one s$bdi+ision is eternal and anot(er is ,eris(able* t(e latter is re&o)ni6ed by all #en. and in&l$des e.). ,lants and ani#als0. o' %(i&( %e #$st )ras, t(e ele#ents. %(et(er one or #any* and anot(er t(at is i##o+able. and t(is &ertain t(in ers assert to be &a,able o' e1istin) a,art. so#e di+idin) it into t%o. ot(ers identi'yin) t(e -or#s and t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. and ot(ers ,ositin). o' t(ese t%o. only t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. T(e 'or#er t%o inds o' s$bstan&e are t(e s$b4e&t o' ,(ysi&s /'or t(ey i#,ly #o+e#ent0* b$t t(e t(ird ind belon)s to anot(er s&ien&e. i' t(ere is no ,rin&i,le &o##on to it and to t(e ot(er inds. 7 Sensible s$bstan&e is &(an)eable. 2o% i' &(an)e ,ro&eeds 'ro# o,,osites or 'ro# inter#ediates. and not 'ro# all o,,osites /'or t(e +oi&e is not5%(ite. /b$t it does not t(ere'ore &(an)e to %(ite00. b$t 'ro# t(e &ontrary. t(ere #$st be so#et(in) $nderlyin) %(i&( &(an)es into t(e &ontrary state* 'or t(e &ontraries do not &(an)e. -$rt(er. so#et(in) ,ersists. b$t t(e &ontrary does not ,ersist* t(ere is. t(en. so#e t(ird t(in) besides t(e &ontraries. +i6. t(e #atter. 2o% sin&e &(an)es are o' 'o$r inds5eit(er in res,e&t o' t(e 3%(at3 or o' t(e 8$ality or o' t(e 8$antity or o' t(e ,la&e. and &(an)e in res,e&t o' 3t(isness3 is si#,le )eneration and destr$&tion. and &(an)e in 8$antity is in&rease and di#in$tion. and &(an)e in res,e&t o' an a''e&tion is alteration. and &(an)e o' ,la&e is #otion. &(an)es %ill be 'ro# )i+en states into t(ose &ontrary to t(e# in t(ese se+eral res,e&ts. T(e #atter. t(en. %(i&( &(an)es #$st be &a,able o' bot( states. And sin&e t(at %(i&( 3is3 (as t%o senses. %e #$st say t(at e+eryt(in) &(an)es 'ro# t(at %(i&( is ,otentially to t(at %(i&( is a&t$ally. e.). 'ro# ,otentially %(ite to a&t$ally %(ite. and si#ilarly in t(e &ase o' in&rease and di#in$tion. T(ere'ore not only &an a t(in) &o#e to be. in&identally. o$t o' t(at %(i&( is not. b$t also all t(in)s &o#e to be o$t o' t(at %(i&( is. b$t is ,otentially. and is not a&t$ally. And t(is is t(e 3;ne3 o' Ana1a)oras* 'or instead o' 3all t(in)s %ere to)et(er35and t(e 3Mi1t$re3 o' E#,edo&les and Ana1i#ander and t(e a&&o$nt )i+en by De#o&rit$s5it is better to say 3all t(in)s %ere to)et(er ,otentially b$t not a&t$ally3. T(ere'ore t(ese t(in ers see# to (a+e (ad so#e notion o' #atter. 2o% all t(in)s t(at &(an)e (a+e #atter. b$t di''erent #atter* and o' eternal t(in)s t(ose %(i&( are not )enerable b$t are #o+able in s,a&e (a+e #atter5not #atter 'or )eneration. (o%e+er. b$t 'or #otion 'ro# one ,la&e to anot(er. ;ne #i)(t raise t(e 8$estion 'ro# %(at sort o' non5bein) )eneration ,ro&eeds* 'or 3non5bein)3 (as t(ree senses. I'. t(en. one 'or# o' non5bein) e1ists ,otentially. still it is not by +irt$e o' a ,otentiality 'or any and e+ery t(in). b$t di''erent t(in)s &o#e 'ro# di''erent t(in)s* nor is it satis'a&tory to say t(at 3all t(in)s %ere to)et(er3* 'or t(ey di''er in t(eir #atter. sin&e ot(er%ise %(y

did an in'inity o' t(in)s &o#e to be. and not one t(in)< -or 3reason3 is one. so t(at i' #atter also %ere one. t(at #$st (a+e &o#e to be in a&t$ality %(i&( t(e #atter %as in ,oten&y. T(e &a$ses and t(e ,rin&i,les. t(en. are t(ree. t%o bein) t(e ,air o' &ontraries o' %(i&( one is de'inition and 'or# and t(e ot(er is ,ri+ation. and t(e t(ird bein) t(e #atter. 3 2ote. ne1t. t(at neit(er t(e #atter nor t(e 'or# &o#es to be5and I #ean t(e last #atter and 'or#. -or e+eryt(in) t(at &(an)es is so#et(in) and is &(an)ed by so#et(in) and into so#et(in). T(at by %(i&( it is &(an)ed is t(e i##ediate #o+er* t(at %(i&( is &(an)ed. t(e #atter* t(at into %(i&( it is &(an)ed. t(e 'or#. T(e ,ro&ess. t(en. %ill )o on to in'inity. i' not only t(e bron6e &o#es to be ro$nd b$t also t(e ro$nd or t(e bron6e &o#es to be* t(ere'ore t(ere #$st be a sto,. 2ote. ne1t. t(at ea&( s$bstan&e &o#es into bein) o$t o' so#et(in) t(at s(ares its na#e. /2at$ral ob4e&ts and ot(er t(in)s bot( ran as s$bstan&es.0 -or t(in)s &o#e into bein) eit(er by art or by nat$re or by l$& or by s,ontaneity. 2o% art is a ,rin&i,le o' #o+e#ent in so#et(in) ot(er t(an t(e t(in) #o+ed. nat$re is a ,rin&i,le in t(e t(in) itsel' /'or #an be)ets #an0. and t(e ot(er &a$ses are ,ri+ations o' t(ese t%o. T(ere are t(ree inds o' s$bstan&e5t(e #atter. %(i&( is a 3t(is3 in a,,earan&e /'or all t(in)s t(at are &(ara&teri6ed by &onta&t and not. by or)ani& $nity are #atter and s$bstrat$#. e.). 'ire. 'les(. (ead* 'or t(ese are all #atter. and t(e last #atter is t(e #atter o' t(at %(i&( is in t(e '$ll sense s$bstan&e0* t(e nat$re. %(i&( is a 3t(is3 or ,ositi+e state to%ards %(i&( #o+e#ent ta es ,la&e* and a)ain. t(irdly. t(e ,arti&$lar s$bstan&e %(i&( is &o#,osed o' t(ese t%o. e.). So&rates or Callias. 2o% in so#e &ases t(e 3t(is3 does not e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e &o#,osite s$bstan&e. e.). t(e 'or# o' (o$se does not so e1ist. $nless t(e art o' b$ildin) e1ists a,art /nor is t(ere )eneration and destr$&tion o' t(ese 'or#s. b$t it is in anot(er %ay t(at t(e (o$se a,art 'ro# its #atter. and (ealt(. and all ideals o' art. e1ist and do not e1ist0* b$t i' t(e 3t(is3 e1ists a,art 'ro# t(e &on&rete t(in). it is only in t(e &ase o' nat$ral ob4e&ts. And so Plato %as not 'ar %ron) %(en (e said t(at t(ere are as #any -or#s as t(ere are inds o' nat$ral ob4e&t /i' t(ere are -or#s distin&t 'ro# t(e t(in)s o' t(is eart(0. T(e #o+in) &a$ses e1ist as t(in)s ,re&edin) t(e e''e&ts. b$t &a$ses in t(e sense o' de'initions are si#$ltaneo$s %it( t(eir e''e&ts. -or %(en a #an is (ealt(y. t(en (ealt( also e1ists* and t(e s(a,e o' a bron6e s,(ere e1ists at t(e sa#e ti#e as t(e bron6e s,(ere. /B$t %e #$st e1a#ine %(et(er any 'or# also s$r+i+es a'ter%ards. -or in so#e &ases t(ere is not(in) to ,re+ent t(is* e.). t(e so$l #ay be o' t(is sort5not all so$l b$t t(e reason* 'or ,res$#ably it is i#,ossible t(at all so$l s(o$ld s$r+i+e.0 E+idently t(en t(ere is no ne&essity. on t(is )ro$nd at least. 'or t(e e1isten&e o' t(e Ideas. -or #an is be)otten by #an. a )i+en #an by an indi+id$al 'at(er* and si#ilarly in t(e arts* 'or t(e #edi&al art is t(e 'or#al &a$se o' (ealt(. = T(e &a$ses and t(e ,rin&i,les o' di''erent t(in)s are in a sense di''erent. b$t in a sense. i' one s,ea s $ni+ersally and analo)i&ally. t(ey are t(e sa#e 'or all. -or one #i)(t raise t(e 8$estion %(et(er t(e ,rin&i,les and ele#ents are di''erent or t(e sa#e 'or s$bstan&es and 'or relati+e ter#s. and si#ilarly in t(e &ase o' ea&( o' t(e &ate)ories. B$t it %o$ld be ,arado1i&al i' t(ey %ere t(e sa#e 'or all. -or t(en 'ro# t(e sa#e ele#ents %ill ,ro&eed relati+e ter#s and s$bstan&es. W(at t(en %ill t(is &o##on ele#ent be< -or /!0 /a0 t(ere is not(in) &o##on to and distin&t 'ro# s$bstan&e and t(e ot(er &ate)ories. +i6. t(ose %(i&( are ,redi&ated* b$t an ele#ent is ,rior to t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( it is an ele#ent. B$t a)ain /b0 s$bstan&e is

not an ele#ent in relati+e ter#s. nor is any o' t(ese an ele#ent in s$bstan&e. -$rt(er. /70 (o% &an all t(in)s (a+e t(e sa#e ele#ents< -or none o' t(e ele#ents &an be t(e sa#e as t(at %(i&( is &o#,osed o' ele#ents. e.). b or a &annot be t(e sa#e as ba. /2one. t(ere'ore. o' t(e intelli)ibles. e.). bein) or $nity. is an ele#ent* 'or t(ese are ,redi&able o' ea&( o' t(e &o#,o$nds as %ell.0 2one o' t(e ele#ents. t(en. %ill be eit(er a s$bstan&e or a relati+e ter#* b$t it #$st be one or ot(er. All t(in)s. t(en. (a+e not t(e sa#e ele#ents. ;r. as %e are %ont to ,$t it. in a sense t(ey (a+e and in a sense t(ey (a+e not* e.). ,er(a,s t(e ele#ents o' ,er&e,tible bodies are. as 'or#. t(e (ot. and in anot(er sense t(e &old. %(i&( is t(e ,ri+ation* and. as #atter. t(at %(i&( dire&tly and o' itsel' ,otentially (as t(ese attrib$tes* and s$bstan&es &o#,rise bot( t(ese and t(e t(in)s &o#,osed o' t(ese. o' %(i&( t(ese are t(e ,rin&i,les. or any $nity %(i&( is ,rod$&ed o$t o' t(e (ot and t(e &old. e.). 'les( or bone* 'or t(e ,rod$&t #$st be di''erent 'ro# t(e ele#ents. T(ese t(in)s t(en (a+e t(e sa#e ele#ents and ,rin&i,les /t(o$)( s,e&i'i&ally di''erent t(in)s (a+e s,e&i'i&ally di''erent ele#ents0* b$t all t(in)s (a+e not t(e sa#e ele#ents in t(is sense. b$t only analo)i&ally* i.e. one #i)(t say t(at t(ere are t(ree ,rin&i,les5t(e 'or#. t(e ,ri+ation. and t(e #atter. B$t ea&( o' t(ese is di''erent 'or ea&( &lass* e.). in &olo$r t(ey are %(ite. bla& . and s$r'a&e. and in day and ni)(t t(ey are li)(t. dar ness. and air. Sin&e not only t(e ele#ents ,resent in a t(in) are &a$ses. b$t also so#et(in) e1ternal. i.e. t(e #o+in) &a$se. &learly %(ile 3,rin&i,le3 and 3ele#ent3 are di''erent bot( are &a$ses. and 3,rin&i,le3 is di+ided into t(ese t%o inds* and t(at %(i&( a&ts as ,rod$&in) #o+e#ent or rest is a ,rin&i,le and a s$bstan&e. T(ere'ore analo)i&ally t(ere are t(ree ele#ents. and 'o$r &a$ses and ,rin&i,les* b$t t(e ele#ents are di''erent in di''erent t(in)s. and t(e ,ro1i#ate #o+in) &a$se is di''erent 'or di''erent t(in)s. Healt(. disease. body* t(e #o+in) &a$se is t(e #edi&al art. -or#. disorder o' a ,arti&$lar ind. bri& s* t(e #o+in) &a$se is t(e b$ildin) art. And sin&e t(e #o+in) &a$se in t(e &ase o' nat$ral t(in)s is5'or #an. 'or instan&e. #an. and in t(e ,rod$&ts o' t(o$)(t t(e 'or# or its &ontrary. t(ere %ill be in a sense t(ree &a$ses. %(ile in a sense t(ere are 'o$r. -or t(e #edi&al art is in so#e sense (ealt(. and t(e b$ildin) art is t(e 'or# o' t(e (o$se. and #an be)ets #an* '$rt(er. besides t(ese t(ere is t(at %(i&( as 'irst o' all t(in)s #o+es all t(in)s. 5 So#e t(in)s &an e1ist a,art and so#e &annot. and it is t(e 'or#er t(at are s$bstan&es. And t(ere'ore all t(in)s (a+e t(e sa#e &a$ses. be&a$se. %it(o$t s$bstan&es. #odi'i&ations and #o+e#ents do not e1ist. -$rt(er. t(ese &a$ses %ill ,robably be so$l and body. or reason and desire and body. And in yet anot(er %ay. analo)i&ally identi&al t(in)s are ,rin&i,les. i.e. a&t$ality and ,oten&y* b$t t(ese also are not only di''erent 'or di''erent t(in)s b$t also a,,ly in di''erent %ays to t(e#. -or in so#e &ases t(e sa#e t(in) e1ists at one ti#e a&t$ally and at anot(er ,otentially. e.). %ine or 'les( or #an does so. /And t(ese too 'all $nder t(e abo+e5na#ed &a$ses. -or t(e 'or# e1ists a&t$ally. i' it &an e1ist a,art. and so does t(e &o#,le1 o' 'or# and #atter. and t(e ,ri+ation. e.). dar ness or disease* b$t t(e #atter e1ists ,otentially* 'or t(is is t(at %(i&( &an be&o#e 8$ali'ied eit(er by t(e 'or# or by t(e ,ri+ation.0 B$t t(e distin&tion o' a&t$ality and ,otentiality a,,lies in anot(er %ay to &ases %(ere t(e #atter o' &a$se and o' e''e&t is not t(e sa#e. in so#e o' %(i&( &ases t(e 'or# is not t(e sa#e b$t di''erent* e.). t(e &a$se o' #an is /!0 t(e ele#ents in #an /+i6. 'ire and eart( as #atter. and t(e ,e&$liar 'or#0. and '$rt(er /70 so#et(in) else o$tside. i.e. t(e 'at(er. and /30 besides t(ese t(e s$n and its obli8$e &o$rse. %(i&( are neit(er #atter nor 'or# nor ,ri+ation o' #an nor o' t(e sa#e s,e&ies %it( (i#.

b$t #o+in) &a$ses. -$rt(er. one #$st obser+e t(at so#e &a$ses &an be e1,ressed in $ni+ersal ter#s. and so#e &annot. T(e ,ro1i#ate ,rin&i,les o' all t(in)s are t(e 3t(is3 %(i&( is ,ro1i#ate in a&t$ality. and anot(er %(i&( is ,ro1i#ate in ,otentiality. T(e $ni+ersal &a$ses. t(en. o' %(i&( %e s,o e do not e1ist. -or it is t(e indi+id$al t(at is t(e ori)inati+e ,rin&i,le o' t(e indi+id$als. -or %(ile #an is t(e ori)inati+e ,rin&i,le o' #an $ni+ersally. t(ere is no $ni+ersal #an. b$t Pele$s is t(e ori)inati+e ,rin&i,le o' A&(illes. and yo$r 'at(er o' yo$. and t(is ,arti&$lar b o' t(is ,arti&$lar ba. t(o$)( b in )eneral is t(e ori)inati+e ,rin&i,le o' ba ta en %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. -$rt(er. i' t(e &a$ses o' s$bstan&es are t(e &a$ses o' all t(in)s. yet di''erent t(in)s (a+e di''erent &a$ses and ele#ents. as %as said* t(e &a$ses o' t(in)s t(at are not in t(e sa#e &lass. e.). o' &olo$rs and so$nds. o' s$bstan&es and 8$antities. are di''erent e1&e,t in an analo)i&al sense* and t(ose o' t(in)s in t(e sa#e s,e&ies are di''erent. not in s,e&ies. b$t in t(e sense t(at t(e &a$ses o' di''erent indi+id$als are di''erent. yo$r #atter and 'or# and #o+in) &a$se bein) di''erent 'ro# #ine. %(ile in t(eir $ni+ersal de'inition t(ey are t(e sa#e. And i' %e in8$ire %(at are t(e ,rin&i,les or ele#ents o' s$bstan&es and relations and 8$alities5%(et(er t(ey are t(e sa#e or di''erent5&learly %(en t(e na#es o' t(e &a$ses are $sed in se+eral senses t(e &a$ses o' ea&( are t(e sa#e. b$t %(en t(e senses are distin)$is(ed t(e &a$ses are not t(e sa#e b$t di''erent. e1&e,t t(at in t(e 'ollo%in) senses t(e &a$ses o' all are t(e sa#e. T(ey are /!0 t(e sa#e or analo)o$s in t(is sense. t(at #atter. 'or#. ,ri+ation. and t(e #o+in) &a$se are &o##on to all t(in)s* and /70 t(e &a$ses o' s$bstan&es #ay be treated as &a$ses o' all t(in)s in t(is sense. t(at %(en s$bstan&es are re#o+ed all t(in)s are re#o+ed* '$rt(er. /30 t(at %(i&( is 'irst in res,e&t o' &o#,lete reality is t(e &a$se o' all t(in)s. B$t in anot(er sense t(ere are di''erent 'irst &a$ses. +i6. all t(e &ontraries %(i&( are neit(er )eneri& nor a#bi)$o$s ter#s* and. '$rt(er. t(e #atters o' di''erent t(in)s are di''erent. We (a+e stated. t(en. %(at are t(e ,rin&i,les o' sensible t(in)s and (o% #any t(ey are. and in %(at sense t(ey are t(e sa#e and in %(at sense di''erent. @ Sin&e t(ere %ere t(ree inds o' s$bstan&e. t%o o' t(e# ,(ysi&al and one $n#o+able. re)ardin) t(e latter %e #$st assert t(at it is ne&essary t(at t(ere s(o$ld be an eternal $n#o+able s$bstan&e. -or s$bstan&es are t(e 'irst o' e1istin) t(in)s. and i' t(ey are all destr$&tible. all t(in)s are destr$&tible. B$t it is i#,ossible t(at #o+e#ent s(o$ld eit(er (a+e &o#e into bein) or &ease to be /'or it #$st al%ays (a+e e1isted0. or t(at ti#e s(o$ld. -or t(ere &o$ld not be a be'ore and an a'ter i' ti#e did not e1ist. Mo+e#ent also is &ontin$o$s. t(en. in t(e sense in %(i&( ti#e is* 'or ti#e is eit(er t(e sa#e t(in) as #o+e#ent or an attrib$te o' #o+e#ent. And t(ere is no &ontin$o$s #o+e#ent e1&e,t #o+e#ent in ,la&e. and o' t(is only t(at %(i&( is &ir&$lar is &ontin$o$s. B$t i' t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( is &a,able o' #o+in) t(in)s or a&tin) on t(e#. b$t is not a&t$ally doin) so. t(ere %ill not ne&essarily be #o+e#ent* 'or t(at %(i&( (as a ,oten&y need not e1er&ise it. 2ot(in). t(en. is )ained e+en i' %e s$,,ose eternal s$bstan&es. as t(e belie+ers in t(e -or#s do. $nless t(ere is to be in t(e# so#e ,rin&i,le %(i&( &an &a$se &(an)e* nay. e+en t(is is not eno$)(. nor is anot(er s$bstan&e besides t(e -or#s eno$)(* 'or i' it is not to a&t. t(ere %ill be no #o+e#ent. -$rt(er e+en i' it a&ts. t(is %ill not be eno$)(. i' its essen&e is ,oten&y* 'or t(ere %ill not be eternal #o+e#ent. sin&e t(at %(i&( is ,otentially #ay ,ossibly not be. T(ere #$st. t(en. be s$&( a ,rin&i,le. %(ose +ery essen&e is a&t$ality. -$rt(er. t(en. t(ese s$bstan&es #$st be %it(o$t #atter* 'or t(ey #$st be eternal. i' anyt(in) is eternal. T(ere'ore t(ey #$st be

a&t$ality. Yet t(ere is a di''i&$lty* 'or it is t(o$)(t t(at e+eryt(in) t(at a&ts is able to a&t. b$t t(at not e+eryt(in) t(at is able to a&t a&ts. so t(at t(e ,oten&y is ,rior. B$t i' t(is is so. not(in) t(at is need be* 'or it is ,ossible 'or all t(in)s to be &a,able o' e1istin) b$t not yet to e1ist. Yet i' %e 'ollo% t(e t(eolo)ians %(o )enerate t(e %orld 'ro# ni)(t. or t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers %(o say t(at 3all t(in)s %ere to)et(er3. t(e sa#e i#,ossible res$lt ens$es. -or (o% %ill t(ere be #o+e#ent. i' t(ere is no a&t$ally e1istin) &a$se< Wood %ill s$rely not #o+e itsel'5t(e &ar,enter3s art #$st a&t on it* nor %ill t(e #enstr$al blood nor t(e eart( set t(e#sel+es in #otion. b$t t(e seeds #$st a&t on t(e eart( and t(e se#en on t(e #enstr$al blood. T(is is %(y so#e s$,,ose eternal a&t$ality5e.). "e$&i,,$s and Plato* 'or t(ey say t(ere is al%ays #o+e#ent. B$t %(y and %(at t(is #o+e#ent is t(ey do say. nor. i' t(e %orld #o+es in t(is %ay or t(at. do t(ey tell $s t(e &a$se o' its doin) so. 2o% not(in) is #o+ed at rando#. b$t t(ere #$st al%ays be so#et(in) ,resent to #o+e it* e.). as a #atter o' 'a&t a t(in) #o+es in one %ay by nat$re. and in anot(er by 'or&e or t(ro$)( t(e in'l$en&e o' reason or so#et(in) else. /-$rt(er. %(at sort o' #o+e#ent is ,ri#ary< T(is #a es a +ast di''eren&e.0 B$t a)ain 'or Plato. at least. it is not ,er#issible to na#e (ere t(at %(i&( (e so#eti#es s$,,oses to be t(e so$r&e o' #o+e#ent5t(at %(i&( #o+es itsel'* 'or t(e so$l is later. and &oe+al %it( t(e (ea+ens. a&&ordin) to (is a&&o$nt. To s$,,ose ,oten&y ,rior to a&t$ality. t(en. is in a sense ri)(t. and in a sense not* and %e (a+e s,e&i'ied t(ese senses. T(at a&t$ality is ,rior is testi'ied by Ana1a)oras /'or (is 3reason3 is a&t$ality0 and by E#,edo&les in (is do&trine o' lo+e and stri'e. and by t(ose %(o say t(at t(ere is al%ays #o+e#ent. e.). "e$&i,,$s. T(ere'ore &(aos or ni)(t did not e1ist 'or an in'inite ti#e. b$t t(e sa#e t(in)s (a+e al%ays e1isted /eit(er ,assin) t(ro$)( a &y&le o' &(an)es or obeyin) so#e ot(er la%0. sin&e a&t$ality is ,rior to ,oten&y. I'. t(en. t(ere is a &onstant &y&le. so#et(in) #$st al%ays re#ain. a&tin) in t(e sa#e %ay. And i' t(ere is to be )eneration and destr$&tion. t(ere #$st be so#et(in) else %(i&( is al%ays a&tin) in di''erent %ays. T(is #$st. t(en. a&t in one %ay in +irt$e o' itsel'. and in anot(er in +irt$e o' so#et(in) else5eit(er o' a t(ird a)ent. t(ere'ore. or o' t(e 'irst. 2o% it #$st be in +irt$e o' t(e 'irst. -or ot(er%ise t(is a)ain &a$ses t(e #otion bot( o' t(e se&ond a)ent and o' t(e t(ird. T(ere'ore it is better to say 3t(e 'irst3. -or it %as t(e &a$se o' eternal $ni'or#ity* and so#et(in) else is t(e &a$se o' +ariety. and e+idently bot( to)et(er are t(e &a$se o' eternal +ariety. T(is. a&&ordin)ly. is t(e &(ara&ter %(i&( t(e #otions a&t$ally e1(ibit. W(at need t(en is t(ere to see 'or ot(er ,rin&i,les< A Sin&e /!0 t(is is a ,ossible a&&o$nt o' t(e #atter. and /70 i' it %ere not tr$e. t(e %orld %o$ld (a+e ,ro&eeded o$t o' ni)(t and 3all t(in)s to)et(er3 and o$t o' non5bein). t(ese di''i&$lties #ay be ta en as sol+ed. T(ere is. t(en. so#et(in) %(i&( is al%ays #o+ed %it( an $n&easin) #otion. %(i&( is #otion in a &ir&le* and t(is is ,lain not in t(eory only b$t in 'a&t. T(ere'ore t(e 'irst (ea+en #$st be eternal. T(ere is t(ere'ore also so#et(in) %(i&( #o+es it. And sin&e t(at %(i&( #o+es and is #o+ed is inter#ediate. t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( #o+es %it(o$t bein) #o+ed. bein) eternal. s$bstan&e. and a&t$ality. And t(e ob4e&t o' desire and t(e ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t #o+e in t(is %ay* t(ey #o+e %it(o$t bein) #o+ed. T(e ,ri#ary ob4e&ts o' desire and o' t(o$)(t are t(e sa#e. -or t(e a,,arent )ood is t(e ob4e&t o' a,,etite. and t(e real )ood is t(e ,ri#ary ob4e&t o' rational %is(. B$t desire is &onse8$ent on o,inion rat(er t(an o,inion on desire* 'or t(e t(in in) is t(e startin)5,oint. And t(o$)(t is #o+ed by t(e ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t. and one o' t(e t%o &ol$#ns o' o,,osites is in itsel' t(e ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t* and in t(is. s$bstan&e

is 'irst. and in s$bstan&e. t(at %(i&( is si#,le and e1ists a&t$ally. /T(e one and t(e si#,le are not t(e sa#e* 'or 3one3 #eans a #eas$re. b$t 3si#,le3 #eans t(at t(e t(in) itsel' (as a &ertain nat$re.0 B$t t(e bea$ti'$l. also. and t(at %(i&( is in itsel' desirable are in t(e sa#e &ol$#n* and t(e 'irst in any &lass is al%ays best. or analo)o$s to t(e best. T(at a 'inal &a$se #ay e1ist a#on) $n&(an)eable entities is s(o%n by t(e distin&tion o' its #eanin)s. -or t(e 'inal &a$se is /a0 so#e bein) 'or %(ose )ood an a&tion is done. and /b0 so#et(in) at %(i&( t(e a&tion ai#s* and o' t(ese t(e latter e1ists a#on) $n&(an)eable entities t(o$)( t(e 'or#er does not. T(e 'inal &a$se. t(en. ,rod$&es #otion as bein) lo+ed. b$t all ot(er t(in)s #o+e by bein) #o+ed. 2o% i' so#et(in) is #o+ed it is &a,able o' bein) ot(er%ise t(an as it is. T(ere'ore i' its a&t$ality is t(e ,ri#ary 'or# o' s,atial #otion. t(en in so 'ar as it is s$b4e&t to &(an)e. in t(is res,e&t it is &a,able o' bein) ot(er%ise.5in ,la&e. e+en i' not in s$bstan&e. B$t sin&e t(ere is so#et(in) %(i&( #o+es %(ile itsel' $n#o+ed. e1istin) a&t$ally. t(is &an in no %ay be ot(er%ise t(an as it is. -or #otion in s,a&e is t(e 'irst o' t(e inds o' &(an)e. and #otion in a &ir&le t(e 'irst ind o' s,atial #otion* and t(is t(e 'irst #o+er ,rod$&es. T(e 'irst #o+er. t(en. e1ists o' ne&essity* and in so 'ar as it e1ists by ne&essity. its #ode o' bein) is )ood. and it is in t(is sense a 'irst ,rin&i,le. -or t(e ne&essary (as all t(ese senses5t(at %(i&( is ne&essary ,er'or&e be&a$se it is &ontrary to t(e nat$ral i#,$lse. t(at %it(o$t %(i&( t(e )ood is i#,ossible. and t(at %(i&( &annot be ot(er%ise b$t &an e1ist only in a sin)le %ay. ;n s$&( a ,rin&i,le. t(en. de,end t(e (ea+ens and t(e %orld o' nat$re. And it is a li'e s$&( as t(e best %(i&( %e en4oy. and en4oy 'or b$t a s(ort ti#e /'or it is e+er in t(is state. %(i&( %e &annot be0. sin&e its a&t$ality is also ,leas$re. /And 'or t(is reason are %a in). ,er&e,tion. and t(in in) #ost ,leasant. and (o,es and #e#ories are so on a&&o$nt o' t(ese.0 And t(in in) in itsel' deals %it( t(at %(i&( is best in itsel'. and t(at %(i&( is t(in in) in t(e '$llest sense %it( t(at %(i&( is best in t(e '$llest sense. And t(o$)(t t(in s on itsel' be&a$se it s(ares t(e nat$re o' t(e ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t* 'or it be&o#es an ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t in &o#in) into &onta&t %it( and t(in in) its ob4e&ts. so t(at t(o$)(t and ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t are t(e sa#e. -or t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' re&ei+in) t(e ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t. i.e. t(e essen&e. is t(o$)(t. B$t it is a&ti+e %(en it ,ossesses t(is ob4e&t. T(ere'ore t(e ,ossession rat(er t(an t(e re&e,ti+ity is t(e di+ine ele#ent %(i&( t(o$)(t see#s to &ontain. and t(e a&t o' &onte#,lation is %(at is #ost ,leasant and best. I'. t(en. :od is al%ays in t(at )ood state in %(i&( %e so#eti#es are. t(is &o#,els o$r %onder* and i' in a better t(is &o#,els it yet #ore. And :od is in a better state. And li'e also belon)s to :od* 'or t(e a&t$ality o' t(o$)(t is li'e. and :od is t(at a&t$ality* and :od3s sel'5de,endent a&t$ality is li'e #ost )ood and eternal. We say t(ere'ore t(at :od is a li+in) bein). eternal. #ost )ood. so t(at li'e and d$ration &ontin$o$s and eternal belon) to :od* 'or t(is is :od. T(ose %(o s$,,ose. as t(e Pyt(a)oreans and S,e$si,,$s do. t(at s$,re#e bea$ty and )oodness are not ,resent in t(e be)innin). be&a$se t(e be)innin)s bot( o' ,lants and o' ani#als are &a$ses. b$t bea$ty and &o#,leteness are in t(e e''e&ts o' t(ese. are %ron) in t(eir o,inion. -or t(e seed &o#es 'ro# ot(er indi+id$als %(i&( are ,rior and &o#,lete. and t(e 'irst t(in) is not seed b$t t(e &o#,lete bein)* e.). %e #$st say t(at be'ore t(e seed t(ere is a #an.5not t(e #an ,rod$&ed 'ro# t(e seed. b$t anot(er 'ro# %(o# t(e seed &o#es. It is &lear t(en 'ro# %(at (as been said t(at t(ere is a s$bstan&e %(i&( is eternal and $n#o+able and se,arate 'ro# sensible t(in)s. It (as been s(o%n also t(at t(is s$bstan&e &annot (a+e any #a)nit$de. b$t is %it(o$t ,arts and indi+isible /'or it ,rod$&es #o+e#ent t(ro$)( in'inite ti#e. b$t not(in) 'inite (as in'inite ,o%er* and. %(ile e+ery #a)nit$de is eit(er in'inite or 'inite. it &annot. 'or t(e abo+e

reason. (a+e 'inite #a)nit$de. and it &annot (a+e in'inite #a)nit$de be&a$se t(ere is no in'inite #a)nit$de at all0. B$t it (as also been s(o%n t(at it is i#,assi+e and $nalterable* 'or all t(e ot(er &(an)es are ,osterior to &(an)e o' ,la&e. B It is &lear. t(en. %(y t(ese t(in)s are as t(ey are. B$t %e #$st not i)nore t(e 8$estion %(et(er %e (a+e to s$,,ose one s$&( s$bstan&e or #ore t(an one. and i' t(e latter. (o% #any* %e #$st also #ention. re)ardin) t(e o,inions e1,ressed by ot(ers. t(at t(ey (a+e said not(in) abo$t t(e n$#ber o' t(e s$bstan&es t(at &an e+en be &learly stated. -or t(e t(eory o' Ideas (as no s,e&ial dis&$ssion o' t(e s$b4e&t* 'or t(ose %(o s,ea o' Ideas say t(e Ideas are n$#bers. and t(ey s,ea o' n$#bers no% as $nli#ited. no% as li#ited by t(e n$#ber !0* b$t as 'or t(e reason %(y t(ere s(o$ld be 4$st so #any n$#bers. not(in) is said %it( any de#onstrati+e e1a&tness. We (o%e+er #$st dis&$ss t(e s$b4e&t. startin) 'ro# t(e ,res$,,ositions and distin&tions %e (a+e #entioned. T(e 'irst ,rin&i,le or ,ri#ary bein) is not #o+able eit(er in itsel' or a&&identally. b$t ,rod$&es t(e ,ri#ary eternal and sin)le #o+e#ent. B$t sin&e t(at %(i&( is #o+ed #$st be #o+ed by so#et(in). and t(e 'irst #o+er #$st be in itsel' $n#o+able. and eternal #o+e#ent #$st be ,rod$&ed by so#et(in) eternal and a sin)le #o+e#ent by a sin)le t(in). and sin&e %e see t(at besides t(e si#,le s,atial #o+e#ent o' t(e $ni+erse. %(i&( %e say t(e 'irst and $n#o+able s$bstan&e ,rod$&es. t(ere are ot(er s,atial #o+e#ents5t(ose o' t(e ,lanets5%(i&( are eternal /'or a body %(i&( #o+es in a &ir&le is eternal and $nrestin)* %e (a+e ,ro+ed t(ese ,oints in t(e ,(ysi&al treatises0. ea&( o' t(ese #o+e#ents also #$st be &a$sed by a s$bstan&e bot( $n#o+able in itsel' and eternal. -or t(e nat$re o' t(e stars is eternal 4$st be&a$se it is a &ertain ind o' s$bstan&e. and t(e #o+er is eternal and ,rior to t(e #o+ed. and t(at %(i&( is ,rior to a s$bstan&e #$st be a s$bstan&e. E+idently. t(en. t(ere #$st be s$bstan&es %(i&( are o' t(e sa#e n$#ber as t(e #o+e#ents o' t(e stars. and in t(eir nat$re eternal. and in t(e#sel+es $n#o+able. and %it(o$t #a)nit$de. 'or t(e reason be'ore #entioned. T(at t(e #o+ers are s$bstan&es. t(en. and t(at one o' t(ese is 'irst and anot(er se&ond a&&ordin) to t(e sa#e order as t(e #o+e#ents o' t(e stars. is e+ident. B$t in t(e n$#ber o' t(e #o+e#ents %e rea&( a ,roble# %(i&( #$st be treated 'ro# t(e stand,oint o' t(at one o' t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es %(i&( is #ost a in to ,(iloso,(y5+i6. o' astrono#y* 'or t(is s&ien&e s,e&$lates abo$t s$bstan&e %(i&( is ,er&e,tible b$t eternal. b$t t(e ot(er #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es. i.e. arit(#eti& and )eo#etry. treat o' no s$bstan&e. T(at t(e #o+e#ents are #ore n$#ero$s t(an t(e bodies t(at are #o+ed is e+ident to t(ose %(o (a+e )i+en e+en #oderate attention to t(e #atter* 'or ea&( o' t(e ,lanets (as #ore t(an one #o+e#ent. B$t as to t(e a&t$al n$#ber o' t(ese #o+e#ents. %e no%5to )i+e so#e notion o' t(e s$b4e&t58$ote %(at so#e o' t(e #at(e#ati&ians say. t(at o$r t(o$)(t #ay (a+e so#e de'inite n$#ber to )ras,* b$t. 'or t(e rest. %e #$st ,artly in+esti)ate 'or o$rsel+es. Partly learn 'ro# ot(er in+esti)ators. and i' t(ose %(o st$dy t(is s$b4e&t 'or# an o,inion &ontrary to %(at %e (a+e no% stated. %e #$st estee# bot( ,arties indeed. b$t 'ollo% t(e #ore a&&$rate. E$do1$s s$,,osed t(at t(e #otion o' t(e s$n or o' t(e #oon in+ol+es. in eit(er &ase. t(ree s,(eres. o' %(i&( t(e 'irst is t(e s,(ere o' t(e 'i1ed stars. and t(e se&ond #o+es in t(e &ir&le %(i&( r$ns alon) t(e #iddle o' t(e 6odia&. and t(e t(ird in t(e &ir&le %(i&( is in&lined a&ross t(e breadt( o' t(e 6odia&* b$t t(e &ir&le in %(i&( t(e #oon #o+es is in&lined at a )reater an)le t(an t(at in %(i&( t(e s$n #o+es. And t(e #otion o' t(e ,lanets in+ol+es. in ea&( &ase. 'o$r s,(eres. and o' t(ese also t(e 'irst and se&ond are t(e sa#e as t(e 'irst t%o #entioned abo+e /'or t(e s,(ere o' t(e 'i1ed stars is t(at %(i&( #o+es all t(e ot(er s,(eres. and t(at %(i&( is ,la&ed beneat( t(is and (as its #o+e#ent in t(e &ir&le %(i&( bise&ts t(e

6odia& is &o##on to all0. b$t t(e ,oles o' t(e t(ird s,(ere o' ea&( ,lanet are in t(e &ir&le %(i&( bise&ts t(e 6odia&. and t(e #otion o' t(e 'o$rt( s,(ere is in t(e &ir&le %(i&( is in&lined at an an)le to t(e e8$ator o' t(e t(ird s,(ere* and t(e ,oles o' t(e t(ird s,(ere are di''erent 'or ea&( o' t(e ot(er ,lanets. b$t t(ose o' Een$s and Mer&$ry are t(e sa#e. Calli,,$s #ade t(e ,osition o' t(e s,(eres t(e sa#e as E$do1$s did. b$t %(ile (e assi)ned t(e sa#e n$#ber as E$do1$s did to 9$,iter and to Sat$rn. (e t(o$)(t t%o #ore s,(eres s(o$ld be added to t(e s$n and t%o to t(e #oon. i' one is to e1,lain t(e obser+ed 'a&ts* and one #ore to ea&( o' t(e ot(er ,lanets. B$t it is ne&essary. i' all t(e s,(eres &o#bined are to e1,lain t(e obser+ed 'a&ts. t(at 'or ea&( o' t(e ,lanets t(ere s(o$ld be ot(er s,(eres /one 'e%er t(an t(ose (it(erto assi)ned0 %(i&( &o$ntera&t t(ose already #entioned and brin) ba& to t(e sa#e ,osition t(e o$ter#ost s,(ere o' t(e star %(i&( in ea&( &ase is sit$ated belo% t(e star in 8$estion* 'or only t($s &an all t(e 'or&es at %or ,rod$&e t(e obser+ed #otion o' t(e ,lanets. Sin&e. t(en. t(e s,(eres in+ol+ed in t(e #o+e#ent o' t(e ,lanets t(e#sel+es are55ei)(t 'or Sat$rn and 9$,iter and t%enty5'i+e 'or t(e ot(ers. and o' t(ese only t(ose in+ol+ed in t(e #o+e#ent o' t(e lo%est5sit$ated ,lanet need not be &o$ntera&ted t(e s,(eres %(i&( &o$ntera&t t(ose o' t(e o$ter#ost t%o ,lanets %ill be si1 in n$#ber. and t(e s,(eres %(i&( &o$ntera&t t(ose o' t(e ne1t 'o$r ,lanets %ill be si1teen* t(ere'ore t(e n$#ber o' all t(e s,(eres55bot( t(ose %(i&( #o+e t(e ,lanets and t(ose %(i&( &o$ntera&t t(ese55%ill be 'i'ty5'i+e. And i' one %ere not to add to t(e #oon and to t(e s$n t(e #o+e#ents %e #entioned. t(e %(ole set o' s,(eres %ill be 'orty5se+en in n$#ber. "et t(is. t(en. be ta en as t(e n$#ber o' t(e s,(eres. so t(at t(e $n#o+able s$bstan&es and ,rin&i,les also #ay ,robably be ta en as 4$st so #any* t(e assertion o' ne&essity #$st be le't to #ore ,o%er'$l t(in ers. B$t i' t(ere &an be no s,atial #o+e#ent %(i&( does not &ond$&e to t(e #o+in) o' a star. and i' '$rt(er e+ery bein) and e+ery s$bstan&e %(i&( is i##$ne 'ro# &(an)e and in +irt$e o' itsel' (as attained to t(e best #$st be &onsidered an end. t(ere &an be no ot(er bein) a,art 'ro# t(ese %e (a+e na#ed. b$t t(is #$st be t(e n$#ber o' t(e s$bstan&es. -or i' t(ere are ot(ers. t(ey %ill &a$se &(an)e as bein) a 'inal &a$se o' #o+e#ent* b$t t(ere &annot (e ot(er #o+e#ents besides t(ose #entioned. And it is reasonable to in'er t(is 'ro# a &onsideration o' t(e bodies t(at are #o+ed* 'or i' e+eryt(in) t(at #o+es is 'or t(e sa e o' t(at %(i&( is #o+ed. and e+ery #o+e#ent belon)s to so#et(in) t(at is #o+ed. no #o+e#ent &an be 'or t(e sa e o' itsel' or o' anot(er #o+e#ent. b$t all t(e #o+e#ents #$st be 'or t(e sa e o' t(e stars. -or i' t(ere is to be a #o+e#ent 'or t(e sa e o' a #o+e#ent. t(is latter also %ill (a+e to be 'or t(e sa e o' so#et(in) else* so t(at sin&e t(ere &annot be an in'inite re)ress. t(e end o' e+ery #o+e#ent %ill be one o' t(e di+ine bodies %(i&( #o+e t(ro$)( t(e (ea+en. /E+idently t(ere is b$t one (ea+en. -or i' t(ere are #any (ea+ens as t(ere are #any #en. t(e #o+in) ,rin&i,les. o' %(i&( ea&( (ea+en %ill (a+e one. %ill be one in 'or# b$t in n$#ber #any. B$t all t(in)s t(at are #any in n$#ber (a+e #atter* 'or one and t(e sa#e de'inition. e.). t(at o' #an. a,,lies to #any t(in)s. %(ile So&rates is one. B$t t(e ,ri#ary essen&e (as not #atter* 'or it is &o#,lete reality. So t(e $n#o+able 'irst #o+er is one bot( in de'inition and in n$#ber* so too. t(ere'ore. is t(at %(i&( is #o+ed al%ays and &ontin$o$sly* t(ere'ore t(ere is one (ea+en alone.0 ;$r 'ore'at(ers in t(e #ost re#ote a)es (a+e (anded do%n to t(eir ,osterity a tradition. in t(e 'or# o' a #yt(. t(at t(ese bodies are )ods. and t(at t(e di+ine en&loses t(e %(ole o' nat$re. T(e rest o' t(e tradition (as been added later in #yt(i&al 'or# %it( a +ie% to t(e ,ers$asion o' t(e #$ltit$de and to its le)al and $tilitarian e1,edien&y* t(ey say t(ese )ods are in t(e 'or# o' #en or li e so#e o' t(e ot(er ani#als. and t(ey say ot(er t(in)s &onse8$ent on and si#ilar to t(ese %(i&(

%e (a+e #entioned. B$t i' one %ere to se,arate t(e 'irst ,oint 'ro# t(ese additions and ta e it alone5t(at t(ey t(o$)(t t(e 'irst s$bstan&es to be )ods. one #$st re)ard t(is as an ins,ired $tteran&e. and re'le&t t(at. %(ile ,robably ea&( art and ea&( s&ien&e (as o'ten been de+elo,ed as 'ar as ,ossible and (as a)ain ,eris(ed. t(ese o,inions. %it( ot(ers. (a+e been ,reser+ed $ntil t(e ,resent li e reli&s o' t(e an&ient treas$re. ;nly t($s 'ar. t(en. is t(e o,inion o' o$r an&estors and o' o$r earliest ,rede&essors &lear to $s. C T(e nat$re o' t(e di+ine t(o$)(t in+ol+es &ertain ,roble#s* 'or %(ile t(o$)(t is (eld to be t(e #ost di+ine o' t(in)s obser+ed by $s. t(e 8$estion (o% it #$st be sit$ated in order to (a+e t(at &(ara&ter in+ol+es di''i&$lties. -or i' it t(in s o' not(in). %(at is t(ere (ere o' di)nity< It is 4$st li e one %(o slee,s. And i' it t(in s. b$t t(is de,ends on so#et(in) else. t(en /sin&e t(at %(i&( is its s$bstan&e is not t(e a&t o' t(in in). b$t a ,oten&y0 it &annot be t(e best s$bstan&e* 'or it is t(ro$)( t(in in) t(at its +al$e belon)s to it. -$rt(er. %(et(er its s$bstan&e is t(e 'a&$lty o' t(o$)(t or t(e a&t o' t(in in). %(at does it t(in o'< Eit(er o' itsel' or o' so#et(in) else* and i' o' so#et(in) else. eit(er o' t(e sa#e t(in) al%ays or o' so#et(in) di''erent. Does it #atter. t(en. or not. %(et(er it t(in s o' t(e )ood or o' any &(an&e t(in)< Are t(ere not so#e t(in)s abo$t %(i&( it is in&redible t(at it s(o$ld t(in < E+idently. t(en. it t(in s o' t(at %(i&( is #ost di+ine and ,re&io$s. and it does not &(an)e* 'or &(an)e %o$ld be &(an)e 'or t(e %orse. and t(is %o$ld be already a #o+e#ent. -irst. t(en. i' 3t(o$)(t3 is not t(e a&t o' t(in in) b$t a ,oten&y. it %o$ld be reasonable to s$,,ose t(at t(e &ontin$ity o' its t(in in) is %eariso#e to it. Se&ondly. t(ere %o$ld e+idently be so#et(in) else #ore ,re&io$s t(an t(o$)(t. +i6. t(at %(i&( is t(o$)(t o'. -or bot( t(in in) and t(e a&t o' t(o$)(t %ill belon) e+en to one %(o t(in s o' t(e %orst t(in) in t(e %orld. so t(at i' t(is o$)(t to be a+oided /and it o$)(t. 'or t(ere are e+en so#e t(in)s %(i&( it is better not to see t(an to see0. t(e a&t o' t(in in) &annot be t(e best o' t(in)s. T(ere'ore it #$st be o' itsel' t(at t(e di+ine t(o$)(t t(in s /sin&e it is t(e #ost e1&ellent o' t(in)s0. and its t(in in) is a t(in in) on t(in in). B$t e+idently no%led)e and ,er&e,tion and o,inion and $nderstandin) (a+e al%ays so#et(in) else as t(eir ob4e&t. and t(e#sel+es only by t(e %ay. -$rt(er. i' t(in in) and bein) t(o$)(t o' are di''erent. in res,e&t o' %(i&( does )oodness belon) to t(o$)(t< -or to (e an a&t o' t(in in) and to (e an ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t are not t(e sa#e t(in). We ans%er t(at in so#e &ases t(e no%led)e is t(e ob4e&t. In t(e ,rod$&ti+e s&ien&es it is t(e s$bstan&e or essen&e o' t(e ob4e&t. #atter o#itted. and in t(e t(eoreti&al s&ien&es t(e de'inition or t(e a&t o' t(in in) is t(e ob4e&t. Sin&e. t(en. t(o$)(t and t(e ob4e&t o' t(o$)(t are not di''erent in t(e &ase o' t(in)s t(at (a+e not #atter. t(e di+ine t(o$)(t and its ob4e&t %ill be t(e sa#e. i.e. t(e t(in in) %ill be one %it( t(e ob4e&t o' its t(o$)(t. A '$rt(er 8$estion is le't5%(et(er t(e ob4e&t o' t(e di+ine t(o$)(t is &o#,osite* 'or i' it %ere. t(o$)(t %o$ld &(an)e in ,assin) 'ro# ,art to ,art o' t(e %(ole. We ans%er t(at e+eryt(in) %(i&( (as not #atter is indi+isible5as ($#an t(o$)(t. or rat(er t(e t(o$)(t o' &o#,osite bein)s. is in a &ertain ,eriod o' ti#e /'or it does not ,ossess t(e )ood at t(is #o#ent or at t(at. b$t its best. bein) so#et(in) di''erent 'ro# it. is attained only in a %(ole ,eriod o' ti#e0. so t(ro$)(o$t eternity is t(e t(o$)(t %(i&( (as itsel' 'or its ob4e&t. !0 We #$st &onsider also in %(i&( o' t%o %ays t(e nat$re o' t(e $ni+erse &ontains t(e )ood. and t(e (i)(est )ood. %(et(er as so#et(in)

se,arate and by itsel'. or as t(e order o' t(e ,arts. Probably in bot( %ays. as an ar#y does* 'or its )ood is 'o$nd bot( in its order and in its leader. and #ore in t(e latter* 'or (e does not de,end on t(e order b$t it de,ends on (i#. And all t(in)s are ordered to)et(er so#e(o%. b$t not all ali e.5bot( 'is(es and 'o%ls and ,lants* and t(e %orld is not s$&( t(at one t(in) (as not(in) to do %it( anot(er. b$t t(ey are &onne&ted. -or all are ordered to)et(er to one end. b$t it is as in a (o$se. %(ere t(e 'ree#en are least at liberty to a&t at rando#. b$t all t(in)s or #ost t(in)s are already ordained 'or t(e#. %(ile t(e sla+es and t(e ani#als do little 'or t(e &o##on )ood. and 'or t(e #ost ,art li+e at rando#* 'or t(is is t(e sort o' ,rin&i,le t(at &onstit$tes t(e nat$re o' ea&(. I #ean. 'or instan&e. t(at all #$st at least &o#e to be dissol+ed into t(eir ele#ents. and t(ere are ot(er '$n&tions si#ilarly in %(i&( all s(are 'or t(e )ood o' t(e %(ole. We #$st not 'ail to obser+e (o% #any i#,ossible or ,arado1i&al res$lts &on'ront t(ose %(o (old di''erent +ie%s 'ro# o$r o%n. and %(at are t(e +ie%s o' t(e s$btler t(in ers. and %(i&( +ie%s are attended by 'e%est di''i&$lties. All #a e all t(in)s o$t o' &ontraries. B$t neit(er 3all t(in)s3 nor 3o$t o' &ontraries3 is ri)(t* nor do t(ese t(in ers tell $s (o% all t(e t(in)s in %(i&( t(e &ontraries are ,resent &an be #ade o$t o' t(e &ontraries* 'or &ontraries are not a''e&ted by one anot(er. 2o% 'or $s t(is di''i&$lty is sol+ed nat$rally by t(e 'a&t t(at t(ere is a t(ird ele#ent. T(ese t(in ers (o%e+er #a e one o' t(e t%o &ontraries #atter* t(is is done 'or instan&e by t(ose %(o #a e t(e $ne8$al #atter 'or t(e e8$al. or t(e #any #atter 'or t(e one. B$t t(is also is re'$ted in t(e sa#e %ay* 'or t(e one #atter %(i&( $nderlies any ,air o' &ontraries is &ontrary to not(in). -$rt(er. all t(in)s. e1&e,t t(e one. %ill. on t(e +ie% %e are &riti&i6in). ,arta e o' e+il* 'or t(e bad itsel' is one o' t(e t%o ele#ents. B$t t(e ot(er s&(ool does not treat t(e )ood and t(e bad e+en as ,rin&i,les* yet in all t(in)s t(e )ood is in t(e (i)(est de)ree a ,rin&i,le. T(e s&(ool %e 'irst #entioned is ri)(t in sayin) t(at it is a ,rin&i,le. b$t (o% t(e )ood is a ,rin&i,le t(ey do not say5%(et(er as end or as #o+er or as 'or#. E#,edo&les also (as a ,arado1i&al +ie%* 'or (e identi'ies t(e )ood %it( lo+e. b$t t(is is a ,rin&i,le bot( as #o+er /'or it brin)s t(in)s to)et(er0 and as #atter /'or it is ,art o' t(e #i1t$re0. 2o% e+en i' it (a,,ens t(at t(e sa#e t(in) is a ,rin&i,le bot( as #atter and as #o+er. still t(e bein). at least. o' t(e t%o is not t(e sa#e. In %(i&( res,e&t t(en is lo+e a ,rin&i,le< It is ,arado1i&al also t(at stri'e s(o$ld be i#,eris(able* t(e nat$re o' (is 3e+il3 is 4$st stri'e. Ana1a)oras #a es t(e )ood a #oti+e ,rin&i,le* 'or (is 3reason3 #o+es t(in)s. B$t it #o+es t(e# 'or an end. %(i&( #$st be so#et(in) ot(er t(an it. e1&e,t a&&ordin) to o$r %ay o' statin) t(e &ase* 'or. on o$r +ie%. t(e #edi&al art is in a sense (ealt(. It is ,arado1i&al also not to s$,,ose a &ontrary to t(e )ood. i.e. to reason. B$t all %(o s,ea o' t(e &ontraries #a e no $se o' t(e &ontraries. $nless %e brin) t(eir +ie%s into s(a,e. And %(y so#e t(in)s are ,eris(able and ot(ers i#,eris(able. no one tells $s* 'or t(ey #a e all e1istin) t(in)s o$t o' t(e sa#e ,rin&i,les. -$rt(er. so#e #a e e1istin) t(in)s o$t o' t(e none1istent* and ot(ers to a+oid t(e ne&essity o' t(is #a e all t(in)s one. -$rt(er. %(y s(o$ld t(ere al%ays be be&o#in). and %(at is t(e &a$se o' be&o#in)<5t(is no one tells $s. And t(ose %(o s$,,ose t%o ,rin&i,les #$st s$,,ose anot(er. a s$,erior ,rin&i,le. and so #$st t(ose %(o belie+e in t(e -or#s* 'or %(y did t(in)s &o#e to ,arti&i,ate. or %(y do t(ey ,arti&i,ate. in t(e -or#s< And all ot(er t(in ers are &on'ronted by t(e ne&essary &onse8$en&e t(at t(ere is so#et(in) &ontrary to Wisdo#. i.e. to t(e (i)(est no%led)e* b$t %e are not. -or t(ere is not(in) &ontrary to t(at %(i&( is ,ri#ary* 'or all &ontraries (a+e #atter. and t(in)s t(at (a+e #atter e1ist only ,otentially* and t(e i)noran&e %(i&( is &ontrary to any no%led)e leads to an ob4e&t &ontrary to t(e ob4e&t o' t(e no%led)e* b$t %(at

is ,ri#ary (as no &ontrary. A)ain. i' besides sensible t(in)s no ot(ers e1ist. t(ere %ill be no 'irst ,rin&i,le. no order. no be&o#in). no (ea+enly bodies. b$t ea&( ,rin&i,le %ill (a+e a ,rin&i,le be'ore it. as in t(e a&&o$nts o' t(e t(eolo)ians and all t(e nat$ral ,(iloso,(ers. B$t i' t(e -or#s or t(e n$#bers are to e1ist. t(ey %ill be &a$ses o' not(in)* or i' not t(at. at least not o' #o+e#ent. -$rt(er. (o% is e1tension. i.e. a &ontin$$#. to be ,rod$&ed o$t o' $ne1tended ,arts< -or n$#ber %ill not. eit(er as #o+er or as 'or#. ,rod$&e a &ontin$$#. B$t a)ain t(ere &annot be any &ontrary t(at is also essentially a ,rod$&ti+e or #o+in) ,rin&i,le* 'or it %o$ld be ,ossible 'or it not to be. ;r at least its a&tion %o$ld be ,osterior to its ,oten&y. T(e %orld. t(en. %o$ld not be eternal. B$t it is* one o' t(ese ,re#isses. t(en. #$st be denied. And %e (a+e said (o% t(is #$st be done. -$rt(er. in +irt$e o' %(at t(e n$#bers. or t(e so$l and t(e body. or in )eneral t(e 'or# and t(e t(in). are one5o' t(is no one tells $s anyt(in)* nor &an any one tell. $nless (e says. as %e do. t(at t(e #o+er #a es t(e# one. And t(ose %(o say #at(e#ati&al n$#ber is 'irst and )o on to )enerate one ind o' s$bstan&e a'ter anot(er and )i+e di''erent ,rin&i,les 'or ea&(. #a e t(e s$bstan&e o' t(e $ni+erse a #ere series o' e,isodes /'or one s$bstan&e (as no in'l$en&e on anot(er by its e1isten&e or none1isten&e0. and t(ey )i+e $s #any )o+ernin) ,rin&i,les* b$t t(e %orld re'$ses to be )o+erned badly. 3T(e r$le o' #any is not )ood* one r$ler let t(ere be.3 Boo ?III ! WE (a+e stated %(at is t(e s$bstan&e o' sensible t(in)s. dealin) in t(e treatise on ,(ysi&s %it( #atter. and later %it( t(e s$bstan&e %(i&( (as a&t$al e1isten&e. 2o% sin&e o$r in8$iry is %(et(er t(ere is or is not besides t(e sensible s$bstan&es any %(i&( is i##o+able and eternal. and. i' t(ere is. %(at it is. %e #$st 'irst &onsider %(at is said by ot(ers. so t(at. i' t(ere is anyt(in) %(i&( t(ey say %ron)ly. %e #ay not be liable to t(e sa#e ob4e&tions. %(ile. i' t(ere is any o,inion &o##on to t(e# and $s. %e s(all (a+e no ,ri+ate )rie+an&e a)ainst o$rsel+es on t(at a&&o$nt* 'or one #$st be &ontent to state so#e ,oints better t(an one3s ,rede&essors. and ot(ers no %orse. T%o o,inions are (eld on t(is s$b4e&t* it is said t(at t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s5i.e. n$#bers and lines and t(e li e5are s$bstan&es. and a)ain t(at t(e Ideas are s$bstan&es. And /!0 sin&e so#e re&o)ni6e t(ese as t%o di''erent &lasses5t(e Ideas and t(e #at(e#ati&al n$#bers. and /70 so#e re&o)ni6e bot( as (a+in) one nat$re. %(ile /30 so#e ot(ers say t(at t(e #at(e#ati&al s$bstan&es are t(e only s$bstan&es. %e #$st &onsider 'irst t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. not 8$ali'yin) t(e# by any ot(er &(ara&teristi&5not as in). 'or instan&e. %(et(er t(ey are in 'a&t Ideas or not. or %(et(er t(ey are t(e ,rin&i,les and s$bstan&es o' e1istin) t(in)s or not. b$t only %(et(er as ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s t(ey e1ist or not. and i' t(ey e1ist. (o% t(ey e1ist. T(en a'ter t(is %e #$st se,arately &onsider t(e Ideas t(e#sel+es in a )eneral %ay. and only as 'ar as t(e a&&e,ted #ode o' treat#ent de#ands* 'or #ost o' t(e ,oints (a+e been re,eatedly #ade e+en by t(e dis&$ssions o$tside o$r s&(ool. and. '$rt(er. t(e )reater ,art o' o$r a&&o$nt #$st 'inis( by t(ro%in) li)(t on t(at in8$iry. +i6. %(en %e e1a#ine %(et(er t(e s$bstan&es and t(e ,rin&i,les o' e1istin) t(in)s are n$#bers and Ideas* 'or a'ter t(e dis&$ssion o' t(e Ideas t(is re#ans as a t(ird in8$iry. I' t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s e1ist. t(ey #$st e1ist eit(er in sensible ob4e&ts. as so#e say. or se,arate 'ro# sensible ob4e&ts /and t(is also is said by so#e0* or i' t(ey e1ist in neit(er o' t(ese %ays. eit(er t(ey do not e1ist. or t(ey e1ist only in so#e s,e&ial sense. So t(at t(e s$b4e&t o' o$r dis&$ssion %ill be not %(et(er t(ey e1ist b$t (o% t(ey e1ist.

7 T(at it is i#,ossible 'or #at(e#ati&al ob4e&ts to e1ist in sensible t(in)s. and at t(e sa#e ti#e t(at t(e do&trine in 8$estion is an arti'i&ial one. (as been said already in o$r dis&$ssion o' di''i&$lties %e (a+e ,ointed o$t t(at it is i#,ossible 'or t%o solids to be in t(e sa#e ,la&e. and also t(at a&&ordin) to t(e sa#e ar)$#ent t(e ot(er ,o%ers and &(ara&teristi&s also s(o$ld e1ist in sensible t(in)s and none o' t(e# se,arately. T(is %e (a+e said already. B$t. '$rt(er. it is ob+io$s t(at on t(is t(eory it is i#,ossible 'or any body %(ate+er to be di+ided* 'or it %o$ld (a+e to be di+ided at a ,lane. and t(e ,lane at a line. and t(e line at a ,oint. so t(at i' t(e ,oint &annot be di+ided. neit(er &an t(e line. and i' t(e line &annot. neit(er &an t(e ,lane nor t(e solid. W(at di''eren&e. t(en. does it #a e %(et(er sensible t(in)s are s$&( indi+isible entities. or. %it(o$t bein) so t(e#sel+es. (a+e indi+isible entities in t(e#< T(e res$lt %ill be t(e sa#e* i' t(e sensible entities are di+ided t(e ot(ers %ill be di+ided too. or else not e+en t(e sensible entities &an be di+ided. B$t. a)ain. it is not ,ossible t(at s$&( entities s(o$ld e1ist se,arately. -or i' besides t(e sensible solids t(ere are to be ot(er solids %(i&( are se,arate 'ro# t(e# and ,rior to t(e sensible solids. it is ,lain t(at besides t(e ,lanes also t(ere #$st be ot(er and se,arate ,lanes and ,oints and lines* 'or &onsisten&y re8$ires t(is. B$t i' t(ese e1ist. a)ain besides t(e ,lanes and lines and ,oints o' t(e #at(e#ati&al solid t(ere #$st be ot(ers %(i&( are se,arate. /-or in&o#,osites are ,rior to &o#,o$nds* and i' t(ere are. ,rior to t(e sensible bodies. bodies %(i&( are not sensible. by t(e sa#e ar)$#ent t(e ,lanes %(i&( e1ist by t(e#sel+es #$st be ,rior to t(ose %(i&( are in t(e #otionless solids. T(ere'ore t(ese %ill be ,lanes and lines ot(er t(an t(ose t(at e1ist alon) %it( t(e #at(e#ati&al solids to %(i&( t(ese t(in ers assi)n se,arate e1isten&e* 'or t(e latter e1ist alon) %it( t(e #at(e#ati&al solids. %(ile t(e ot(ers are ,rior to t(e #at(e#ati&al solids.0 A)ain. t(ere'ore. t(ere %ill be. belon)in) to t(ese ,lanes. lines. and ,rior to t(e# t(ere %ill (a+e to be. by t(e sa#e ar)$#ent. ot(er lines and ,oints* and ,rior to t(ese ,oints in t(e ,rior lines t(ere %ill (a+e to be ot(er ,oints. t(o$)( t(ere %ill be no ot(ers ,rior to t(ese. 2o% /!0 t(e a&&$#$lation be&o#es abs$rd* 'or %e 'ind o$rsel+es %it( one set o' solids a,art 'ro# t(e sensible solids* t(ree sets o' ,lanes a,art 'ro# t(e sensible ,lanes5t(ose %(i&( e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e sensible ,lanes. and t(ose in t(e #at(e#ati&al solids. and t(ose %(i&( e1ist a,art 'ro# t(ose in t(e #at(e#ati&al solids* 'o$r sets o' lines. and 'i+e sets o' ,oints. Wit( %(i&( o' t(ese. t(en. %ill t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es deal< Certainly not %it( t(e ,lanes and lines and ,oints in t(e #otionless solid* 'or s&ien&e al%ays deals %it( %(at is ,rior. And /t(e sa#e a&&o$nt %ill a,,ly also to n$#bers* 'or t(ere %ill be a di''erent set o' $nits a,art 'ro# ea&( set o' ,oints. and also a,art 'ro# ea&( set o' realities. 'ro# t(e ob4e&ts o' sense and a)ain 'ro# t(ose o' t(o$)(t* so t(at t(ere %ill be +ario$s &lasses o' #at(e#ati&al n$#bers. A)ain. (o% is it ,ossible to sol+e t(e 8$estions %(i&( %e (a+e already en$#erated in o$r dis&$ssion o' di''i&$lties< -or t(e ob4e&ts o' astrono#y %ill e1ist a,art 'ro# sensible t(in)s 4$st as t(e ob4e&ts o' )eo#etry %ill* b$t (o% is it ,ossible t(at a (ea+en and its ,arts5or anyt(in) else %(i&( (as #o+e#ent5s(o$ld e1ist a,art< Si#ilarly also t(e ob4e&ts o' o,ti&s and o' (ar#oni&s %ill e1ist a,art* 'or t(ere %ill be bot( +oi&e and si)(t besides t(e sensible or indi+id$al +oi&es and si)(ts. T(ere'ore it is ,lain t(at t(e ot(er senses as %ell. and t(e ot(er ob4e&ts o' sense. %ill e1ist a,art* 'or %(y s(o$ld one set o' t(e# do so and anot(er not< And i' t(is is so. t(ere %ill also be ani#als e1istin) a,art. sin&e t(ere %ill be senses. A)ain. t(ere are &ertain #at(e#ati&al t(eore#s t(at are $ni+ersal.

e1tendin) beyond t(ese s$bstan&es. Here t(en %e s(all (a+e anot(er inter#ediate s$bstan&e se,arate bot( 'ro# t(e Ideas and 'ro# t(e inter#ediates.5a s$bstan&e %(i&( is neit(er n$#ber nor ,oints nor s,atial #a)nit$de nor ti#e. And i' t(is is i#,ossible. ,lainly it is also i#,ossible t(at t(e 'or#er entities s(o$ld e1ist se,arate 'ro# sensible t(in)s. And. in )eneral. &on&l$sion &ontrary ali e to t(e tr$t( and to t(e $s$al +ie%s 'ollo%. i' one is to s$,,ose t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s to e1ist t($s as se,arate entities. -or be&a$se t(ey e1ist t($s t(ey #$st be ,rior to sensible s,atial #a)nit$des. b$t in tr$t( t(ey #$st be ,osterior* 'or t(e in&o#,lete s,atial #a)nit$de is in t(e order o' )eneration ,rior. b$t in t(e order o' s$bstan&e ,osterior. as t(e li'eless is to t(e li+in). A)ain. by +irt$e o' %(at. and %(en. %ill #at(e#ati&al #a)nit$des be one< -or t(in)s in o$r ,er&e,tible %orld are one in +irt$e o' so$l. or o' a ,art o' so$l. or o' so#et(in) else t(at is reasonable eno$)(* %(en t(ese are not ,resent. t(e t(in) is a ,l$rality. and s,lits $, into ,arts. B$t in t(e &ase o' t(e s$b4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. %(i&( are di+isible and are 8$antities. %(at is t(e &a$se o' t(eir bein) one and (oldin) to)et(er< A)ain. t(e #odes o' )eneration o' t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s s(o% t(at %e are ri)(t. -or t(e di#ension 'irst )enerated is len)t(. t(en &o#es breadt(. lastly de,t(. and t(e ,ro&ess is &o#,lete. I'. t(en. t(at %(i&( is ,osterior in t(e order o' )eneration is ,rior in t(e order o' s$bstantiality. t(e solid %ill be ,rior to t(e ,lane and t(e line. And in t(is %ay also it is bot( #ore &o#,lete and #ore %(ole. be&a$se it &an be&o#e ani#ate. Ho%. on t(e ot(er (and. &o$ld a line or a ,lane be ani#ate< T(e s$,,osition ,asses t(e ,o%er o' o$r senses. A)ain. t(e solid is a sort o' s$bstan&e* 'or it already (as in a sense &o#,leteness. B$t (o% &an lines be s$bstan&es< 2eit(er as a 'or# or s(a,e. as t(e so$l ,er(a,s is. nor as #atter. li e t(e solid* 'or %e (a+e no e1,erien&e o' anyt(in) t(at &an be ,$t to)et(er o$t o' lines or ,lanes or ,oints. %(ile i' t(ese (ad been a sort o' #aterial s$bstan&e. %e s(o$ld (a+e obser+ed t(in)s %(i&( &o$ld be ,$t to)et(er o$t o' t(e#. :rant. t(en. t(at t(ey are ,rior in de'inition. Still not all t(in)s t(at are ,rior in de'inition are also ,rior in s$bstantiality. -or t(ose t(in)s are ,rior in s$bstantiality %(i&( %(en se,arated 'ro# ot(er t(in)s s$r,ass t(e# in t(e ,o%er o' inde,endent e1isten&e. b$t t(in)s are ,rior in de'inition to t(ose %(ose de'initions are &o#,o$nded o$t o' t(eir de'initions* and t(ese t%o ,ro,erties are not &oe1tensi+e. -or i' attrib$tes do not e1ist a,art 'ro# t(e s$bstan&es /e.). a 3#obile3 or a ,ale30. ,ale is ,rior to t(e ,ale #an in de'inition. b$t not in s$bstantiality. -or it &annot e1ist se,arately. b$t is al%ays alon) %it( t(e &on&rete t(in)* and by t(e &on&rete t(in) I #ean t(e ,ale #an. T(ere'ore it is ,lain t(at neit(er is t(e res$lt o' abstra&tion ,rior nor t(at %(i&( is ,rod$&ed by addin) deter#inants ,osterior* 'or it is by addin) a deter#inant to ,ale t(at %e s,ea o' t(e ,ale #an. It (as. t(en. been s$''i&iently ,ointed o$t t(at t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s are not s$bstan&es in a (i)(er de)ree t(an bodies are. and t(at t(ey are not ,rior to sensibles in bein). b$t only in de'inition. and t(at t(ey &annot e1ist so#e%(ere a,art. B$t sin&e it %as not ,ossible 'or t(e# to e1ist in sensibles eit(er. it is ,lain t(at t(ey eit(er do not e1ist at all or e1ist in a s,e&ial sense and t(ere'ore do not 3e1ist3 %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. -or 3e1ist3 (as #any senses. 3 -or 4$st as t(e $ni+ersal ,ro,ositions o' #at(e#ati&s deal not %it( ob4e&ts %(i&( e1ist se,arately. a,art 'ro# e1tended #a)nit$des and 'ro# n$#bers. b$t %it( #a)nit$des and n$#bers. not (o%e+er 8$a s$&( as to (a+e #a)nit$de or to be di+isible. &learly it is ,ossible

t(at t(ere s(o$ld also be bot( ,ro,ositions and de#onstrations abo$t sensible #a)nit$des. not (o%e+er 8$a sensible b$t 8$a ,ossessed o' &ertain de'inite 8$alities. -or as t(ere are #any ,ro,ositions abo$t t(in)s #erely &onsidered as in #otion. a,art 'ro# %(at ea&( s$&( t(in) is and 'ro# t(eir a&&idents. and as it is not t(ere'ore ne&essary t(at t(ere s(o$ld be eit(er a #obile se,arate 'ro# sensibles. or a distin&t #obile entity in t(e sensibles. so too in t(e &ase o' #obiles t(ere %ill be ,ro,ositions and s&ien&es. %(i&( treat t(e# (o%e+er not 8$a #obile b$t only 8$a bodies. or a)ain only 8$a ,lanes. or only 8$a lines. or 8$a di+isibles. or 8$a indi+isibles (a+in) ,osition. or only 8$a indi+isibles. T($s sin&e it is tr$e to say %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation t(at not only t(in)s %(i&( are se,arable b$t also t(in)s %(i&( are inse,arable e1ist /'or instan&e. t(at #obiles e1ist0. it is tr$e also to say %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation t(at t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s e1ist. and %it( t(e &(ara&ter as&ribed to t(e# by #at(e#ati&ians. And as it is tr$e to say o' t(e ot(er s&ien&es too. %it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation. t(at t(ey deal %it( s$&( and s$&( a s$b4e&t5not %it( %(at is a&&idental to it /e.). not %it( t(e ,ale. i' t(e (ealt(y t(in) is ,ale. and t(e s&ien&e (as t(e (ealt(y as its s$b4e&t0. b$t %it( t(at %(i&( is t(e s$b4e&t o' ea&( s&ien&e5%it( t(e (ealt(y i' it treats its ob4e&t 8$a (ealt(y. %it( #an i' 8$a #an>5so too is it %it( )eo#etry* i' its s$b4e&ts (a,,en to be sensible. t(o$)( it does not treat t(e# 8$a sensible. t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es %ill not 'or t(at reason be s&ien&es o' sensibles5nor. on t(e ot(er (and. o' ot(er t(in)s se,arate 'ro# sensibles. Many ,ro,erties atta&( to t(in)s in +irt$e o' t(eir o%n nat$re as ,ossessed o' ea&( s$&( &(ara&ter* e.). t(ere are attrib$tes ,e&$liar to t(e ani#al 8$a 'e#ale or 8$a #ale /yet t(ere is no 3'e#ale3 nor 3#ale3 se,arate 'ro# ani#als0* so t(at t(ere are also attrib$tes %(i&( belon) to t(in)s #erely as len)t(s or as ,lanes. And in ,ro,ortion as %e are dealin) %it( t(in)s %(i&( are ,rior in de'inition and si#,ler. o$r no%led)e (as #ore a&&$ra&y. i.e. si#,li&ity. T(ere'ore a s&ien&e %(i&( abstra&ts 'ro# s,atial #a)nit$de is #ore ,re&ise t(an one %(i&( ta es it into a&&o$nt* and a s&ien&e is #ost ,re&ise i' it abstra&ts 'ro# #o+e#ent. b$t i' it ta es a&&o$nt o' #o+e#ent. it is #ost ,re&ise i' it deals %it( t(e ,ri#ary #o+e#ent. 'or t(is is t(e si#,lest* and o' t(is a)ain $ni'or# #o+e#ent is t(e si#,lest 'or#. T(e sa#e a&&o$nt #ay be )i+en o' (ar#oni&s and o,ti&s* 'or neit(er &onsiders its ob4e&ts 8$a si)(t or 8$a +oi&e. b$t 8$a lines and n$#bers* b$t t(e latter are attrib$tes ,ro,er to t(e 'or#er. And #e&(ani&s too ,ro&eeds in t(e sa#e %ay. T(ere'ore i' %e s$,,ose attrib$tes se,arated 'ro# t(eir 'ello% attrib$tes and #a e any in8$iry &on&ernin) t(e# as s$&(. %e s(all not 'or t(is reason be in error. any #ore t(an %(en one dra%s a line on t(e )ro$nd and &alls it a 'oot lon) %(en it is not* 'or t(e error is not in&l$ded in t(e ,re#isses. Ea&( 8$estion %ill be best in+esti)ated in t(is %ay5by settin) $, by an a&t o' se,aration %(at is not se,arate. as t(e arit(#eti&ian and t(e )eo#eter do. -or a #an 8$a #an is one indi+isible t(in)* and t(e arit(#eti&ian s$,,osed one indi+isible t(in). and t(en &onsidered %(et(er any attrib$te belon)s to a #an 8$a indi+isible. B$t t(e )eo#eter treats (i# neit(er 8$a #an nor 8$a indi+isible. b$t as a solid. -or e+idently t(e ,ro,erties %(i&( %o$ld (a+e belon)ed to (i# e+en i' ,er&(an&e (e (ad not been indi+isible. &an belon) to (i# e+en a,art 'ro# t(ese attrib$tes. T($s. t(en. )eo#eters s,ea &orre&tly* t(ey tal abo$t e1istin) t(in)s. and t(eir s$b4e&ts do e1ist* 'or bein) (as t%o 'or#s5it e1ists not only in &o#,lete reality b$t also #aterially. 2o% sin&e t(e )ood and t(e bea$ti'$l are di''erent /'or t(e 'or#er al%ays i#,lies &ond$&t as its s$b4e&t. %(ile t(e bea$ti'$l is 'o$nd also in #otionless t(in)s0. t(ose %(o assert t(at t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es say not(in) o' t(e bea$ti'$l or t(e )ood are in error. -or t(ese s&ien&es say and ,ro+e a )reat deal abo$t t(e#* i' t(ey do not e1,ressly #ention t(e#. b$t ,ro+e attrib$tes %(i&( are t(eir res$lts or t(eir de'initions. it is not tr$e to say t(at t(ey tell $s

not(in) abo$t t(e#. T(e &(ie' 'or#s o' bea$ty are order and sy##etry and de'initeness. %(i&( t(e #at(e#ati&al s&ien&es de#onstrate in a s,e&ial de)ree. And sin&e t(ese /e.). order and de'initeness0 are ob+io$sly &a$ses o' #any t(in)s. e+idently t(ese s&ien&es #$st treat t(is sort o' &a$sati+e ,rin&i,le also /i.e. t(e bea$ti'$l0 as in so#e sense a &a$se. B$t %e s(all s,ea #ore ,lainly else%(ere abo$t t(ese #atters. = So #$&( t(en 'or t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s* %e (a+e said t(at t(ey e1ist and in %(at sense t(ey e1ist. and in %(at sense t(ey are ,rior and in %(at sense not ,rior. 2o%. re)ardin) t(e Ideas. %e #$st 'irst e1a#ine t(e ideal t(eory itsel'. not &onne&tin) it in any %ay %it( t(e nat$re o' n$#bers. b$t treatin) it in t(e 'or# in %(i&( it %as ori)inally $nderstood by t(ose %(o 'irst #aintained t(e e1isten&e o' t(e Ideas. T(e s$,,orters o' t(e ideal t(eory %ere led to it be&a$se on t(e 8$estion abo$t t(e tr$t( o' t(in)s t(ey a&&e,ted t(e Hera&litean sayin)s %(i&( des&ribe all sensible t(in)s as e+er ,assin) a%ay. so t(at i' no%led)e or t(o$)(t is to (a+e an ob4e&t. t(ere #$st be so#e ot(er and ,er#anent entities. a,art 'ro# t(ose %(i&( are sensible* 'or t(ere &o$ld be no no%led)e o' t(in)s %(i&( %ere in a state o' 'l$1. B$t %(en So&rates %as o&&$,yin) (i#sel' %it( t(e e1&ellen&es o' &(ara&ter. and in &onne1ion %it( t(e# be&a#e t(e 'irst to raise t(e ,roble# o' $ni+ersal de'inition /'or o' t(e ,(ysi&ists De#o&rit$s only to$&(ed on t(e s$b4e&t to a s#all e1tent. and de'ined. a'ter a 'as(ion. t(e (ot and t(e &old* %(ile t(e Pyt(a)oreans (ad be'ore t(is treated o' a 'e% t(in)s. %(ose de'initions5e.). t(ose o' o,,ort$nity. 4$sti&e. or #arria)e5t(ey &onne&ted %it( n$#bers* b$t it %as nat$ral t(at So&rates s(o$ld be see in) t(e essen&e. 'or (e %as see in) to syllo)i6e. and 3%(at a t(in) is3 is t(e startin)5,oint o' syllo)is#s* 'or t(ere %as as yet none o' t(e diale&ti&al ,o%er %(i&( enables ,eo,le e+en %it(o$t no%led)e o' t(e essen&e to s,e&$late abo$t &ontraries and in8$ire %(et(er t(e sa#e s&ien&e deals %it( &ontraries* 'or t%o t(in)s #ay be 'airly as&ribed to So&rates5ind$&ti+e ar)$#ents and $ni+ersal de'inition. bot( o' %(i&( are &on&erned %it( t(e startin)5,oint o' s&ien&e0>5b$t So&rates did not #a e t(e $ni+ersals or t(e de'initions e1ist a,art> t(ey. (o%e+er. )a+e t(e# se,arate e1isten&e. and t(is %as t(e ind o' t(in) t(ey &alled Ideas. T(ere'ore it 'ollo%ed 'or t(e#. al#ost by t(e sa#e ar)$#ent. t(at t(ere #$st be Ideas o' all t(in)s t(at are s,o en o' $ni+ersally. and it %as al#ost as i' a #an %is(ed to &o$nt &ertain t(in)s. and %(ile t(ey %ere 'e% t(o$)(t (e %o$ld not be able to &o$nt t(e#. b$t #ade #ore o' t(e# and t(en &o$nted t(e#* 'or t(e -or#s are. one #ay say. #ore n$#ero$s t(an t(e ,arti&$lar sensible t(in)s. yet it %as in see in) t(e &a$ses o' t(ese t(at t(ey ,ro&eeded 'ro# t(e# to t(e -or#s. -or to ea&( t(in) t(ere ans%ers an entity %(i&( (as t(e sa#e na#e and e1ists a,art 'ro# t(e s$bstan&es. and so also in t(e &ase o' all ot(er )ro$,s t(ere is a one o+er #any. %(et(er t(ese be o' t(is %orld or eternal. A)ain. o' t(e %ays in %(i&( it is ,ro+ed t(at t(e -or#s e1ist. none is &on+in&in)* 'or 'ro# so#e no in'eren&e ne&essarily 'ollo%s. and 'ro# so#e arise -or#s e+en o' t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ey t(in t(ere are no -or#s. -or a&&ordin) to t(e ar)$#ents 'ro# t(e s&ien&es t(ere %ill be -or#s o' all t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ere are s&ien&es. and a&&ordin) to t(e ar)$#ent o' t(e 3one o+er #any3 t(ere %ill be -or#s e+en o' ne)ations. and a&&ordin) to t(e ar)$#ent t(at t(o$)(t (as an ob4e&t %(en t(e indi+id$al ob4e&t (as ,eris(ed. t(ere %ill be -or#s o' ,eris(able t(in)s* 'or %e (a+e an i#a)e o' t(ese. A)ain. o' t(e #ost a&&$rate ar)$#ents. so#e lead to Ideas o' relations. o' %(i&( t(ey say t(ere is no inde,endent &lass. and ot(ers introd$&e t(e 3t(ird #an3. And in )eneral t(e ar)$#ents 'or t(e -or#s destroy t(in)s 'or %(ose e1isten&e t(e belie+ers in -or#s are #ore 6ealo$s t(an 'or t(e e1isten&e o' t(e Ideas* 'or it 'ollo%s t(at not t(e dyad b$t n$#ber is

'irst. and t(at ,rior to n$#ber is t(e relati+e. and t(at t(is is ,rior to t(e absol$te5besides all t(e ot(er ,oints on %(i&( &ertain ,eo,le. by 'ollo%in) o$t t(e o,inions (eld abo$t t(e -or#s. &a#e into &on'li&t %it( t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(e t(eory. A)ain. a&&ordin) to t(e ass$#,tion on t(e belie' in t(e Ideas rests. t(ere %ill be -or#s not only o' s$bstan&es b$t also o' #any ot(er t(in)s* 'or t(e &on&e,t is sin)le not only in t(e &ase o' s$bstan&es. b$t also in t(at o' non5s$bstan&es. and t(ere are s&ien&es o' ot(er t(in)s t(an s$bstan&e* and a t(o$sand ot(er s$&( di''i&$lties &on'ront t(e#. B$t a&&ordin) to t(e ne&essities o' t(e &ase and t(e o,inions abo$t t(e -or#s. i' t(ey &an be s(ared in t(ere #$st be Ideas o' s$bstan&es only. -or t(ey are not s(ared in in&identally. b$t ea&( -or# #$st be s(ared in as so#et(in) not ,redi&ated o' a s$b4e&t. /By 3bein) s(ared in in&identally3 I #ean t(at i' a t(in) s(ares in 3do$ble itsel'3. it s(ares also in 3eternal3. b$t in&identally* 'or 3t(e do$ble3 (a,,ens to be eternal.0 T(ere'ore t(e -or#s %ill be s$bstan&e. B$t t(e sa#e na#es indi&ate s$bstan&e in t(is and in t(e ideal %orld /or %(at %ill be t(e #eanin) o' sayin) t(at t(ere is so#et(in) a,art 'ro# t(e ,arti&$lars5t(e one o+er #any<0. And i' t(e Ideas and t(e t(in)s t(at s(are in t(e# (a+e t(e sa#e 'or#. t(ere %ill be so#et(in) &o##on> 'or %(y s(o$ld 373 be one and t(e sa#e in t(e ,eris(able 73s. or in t(e 73s %(i&( are #any b$t eternal. and not t(e sa#e in t(e 37 itsel'3 as in t(e indi+id$al 7< B$t i' t(ey (a+e not t(e sa#e 'or#. t(ey %ill (a+e only t(e na#e in &o##on. and it is as i' one %ere to &all bot( Callias and a ,ie&e o' %ood a 3#an3. %it(o$t obser+in) any &o##$nity bet%een t(e#. B$t i' %e are to s$,,ose t(at in ot(er res,e&ts t(e &o##on de'initions a,,ly to t(e -or#s. e.). t(at 3,lane 'i)$re3 and t(e ot(er ,arts o' t(e de'inition a,,ly to t(e &ir&le itsel'. b$t 3%(at really is3 (as to be added. %e #$st in8$ire %(et(er t(is is not absol$tely #eanin)less. -or to %(at is t(is to be added< To 3&entre3 or to 3,lane3 or to all t(e ,arts o' t(e de'inition< -or all t(e ele#ents in t(e essen&e are Ideas. e.). 3ani#al3 and 3t%o5'ooted3. -$rt(er. t(ere #$st be so#e Ideal ans%erin) to 3,lane3 abo+e. so#e nat$re %(i&( %ill be ,resent in all t(e -or#s as t(eir )en$s. 5 Abo+e all one #i)(t dis&$ss t(e 8$estion %(at in t(e %orld t(e -or#s &ontrib$te to sensible t(in)s. eit(er to t(ose t(at are eternal or to t(ose t(at &o#e into bein) and &ease to be* 'or t(ey &a$se neit(er #o+e#ent nor any &(an)e in t(e#. B$t a)ain t(ey (el, in no %ise eit(er to%ards t(e no%led)e o' ot(er t(in)s /'or t(ey are not e+en t(e s$bstan&e o' t(ese. else t(ey %o$ld (a+e been in t(e#0. or to%ards t(eir bein). i' t(ey are not in t(e indi+id$als %(i&( s(are in t(e#* t(o$)( i' t(ey %ere. t(ey #i)(t be t(o$)(t to be &a$ses. as %(ite &a$ses %(iteness in a %(ite ob4e&t by enterin) into its &o#,osition. B$t t(is ar)$#ent. %(i&( %as $sed 'irst by Ana1a)oras. and later by E$do1$s in (is dis&$ssion o' di''i&$lties and by &ertain ot(ers. is +ery easily $,set* 'or it is easy to &olle&t #any and ins$,erable ob4e&tions to s$&( a +ie%. B$t. '$rt(er. all ot(er t(in)s &annot &o#e 'ro# t(e -or#s in any o' t(e $s$al senses o' 3'ro#3. And to say t(at t(ey are ,atterns and t(e ot(er t(in)s s(are in t(e# is to $se e#,ty %ords and ,oeti&al #eta,(ors. -or %(at is it t(at %or s. loo in) to t(e Ideas< And any t(in) &an bot( be and &o#e into bein) %it(o$t bein) &o,ied 'ro# so#et(in) else. so t(at. %(et(er So&rates e1ists or not. a #an li e So&rates #i)(t &o#e to be. And e+idently t(is #i)(t be so e+en i' So&rates %ere eternal. And t(ere %ill be se+eral ,atterns o' t(e sa#e t(in). and t(ere'ore se+eral -or#s* e.). 3ani#al3 and 3t%o5'ooted3. and also 3#an5(i#sel'3. %ill be -or#s o' #an. A)ain. t(e -or#s are ,atterns not only o' sensible t(in)s. b$t o' -or#s t(e#sel+es also* i.e. t(e )en$s is t(e ,attern o' t(e +ario$s 'or#s5o'5a5)en$s* t(ere'ore t(e sa#e t(in) %ill be ,attern and &o,y. A)ain. it %o$ld see# i#,ossible t(at s$bstan&e and t(at %(ose

s$bstan&e it is s(o$ld e1ist a,art* (o%. t(ere'ore. &o$ld t(e Ideas. bein) t(e s$bstan&es o' t(in)s. e1ist a,art< In t(e P(aedo t(e &ase is stated in t(is %ay5t(at t(e -or#s are &a$ses bot( o' bein) and o' be&o#in). Yet t(o$)( t(e -or#s e1ist. still t(in)s do not &o#e into bein). $nless t(ere is so#et(in) to ori)inate #o+e#ent* and #any ot(er t(in)s &o#e into bein) /e.). a (o$se or a rin)0 o' %(i&( t(ey say t(ere are no -or#s. Clearly t(ere'ore e+en t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ey say t(ere are Ideas &an bot( be and &o#e into bein) o%in) to s$&( &a$ses as ,rod$&e t(e t(in)s 4$st #entioned. and not o%in) to t(e -or#s. B$t re)ardin) t(e Ideas it is ,ossible. bot( in t(is %ay and by #ore abstra&t and a&&$rate ar)$#ents. to &olle&t #any ob4e&tions li e t(ose %e (a+e &onsidered. @ Sin&e %e (a+e dis&$ssed t(ese ,oints. it is %ell to &onsider a)ain t(e res$lts re)ardin) n$#bers %(i&( &on'ront t(ose %(o say t(at n$#bers are se,arable s$bstan&es and 'irst &a$ses o' t(in)s. I' n$#ber is an entity and its s$bstan&e is not(in) ot(er t(an 4$st n$#ber. as so#e say. it 'ollo%s t(at eit(er /!0 t(ere is a 'irst in it and a se&ond. ea&( bein) di''erent in s,e&ies.5and eit(er /a0 t(is is tr$e o' t(e $nits %it(o$t e1&e,tion. and any $nit is inasso&iable %it( any $nit. or /b0 t(ey are all %it(o$t e1&e,tion s$&&essi+e. and any o' t(e# are asso&iable %it( any. as t(ey say is t(e &ase %it( #at(e#ati&al n$#ber* 'or in #at(e#ati&al n$#ber no one $nit is in any %ay di''erent 'ro# anot(er. ;r /&0 so#e $nits #$st be asso&iable and so#e not* e.). s$,,ose t(at 7 is 'irst a'ter !. and t(en &o#es 3 and t(en t(e rest o' t(e n$#ber series. and t(e $nits in ea&( n$#ber are asso&iable. e.). t(ose in t(e 'irst 7 are asso&iable %it( one anot(er. and t(ose in t(e 'irst 3 %it( one anot(er. and so %it( t(e ot(er n$#bers* b$t t(e $nits in t(e 375itsel'3 are inasso&iable %it( t(ose in t(e 335itsel'3* and si#ilarly in t(e &ase o' t(e ot(er s$&&essi+e n$#bers. And so %(ile #at(e#ati&al n$#ber is &o$nted t($s5a'ter !. 7 /%(i&( &onsists o' anot(er ! besides t(e 'or#er !0. and 3 %(i&( &onsists o' anot(er ! besides t(ese t%o0. and t(e ot(er n$#bers si#ilarly. ideal n$#ber is &o$nted t($s5a'ter !. a distin&t 7 %(i&( does not in&l$de t(e 'irst !. and a 3 %(i&( does not in&l$de t(e 7 and t(e rest o' t(e n$#ber series si#ilarly. ;r /70 one ind o' n$#ber #$st be li e t(e 'irst t(at %as na#ed. one li e t(at %(i&( t(e #at(e#ati&ians s,ea o'. and t(at %(i&( %e (a+e na#ed last #$st be a t(ird ind. A)ain. t(ese inds o' n$#bers #$st eit(er be se,arable 'ro# t(in)s. or not se,arable b$t in ob4e&ts o' ,er&e,tion /not (o%e+er in t(e %ay %(i&( %e 'irst &onsidered. in t(e sense t(at ob4e&ts o' ,er&e,tion &onsists o' n$#bers %(i&( are ,resent in t(e#05eit(er one ind and not anot(er. or all o' t(e#. T(ese are o' ne&essity t(e only %ays in %(i&( t(e n$#bers &an e1ist. And o' t(ose %(o say t(at t(e ! is t(e be)innin) and s$bstan&e and ele#ent o' all t(in)s. and t(at n$#ber is 'or#ed 'ro# t(e ! and so#et(in) else. al#ost e+ery one (as des&ribed n$#ber in one o' t(ese %ays* only no one (as said all t(e $nits are inasso&iable. And t(is (as (a,,ened reasonably eno$)(* 'or t(ere &an be no %ay besides t(ose #entioned. So#e say bot( inds o' n$#ber e1ist. t(at %(i&( (as a be'ore and a'ter bein) identi&al %it( t(e Ideas. and #at(e#ati&al n$#ber bein) di''erent 'ro# t(e Ideas and 'ro# sensible t(in)s. and bot( bein) se,arable 'ro# sensible t(in)s* and ot(ers say #at(e#ati&al n$#ber alone e1ists. as t(e 'irst o' realities. se,arate 'ro# sensible t(in)s. And t(e Pyt(a)oreans. also. belie+e in one ind o' n$#ber5t(e #at(e#ati&al* only t(ey say it is not se,arate b$t sensible s$bstan&es are 'or#ed o$t o' it. -or t(ey &onstr$&t t(e %(ole $ni+erse o$t o' n$#bers5only not n$#bers &onsistin) o' abstra&t $nits* t(ey s$,,ose t(e $nits to (a+e s,atial #a)nit$de. B$t (o% t(e 'irst ! %as &onstr$&ted so as to (a+e #a)nit$de. t(ey see# $nable to say. Anot(er t(in er says t(e 'irst ind o' n$#ber. t(at o' t(e

-or#s. alone e1ists. and so#e say #at(e#ati&al n$#ber is identi&al %it( t(is. T(e &ase o' lines. ,lanes. and solids is si#ilar. -or so#e t(in t(at t(ose %(i&( are t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s are di''erent 'ro# t(ose %(i&( &o#e a'ter t(e Ideas* and o' t(ose %(o e1,ress t(e#sel+es ot(er%ise so#e s,ea o' t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s and in a #at(e#ati&al %ay5+i6. t(ose %(o do not #a e t(e Ideas n$#bers nor say t(at Ideas e1ist* and ot(ers s,ea o' t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. b$t not #at(e#ati&ally* 'or t(ey say t(at neit(er is e+ery s,atial #a)nit$de di+isible into #a)nit$des. nor do any t%o $nits ta en at rando# #a e 7. All %(o say t(e ! is an ele#ent and ,rin&i,le o' t(in)s s$,,ose n$#bers to &onsist o' abstra&t $nits. e1&e,t t(e Pyt(a)oreans* b$t t(ey s$,,ose t(e n$#bers to (a+e #a)nit$de. as (as been said be'ore. It is &lear 'ro# t(is state#ent. t(en. in (o% #any %ays n$#bers #ay be des&ribed. and t(at all t(e %ays (a+e been #entioned* and all t(ese +ie%s are i#,ossible. b$t so#e ,er(a,s #ore t(an ot(ers. A -irst. t(en. let $s in8$ire i' t(e $nits are asso&iable or inasso&iable. and i' inasso&iable. in %(i&( o' t(e t%o %ays %e distin)$is(ed. -or it is ,ossible t(at any $nity is inasso&iable %it( any. and it is ,ossible t(at t(ose in t(e 3itsel'3 are inasso&iable %it( t(ose in t(e 3itsel'3. and. )enerally. t(at t(ose in ea&( ideal n$#ber are inasso&iable %it( t(ose in ot(er ideal n$#bers. 2o% /!0 all $nits are asso&iable and %it(o$t di''eren&e. %e )et #at(e#ati&al n$#ber5only one ind o' n$#ber. and t(e Ideas &annot be t(e n$#bers. -or %(at sort o' n$#ber %ill #an5(i#sel' or ani#al5itsel' or any ot(er -or# be< T(ere is one Idea o' ea&( t(in) e.). one o' #an5(i#sel' and anot(er one o' ani#al5itsel'* b$t t(e si#ilar and $ndi''erentiated n$#bers are in'initely #any. so t(at any ,arti&$lar 3 is no #ore #an5(i#sel' t(an any ot(er 3. B$t i' t(e Ideas are not n$#bers. neit(er &an t(ey e1ist at all. -or 'ro# %(at ,rin&i,les %ill t(e Ideas &o#e< It is n$#ber t(at &o#es 'ro# t(e ! and t(e inde'inite dyad. and t(e ,rin&i,les or ele#ents are said to be ,rin&i,les and ele#ents o' n$#ber. and t(e Ideas &annot be ran ed as eit(er ,rior or ,osterior to t(e n$#bers. B$t /70 i' t(e $nits are inasso&iable. and inasso&iable in t(e sense t(at any is inasso&iable %it( any ot(er. n$#ber o' t(is sort &annot be #at(e#ati&al n$#ber* 'or #at(e#ati&al n$#ber &onsists o' $ndi''erentiated $nits. and t(e tr$t(s ,ro+ed o' it s$it t(is &(ara&ter. 2or &an it be ideal n$#ber. -or 7 %ill not ,ro&eed i##ediately 'ro# ! and t(e inde'inite dyad. and be 'ollo%ed by t(e s$&&essi+e n$#bers. as t(ey say 37.3.=3 'or t(e $nits in t(e ideal are )enerated at t(e sa#e ti#e. %(et(er. as t(e 'irst (older o' t(e t(eory said. 'ro# $ne8$als /&o#in) into bein) %(en t(ese %ere e8$ali6ed0 or in so#e ot(er %ay5sin&e. i' one $nit is to be ,rior to t(e ot(er. it %ill be ,rior also to 7 t(e &o#,osed o' t(ese* 'or %(en t(ere is one t(in) ,rior and anot(er ,osterior. t(e res$ltant o' t(ese %ill be ,rior to one and ,osterior to t(e ot(er. A)ain. sin&e t(e !5itsel' is 'irst. and t(en t(ere is a ,arti&$lar ! %(i&( is 'irst a#on) t(e ot(ers and ne1t a'ter t(e !5itsel'. and a)ain a t(ird %(i&( is ne1t a'ter t(e se&ond and ne1t b$t one a'ter t(e 'irst !.5so t(e $nits #$st be ,rior to t(e n$#bers a'ter %(i&( t(ey are na#ed %(en %e &o$nt t(e#* e.). t(ere %ill be a t(ird $nit in 7 be'ore 3 e1ists. and a 'o$rt( and a 'i't( in 3 be'ore t(e n$#bers = and 5 e1ist.52o% none o' t(ese t(in ers (as said t(e $nits are inasso&iable in t(is %ay. b$t a&&ordin) to t(eir ,rin&i,les it is reasonable t(at t(ey s(o$ld be so e+en in t(is %ay. t(o$)( in tr$t( it is i#,ossible. -or it is reasonable bot( t(at t(e $nits s(o$ld (a+e ,riority and ,osteriority i' t(ere is a 'irst $nit or 'irst !. and also t(at t(e 73s s(o$ld i' t(ere is a 'irst 7* 'or a'ter t(e 'irst it is reasonable and ne&essary t(at t(ere s(o$ld be a se&ond. and i' a se&ond. a t(ird. and so %it( t(e ot(ers s$&&essi+ely. /And to say bot( t(in)s at t(e sa#e ti#e.

t(at a $nit is 'irst and anot(er $nit is se&ond a'ter t(e ideal !. and t(at a 7 is 'irst a'ter it. is i#,ossible.0 B$t t(ey #a e a 'irst $nit or !. b$t not also a se&ond and a t(ird. and a 'irst 7. b$t not also a se&ond and a t(ird. Clearly. also. it is not ,ossible. i' all t(e $nits are inasso&iable. t(at t(ere s(o$ld be a 75itsel' and a 35itsel'* and so %it( t(e ot(er n$#bers. -or %(et(er t(e $nits are $ndi''erentiated or di''erent ea&( 'ro# ea&(. n$#ber #$st be &o$nted by addition. e.). 7 by addin) anot(er ! to t(e one. 3 by addin) anot(er ! to t(e t%o. and si#ilarly. T(is bein) so. n$#bers &annot be )enerated as t(ey )enerate t(e#. 'ro# t(e 7 and t(e !* 'or 7 be&o#es ,art o' 3 and 3 o' = and t(e sa#e (a,,ens in t(e &ase o' t(e s$&&eedin) n$#bers. b$t t(ey say = &a#e 'ro# t(e 'irst 7 and t(e inde'inite %(i&( #a es it t%o 73s ot(er t(an t(e 75itsel'* i' not. t(e 75itsel' %ill be a ,art o' = and one ot(er 7 %ill be added. And si#ilarly 7 %ill &onsist o' t(e !5itsel' and anot(er !* b$t i' t(is is so. t(e ot(er ele#ent &annot be an inde'inite 7* 'or it )enerates one $nit. not. as t(e inde'inite 7 does. a de'inite 7. A)ain. besides t(e 35itsel' and t(e 75itsel' (o% &an t(ere be ot(er 33s and 73s< And (o% do t(ey &onsist o' ,rior and ,osterior $nits< All t(is is abs$rd and 'i&titio$s. and t(ere &annot be a 'irst 7 and t(en a 35itsel'. Yet t(ere #$st. i' t(e ! and t(e inde'inite dyad are to be t(e ele#ents. B$t i' t(e res$lts are i#,ossible. it is also i#,ossible t(at t(ese are t(e )eneratin) ,rin&i,les. I' t(e $nits. t(en. are di''erentiated. ea&( 'ro# ea&(. t(ese res$lts and ot(ers si#ilar to t(ese 'ollo% o' ne&essity. B$t /30 i' t(ose in di''erent n$#bers are di''erentiated. b$t t(ose in t(e sa#e n$#ber are alone $ndi''erentiated 'ro# one anot(er. e+en so t(e di''i&$lties t(at 'ollo% are no less. E.). in t(e !05itsel' t(eir are ten $nits. and t(e !0 is &o#,osed bot( o' t(e# and o' t%o 53s. B$t sin&e t(e !05itsel' is not any &(an&e n$#ber nor &o#,osed o' any &(an&e 53s55or. 'or t(at #atter. $nits55t(e $nits in t(is !0 #$st di''er. -or i' t(ey do not di''er. neit(er %ill t(e 53s o' %(i&( t(e !0 &onsists di''er* b$t sin&e t(ese di''er. t(e $nits also %ill di''er. B$t i' t(ey di''er. %ill t(ere be no ot(er 53s in t(e !0 b$t only t(ese t%o. or %ill t(ere be ot(ers< I' t(ere are not. t(is is ,arado1i&al* and i' t(ere are. %(at sort o' !0 %ill &onsist o' t(e#< -or t(ere is no ot(er in t(e !0 b$t t(e !0 itsel'. B$t it is a&t$ally ne&essary on t(eir +ie% t(at t(e = s(o$ld not &onsist o' any &(an&e 73s* 'or t(e inde'inite as t(ey say. re&ei+ed t(e de'inite 7 and #ade t%o 73s* 'or its nat$re %as to do$ble %(at it re&ei+ed. A)ain. as to t(e 7 bein) an entity a,art 'ro# its t%o $nits. and t(e 3 an entity a,art 'ro# its t(ree $nits. (o% is t(is ,ossible< Eit(er by one3s s(arin) in t(e ot(er. as 3,ale #an3 is di''erent 'ro# 3,ale3 and 3#an3 /'or it s(ares in t(ese0. or %(en one is a di''erentia o' t(e ot(er. as 3#an3 is di''erent 'ro# 3ani#al3 and 3t%o5'ooted3. A)ain. so#e t(in)s are one by &onta&t. so#e by inter#i1t$re. so#e by ,osition* none o' %(i&( &an belon) to t(e $nits o' %(i&( t(e 7 or t(e 3 &onsists* b$t as t%o #en are not a $nity a,art 'ro# bot(. so #$st it be %it( t(e $nits. And t(eir bein) indi+isible %ill #a e no di''eren&e to t(e#* 'or ,oints too are indi+isible. b$t yet a ,air o' t(e# is not(in) a,art 'ro# t(e t%o. B$t t(is &onse8$en&e also %e #$st not 'or)et. t(at it 'ollo%s t(at t(ere are ,rior and ,osterior 7 and si#ilarly %it( t(e ot(er n$#bers. -or let t(e 73s in t(e = be si#$ltaneo$s* yet t(ese are ,rior to t(ose in t(e B and as t(e 7 )enerated t(e#. t(ey )enerated t(e =3s in t(e B5itsel'. T(ere'ore i' t(e 'irst 7 is an Idea. t(ese 73s also %ill be Ideas o' so#e ind. And t(e sa#e a&&o$nt a,,lies to t(e $nits* 'or t(e $nits in t(e 'irst 7 )enerate t(e 'o$r in =. so t(at all t(e $nits &o#e to be Ideas and an Idea %ill be &o#,osed o' Ideas. Clearly t(ere'ore t(ose t(in)s also o' %(i&( t(ese (a,,en to be t(e Ideas %ill be &o#,osite. e.). one #i)(t say t(at ani#als are

&o#,osed o' ani#als. i' t(ere are Ideas o' t(e#. In )eneral. to di''erentiate t(e $nits in any %ay is an abs$rdity and a 'i&tion* and by a 'i&tion I #ean a 'or&ed state#ent #ade to s$it a (y,ot(esis. -or neit(er in 8$antity nor in 8$ality do %e see $nit di''erin) 'ro# $nit. and n$#ber #$st be eit(er e8$al or $ne8$al5all n$#ber b$t es,e&ially t(at %(i&( &onsists o' abstra&t $nits5so t(at i' one n$#ber is neit(er )reater nor less t(an anot(er. it is e8$al to it* b$t t(in)s t(at are e8$al and in no %ise di''erentiated %e ta e to be t(e sa#e %(en %e are s,ea in) o' n$#bers. I' not. not e+en t(e 7 in t(e !05itsel' %ill be $ndi''erentiated. t(o$)( t(ey are e8$al* 'or %(at reason %ill t(e #an %(o alle)es t(at t(ey are not di''erentiated be able to )i+e< A)ain. i' e+ery $nit G anot(er $nit #a es t%o. a $nit 'ro# t(e 75itsel' and one 'ro# t(e 35itsel' %ill #a e a 7. 2o% /a0 t(is %ill &onsist o' di''erentiated $nits* and %ill it be ,rior to t(e 3 or ,osterior< It rat(er see#s t(at it #$st be ,rior* 'or one o' t(e $nits is si#$ltaneo$s %it( t(e 3 and t(e ot(er is si#$ltaneo$s %it( t(e 7. And %e. 'or o$r ,art. s$,,ose t(at in )eneral ! and !. %(et(er t(e t(in)s are e8$al or $ne8$al. is 7. e.). t(e )ood and t(e bad. or a #an and a (orse* b$t t(ose %(o (old t(ese +ie%s say t(at not e+en t%o $nits are 7. I' t(e n$#ber o' t(e 35itsel' is not )reater t(an t(at o' t(e 7. t(is is s$r,risin)* and i' it is )reater. &learly t(ere is also a n$#ber in it e8$al to t(e 7. so t(at t(is is not di''erent 'ro# t(e 75itsel'. B$t t(is is not ,ossible. i' t(ere is a 'irst and a se&ond n$#ber. 2or %ill t(e Ideas be n$#bers. -or in t(is ,arti&$lar ,oint t(ey are ri)(t %(o &lai# t(at t(e $nits #$st be di''erent. i' t(ere are to be Ideas* as (as been said be'ore. -or t(e -or# is $ni8$e* b$t i' t(e $nits are not di''erent. t(e 73s and t(e 33s also %ill not be di''erent. T(is is also t(e reason %(y t(ey #$st say t(at %(en %e &o$nt t($s53!.735%e do not ,ro&eed by addin) to t(e )i+en n$#ber* 'or i' %e do. neit(er %ill t(e n$#bers be )enerated 'ro# t(e inde'inite dyad. nor &an a n$#ber be an Idea* 'or t(en one Idea %ill be in anot(er. and all -or#s %ill be ,arts o' one -or#. And so %it( a +ie% to t(eir (y,ot(esis t(eir state#ents are ri)(t. b$t as a %(ole t(ey are %ron)* 'or t(eir +ie% is +ery destr$&ti+e. sin&e t(ey %ill ad#it t(at t(is 8$estion itsel' a''ords so#e di''i&$lty5%(et(er. %(en %e &o$nt and say 5!.7.35%e &o$nt by addition or by se,arate ,ortions. B$t %e do bot(* and so it is abs$rd to reason ba& 'ro# t(is ,roble# to so )reat a di''eren&e o' essen&e. B -irst o' all it is %ell to deter#ine %(at is t(e di''erentia o' a n$#ber5and o' a $nit. i' it (as a di''erentia. Lnits #$st di''er eit(er in 8$antity or in 8$ality* and neit(er o' t(ese see#s to be ,ossible. B$t n$#ber 8$a n$#ber di''ers in 8$antity. And i' t(e $nits also did di''er in 8$antity. n$#ber %o$ld di''er 'ro# n$#ber. t(o$)( e8$al in n$#ber o' $nits. A)ain. are t(e 'irst $nits )reater or s#aller. and do t(e later ones in&rease or di#inis(< All t(ese are irrational s$,,ositions. B$t neit(er &an t(ey di''er in 8$ality. -or no attrib$te &an atta&( to t(e#* 'or e+en to n$#bers 8$ality is said to belon) a'ter 8$antity. A)ain. 8$ality &o$ld not &o#e to t(e# eit(er 'ro# t(e ! or t(e dyad* 'or t(e 'or#er (as no 8$ality. and t(e latter )i+es 8$antity* 'or t(is entity is %(at #a es t(in)s to be #any. I' t(e 'a&ts are really ot(er%ise. t(ey s(o$ld state t(is 8$ite at t(e be)innin) and deter#ine i' ,ossible. re)ardin) t(e di''erentia o' t(e $nit. %(y it #$st e1ist. and. 'ailin) t(is. %(at di''erentia t(ey #ean. E+idently t(en. i' t(e Ideas are n$#bers. t(e $nits &annot all be asso&iable. nor &an t(ey be inasso&iable in eit(er o' t(e t%o %ays. B$t neit(er is t(e %ay in %(i&( so#e ot(ers s,ea abo$t n$#bers &orre&t. T(ese are t(ose %(o do not t(in t(ere are Ideas. eit(er

%it(o$t 8$ali'i&ation or as identi'ied %it( &ertain n$#bers. b$t t(in t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s e1ist and t(e n$#bers are t(e 'irst o' e1istin) t(in)s. and t(e !5itsel' is t(e startin)5,oint o' t(e#. It is ,arado1i&al t(at t(ere s(o$ld be a ! %(i&( is 'irst o' !3s. as t(ey say. b$t not a 7 %(i&( is 'irst o' 73s. nor a 3 o' 33s* 'or t(e sa#e reasonin) a,,lies to all. I'. t(en. t(e 'a&ts %it( re)ard to n$#ber are so. and one s$,,oses #at(e#ati&al n$#ber alone to e1ist. t(e ! is not t(e startin)5,oint /'or t(is sort o' ! #$st di''er 'ro# t(e5ot(er $nits* and i' t(is is so. t(ere #$st also be a 7 %(i&( is 'irst o' 73s. and si#ilarly %it( t(e ot(er s$&&essi+e n$#bers0. B$t i' t(e ! is t(e startin)5,oint. t(e tr$t( abo$t t(e n$#bers #$st rat(er be %(at Plato $sed to say. and t(ere #$st be a 'irst 7 and 3 and n$#bers #$st not be asso&iable %it( one anot(er. B$t i' on t(e ot(er (and one s$,,oses t(is. #any i#,ossible res$lts. as %e (a+e said. 'ollo%. B$t eit(er t(is or t(e ot(er #$st be t(e &ase. so t(at i' neit(er is. n$#ber &annot e1ist se,arately. It is e+ident. also. 'ro# t(is t(at t(e t(ird +ersion is t(e %orst.5t(e +ie% ideal and #at(e#ati&al n$#ber is t(e sa#e. -or t%o #ista es #$st t(en #eet in t(e one o,inion. /!0 Mat(e#ati&al n$#ber &annot be o' t(is sort. b$t t(e (older o' t(is +ie% (as to s,in it o$t by #a in) s$,,ositions ,e&$liar to (i#sel'. And /70 (e #$st also ad#it all t(e &onse8$en&es t(at &on'ront t(ose %(o s,ea o' n$#ber in t(e sense o' 3-or#s3. T(e Pyt(a)orean +ersion in one %ay a''ords 'e%er di''i&$lties t(an t(ose be'ore na#ed. b$t in anot(er %ay (as ot(ers ,e&$liar to itsel'. -or not t(in in) o' n$#ber as &a,able o' e1istin) se,arately re#o+es #any o' t(e i#,ossible &onse8$en&es* b$t t(at bodies s(o$ld be &o#,osed o' n$#bers. and t(at t(is s(o$ld be #at(e#ati&al n$#ber. is i#,ossible. -or it is not tr$e to s,ea o' indi+isible s,atial #a)nit$des* and (o%e+er #$&( t(ere #i)(t be #a)nit$des o' t(is sort. $nits at least (a+e not #a)nit$de* and (o% &an a #a)nit$de be &o#,osed o' indi+isibles< B$t arit(#eti&al n$#ber. at least. &onsists o' $nits. %(ile t(ese t(in ers identi'y n$#ber %it( real t(in)s* at any rate t(ey a,,ly t(eir ,ro,ositions to bodies as i' t(ey &onsisted o' t(ose n$#bers. I'. t(en. it is ne&essary. i' n$#ber is a sel'5s$bsistent real t(in). t(at it s(o$ld e1ist in one o' t(ese %ays %(i&( (a+e been #entioned. and i' it &annot e1ist in any o' t(ese. e+idently n$#ber (as no s$&( nat$re as t(ose %(o #a e it se,arable set $, 'or it. A)ain. does ea&( $nit &o#e 'ro# t(e )reat and t(e s#all. e8$ali6ed. or one 'ro# t(e s#all. anot(er 'ro# t(e )reat< /a0 I' t(e latter. neit(er does ea&( t(in) &ontain all t(e ele#ents. nor are t(e $nits %it(o$t di''eren&e* 'or in one t(ere is t(e )reat and in anot(er t(e s#all. %(i&( is &ontrary in its nat$re to t(e )reat. A)ain. (o% is it %it( t(e $nits in t(e 35itsel'< ;ne o' t(e# is an odd $nit. B$t ,er(a,s it is 'or t(is reason t(at t(ey )i+e !5itsel' t(e #iddle ,la&e in odd n$#bers. /b0 B$t i' ea&( o' t(e t%o $nits &onsists o' bot( t(e )reat and t(e s#all. e8$ali6ed. (o% %ill t(e 7 %(i&( is a sin)le t(in). &onsist o' t(e )reat and t(e s#all< ;r (o% %ill it di''er 'ro# t(e $nit< A)ain. t(e $nit is ,rior to t(e 7* 'or %(en it is destroyed t(e 7 is destroyed. It #$st. t(en. be t(e Idea o' an Idea sin&e it is ,rior to an Idea. and it #$st (a+e &o#e into bein) be'ore it. -ro# %(at. t(en< 2ot 'ro# t(e inde'inite dyad. 'or its '$n&tion %as to do$ble. A)ain. n$#ber #$st be eit(er in'inite or 'inite* 'or t(ese t(in ers t(in o' n$#ber as &a,able o' e1istin) se,arately. so t(at it is not ,ossible t(at neit(er o' t(ose alternati+es s(o$ld be tr$e. Clearly it &annot be in'inite* 'or in'inite n$#ber is neit(er odd nor e+en. b$t t(e )eneration o' n$#bers is al%ays t(e )eneration eit(er o' an odd or o' an e+en n$#ber* in one %ay. %(en ! o,erates on an e+en n$#ber. an odd n$#ber is ,rod$&ed* in anot(er %ay. %(en 7 o,erates. t(e n$#bers )ot 'ro# ! by do$blin) are ,rod$&ed* in anot(er %ay. %(en t(e odd n$#bers o,erate. t(e ot(er e+en n$#bers are ,rod$&ed. A)ain. i' e+ery Idea is an Idea o' so#et(in). and t(e

n$#bers are Ideas. in'inite n$#ber itsel' %ill be an Idea o' so#et(in). eit(er o' so#e sensible t(in) or o' so#et(in) else. Yet t(is is not ,ossible in +ie% o' t(eir t(esis any #ore t(an it is reasonable in itsel'. at least i' t(ey arran)e t(e Ideas as t(ey do. B$t i' n$#ber is 'inite. (o% 'ar does it )o< Wit( re)ard to t(is not only t(e 'a&t b$t t(e reason s(o$ld be stated. B$t i' n$#ber )oes only $, to !0 as so#e say. 'irstly t(e -or#s %ill soon r$n s(ort* e.). i' 3 is #an5(i#sel'. %(at n$#ber %ill be t(e (orse5itsel'< T(e series o' t(e n$#bers %(i&( are t(e se+eral t(in)s5t(e#sel+es )oes $, to !0. It #$st. t(en. be one o' t(e n$#bers %it(in t(ese li#its* 'or it is t(ese t(at are s$bstan&es and Ideas. Yet t(ey %ill r$n s(ort* 'or t(e +ario$s 'or#s o' ani#al %ill o$tn$#ber t(e#. At t(e sa#e ti#e it is &lear t(at i' in t(is %ay t(e 3 is #an5(i#sel'. t(e ot(er 33s are so also /'or t(ose in identi&al n$#bers are si#ilar0. so t(at t(ere %ill be an in'inite n$#ber o' #en* i' ea&( 3 is an Idea. ea&( o' t(e n$#bers %ill be #an5(i#sel'. and i' not. t(ey %ill at least be #en. And i' t(e s#aller n$#ber is ,art o' t(e )reater /bein) n$#ber o' s$&( a sort t(at t(e $nits in t(e sa#e n$#ber are asso&iable0. t(en i' t(e =5itsel' is an Idea o' so#et(in). e.). o' 3(orse3 or o' 3%(ite3. #an %ill be a ,art o' (orse. i' #an is It is ,arado1i&al also t(at t(ere s(o$ld be an Idea o' !0 b$t not o' !!. nor o' t(e s$&&eedin) n$#bers. A)ain. t(ere bot( are and &o#e to be &ertain t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ere are no -or#s* %(y. t(en. are t(ere not -or#s o' t(e# also< We in'er t(at t(e -or#s are not &a$ses. A)ain. it is ,arado1i&al5i' t(e n$#ber series $, to !0 is #ore o' a real t(in) and a -or# t(an !0 itsel'. T(ere is no )eneration o' t(e 'or#er as one t(in). and t(ere is o' t(e latter. B$t t(ey try to %or on t(e ass$#,tion t(at t(e series o' n$#bers $, to !0 is a &o#,lete series. At least t(ey )enerate t(e deri+ati+es5e.). t(e +oid. ,ro,ortion. t(e odd. and t(e ot(ers o' t(is ind5%it(in t(e de&ade. -or so#e t(in)s. e.). #o+e#ent and rest. )ood and bad. t(ey assi)n to t(e ori)inati+e ,rin&i,les. and t(e ot(ers to t(e n$#bers. T(is is %(y t(ey identi'y t(e odd %it( !* 'or i' t(e odd i#,lied 3 (o% %o$ld 5 be odd< A)ain. s,atial #a)nit$des and all s$&( t(in)s are e1,lained %it(o$t )oin) beyond a de'inite n$#ber* e.). t(e 'irst. t(e indi+isible. line. t(en t(e 7 J&.* t(ese entities also e1tend only $, to !0. A)ain. i' n$#ber &an e1ist se,arately. one #i)(t as %(i&( is ,rior5 !. or 3 or 7< Inas#$&( as t(e n$#ber is &o#,osite. ! is ,rior. b$t inas#$&( as t(e $ni+ersal and t(e 'or# is ,rior. t(e n$#ber is ,rior* 'or ea&( o' t(e $nits is ,art o' t(e n$#ber as its #atter. and t(e n$#ber a&ts as 'or#. And in a sense t(e ri)(t an)le is ,rior to t(e a&$te. be&a$se it is deter#inate and in +irt$e o' its de'inition* b$t in a sense t(e a&$te is ,rior. be&a$se it is a ,art and t(e ri)(t an)le is di+ided into a&$te an)les. As #atter. t(en. t(e a&$te an)le and t(e ele#ent and t(e $nit are ,rior. b$t in res,e&t o' t(e 'or# and o' t(e s$bstan&e as e1,ressed in t(e de'inition. t(e ri)(t an)le. and t(e %(ole &onsistin) o' t(e #atter and t(e 'or#. are ,rior* 'or t(e &on&rete t(in) is nearer to t(e 'or# and to %(at is e1,ressed in t(e de'inition. t(o$)( in )eneration it is later. Ho% t(en is ! t(e startin)5,oint< Be&a$se it is not di+isiable. t(ey say* b$t bot( t(e $ni+ersal. and t(e ,arti&$lar or t(e ele#ent. are indi+isible. B$t t(ey are startin)5,oints in di''erent %ays. one in de'inition and t(e ot(er in ti#e. In %(i&( %ay. t(en. is ! t(e startin)5,oint< As (as been said. t(e ri)(t an)le is t(o$)(t to be ,rior to t(e a&$te. and t(e a&$te to t(e ri)(t. and ea&( is one. A&&ordin)ly t(ey #a e ! t(e startin)5,oint in bot( %ays. B$t t(is is i#,ossible. -or t(e $ni+ersal is one as 'or# or s$bstan&e. %(ile t(e ele#ent is one as a ,art or as #atter. -or ea&( o' t(e t%o is in a sense one5in tr$t( ea&( o' t(e t%o $nits e1ists ,otentially /at least i' t(e n$#ber is a $nity and not li e a (ea,. i.e. i' di''erent n$#bers &onsist o' di''erentiated $nits. as t(ey say0. b$t not in &o#,lete reality* and t(e &a$se o' t(e error t(ey 'ell into is t(at t(ey %ere &ond$&tin) t(eir in8$iry at t(e sa#e ti#e 'ro# t(e

stand,oint o' #at(e#ati&s and 'ro# t(at o' $ni+ersal de'initions. so t(at /!0 'ro# t(e 'or#er stand,oint t(ey treated $nity. t(eir 'irst ,rin&i,le. as a ,oint* 'or t(e $nit is a ,oint %it(o$t ,osition. T(ey ,$t t(in)s to)et(er o$t o' t(e s#allest ,arts. as so#e ot(ers also (a+e done. T(ere'ore t(e $nit be&o#es t(e #atter o' n$#bers and at t(e sa#e ti#e ,rior to 7* and a)ain ,osterior. 7 bein) treated as a %(ole. a $nity. and a 'or#. B$t /70 be&a$se t(ey %ere see in) t(e $ni+ersal t(ey treated t(e $nity %(i&( &an be ,redi&ated o' a n$#ber. as in t(is sense also a ,art o' t(e n$#ber. B$t t(ese &(ara&teristi&s &annot belon) at t(e sa#e ti#e to t(e sa#e t(in). I' t(e !5itsel' #$st be $nitary /'or it di''ers in not(in) 'ro# ot(er !3s e1&e,t t(at it is t(e startin)5,oint0. and t(e 7 is di+isible b$t t(e $nit is not. t(e $nit #$st be li er t(e !5itsel' t(an t(e 7 is. B$t i' t(e $nit is li er it. it #$st be li er to t(e $nit t(an to t(e 7* t(ere'ore ea&( o' t(e $nits in 7 #$st be ,rior to t(e 7. B$t t(ey deny t(is* at least t(ey )enerate t(e 7 'irst. A)ain. i' t(e 75itsel' is a $nity and t(e 35itsel' is one also. bot( 'or# a 7. -ro# %(at. t(en. is t(is 7 ,rod$&ed< C Sin&e t(ere is not &onta&t in n$#bers. b$t s$&&ession. +i6. bet%een t(e $nits bet%een %(i&( t(ere is not(in). e.). bet%een t(ose in 7 or in 3 one #i)(t as %(et(er t(ese s$&&eed t(e !5itsel' or not. and %(et(er. o' t(e ter#s t(at s$&&eed it. 7 or eit(er o' t(e $nits in 7 is ,rior. Si#ilar di''i&$lties o&&$r %it( re)ard to t(e &lasses o' t(in)s ,osterior to n$#ber.5t(e line. t(e ,lane. and t(e solid. -or so#e &onstr$&t t(ese o$t o' t(e s,e&ies o' t(e 3)reat and s#all3* e.). lines 'ro# t(e 3lon) and s(ort3. ,lanes 'ro# t(e 3broad and narro%3. #asses 'ro# t(e 3dee, and s(allo%3* %(i&( are s,e&ies o' t(e 3)reat and s#all3. And t(e ori)inati+e ,rin&i,le o' s$&( t(in)s %(i&( ans%ers to t(e ! di''erent t(in ers des&ribe in di''erent %ays. And in t(ese also t(e i#,ossibilities. t(e 'i&tions. and t(e &ontradi&tions o' all ,robability are seen to be inn$#erable. -or /i0 )eo#etri&al &lasses are se+ered 'ro# one anot(er. $nless t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(ese are i#,lied in one anot(er in s$&( a %ay t(at t(e 3broad and narro%3 is also 3lon) and s(ort3 /b$t i' t(is is so. t(e ,lane %ill be line and t(e solid a ,lane* a)ain. (o% %ill an)les and 'i)$res and s$&( t(in)s be e1,lained<0. And /ii0 t(e sa#e (a,,ens as in re)ard to n$#ber* 'or 3lon) and s(ort3. J&.. are attrib$tes o' #a)nit$de. b$t #a)nit$de does not &onsist o' t(ese. any #ore t(an t(e line &onsists o' 3strai)(t and &$r+ed3. or solids o' 3s#oot( and ro$)(3. /All t(ese +ie%s s(are a di''i&$lty %(i&( o&&$rs %it( re)ard to s,e&ies5o'5a5)en$s. %(en one ,osits t(e $ni+ersals. +i6. %(et(er it is ani#al5itsel' or so#et(in) ot(er t(an ani#al5itsel' t(at is in t(e ,arti&$lar ani#al. Tr$e. i' t(e $ni+ersal is not se,arable 'ro# sensible t(in)s. t(is %ill ,resent no di''i&$lty* b$t i' t(e ! and t(e n$#bers are se,arable. as t(ose %(o e1,ress t(ese +ie%s say. it is not easy to sol+e t(e di''i&$lty. i' one #ay a,,ly t(e %ords 3not easy3 to t(e i#,ossible. -or %(en %e a,,re(end t(e $nity in 7. or in )eneral in a n$#ber. do %e a,,re(end a t(in)5itsel' or so#et(in) else<0. So#e. t(en. )enerate s,atial #a)nit$des 'ro# #atter o' t(is sort. ot(ers 'ro# t(e ,oint 5and t(e ,oint is t(o$)(t by t(e# to be not ! b$t so#et(in) li e !5and 'ro# ot(er #atter li e ,l$rality. b$t not identi&al %it( it* abo$t %(i&( ,rin&i,les none t(e less t(e sa#e di''i&$lties o&&$r. -or i' t(e #atter is one. line and ,lane5and soli %ill be t(e sa#e* 'or 'ro# t(e sa#e ele#ents %ill &o#e one and t(e sa#e t(in). B$t i' t(e #atters are #ore t(an one. and t(ere is one 'or t(e line and a se&ond 'or t(e ,lane and anot(er 'or t(e solid. t(ey eit(er are i#,lied in one anot(er or not. so t(at t(e sa#e res$lts %ill 'ollo% e+en so* 'or eit(er t(e ,lane %ill not &ontain a line or it %ill (e a line. A)ain. (o% n$#ber &an &onsist o' t(e one and ,l$rality. t(ey #a e no atte#,t to e1,lain* b$t (o%e+er t(ey e1,ress t(e#sel+es. t(e sa#e ob4e&tions arise as &on'ront t(ose %(o &onstr$&t n$#ber o$t o'

t(e one and t(e inde'inite dyad. -or t(e one +ie% )enerates n$#ber 'ro# t(e $ni+ersally ,redi&ated ,l$rality. and not 'ro# a ,arti&$lar ,l$rality* and t(e ot(er )enerates it 'ro# a ,arti&$lar ,l$rality. b$t t(e 'irst* 'or 7 is said to be a 3'irst ,l$rality3. T(ere'ore t(ere is ,ra&ti&ally no di''eren&e. b$t t(e sa#e di''i&$lties %ill 'ollo%.5is it inter#i1t$re or ,osition or blendin) or )eneration< and so on. Abo+e all one #i)(t ,ress t(e 8$estion 3i' ea&( $nit is one. %(at does it &o#e 'ro#<3 Certainly ea&( is not t(e one5itsel'. It #$st. t(en. &o#e 'ro# t(e one itsel' and ,l$rality. or a ,art o' ,l$rality. To say t(at t(e $nit is a ,l$rality is i#,ossible. 'or it is indi+isible* and to )enerate it 'ro# a ,art o' ,l$rality in+ol+es #any ot(er ob4e&tions* 'or /a0 ea&( o' t(e ,arts #$st be indi+isible /or it %ill be a ,l$rality and t(e $nit %ill be di+isible0 and t(e ele#ents %ill not be t(e one and ,l$rality* 'or t(e sin)le $nits do not &o#e 'ro# ,l$rality and t(e one. A)ain. /.t(e (older o' t(is +ie% does not(in) b$t ,res$,,ose anot(er n$#ber* 'or (is ,l$rality o' indi+isibles is a n$#ber. A)ain. %e #$st in8$ire. in +ie% o' t(is t(eory also. %(et(er t(e n$#ber is in'inite or 'inite. -or t(ere %as at 'irst. as it see#s. a ,l$rality t(at %as itsel' 'inite. 'ro# %(i&( and 'ro# t(e one &o#es t(e 'inite n$#ber o' $nits. And t(ere is anot(er ,l$rality t(at is ,l$rality5itsel' and in'inite ,l$rality* %(i&( sort o' ,l$rality. t(en. is t(e ele#ent %(i&( &o5o,erates %it( t(e one< ;ne #i)(t in8$ire si#ilarly abo$t t(e ,oint. i.e. t(e ele#ent o$t o' %(i&( t(ey #a e s,atial #a)nit$des. -or s$rely t(is is not t(e one and only ,oint* at any rate. t(en. let t(e# say o$t o' %(at ea&( o' t(e ,oints is 'or#ed. Certainly not o' so#e distan&e G t(e ,oint5itsel'. 2or a)ain &an t(ere be indi+isible ,arts o' a distan&e. as t(e ele#ents o$t o' %(i&( t(e $nits are said to be #ade are indi+isible ,arts o' ,l$rality* 'or n$#ber &onsists o' indi+isibles. b$t s,atial #a)nit$des do not. All t(ese ob4e&tions. t(en. and ot(ers o' t(e sort #a e it e+ident t(at n$#ber and s,atial #a)nit$des &annot e1ist a,art 'ro# t(in)s. A)ain. t(e dis&ord abo$t n$#bers bet%een t(e +ario$s +ersions is a si)n t(at it is t(e in&orre&tness o' t(e alle)ed 'a&ts t(e#sel+es t(at brin)s &on'$sion into t(e t(eories. -or t(ose %(o #a e t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s alone e1ist a,art 'ro# sensible t(in)s. seein) t(e di''i&$lty abo$t t(e -or#s and t(eir 'i&titio$sness. abandoned ideal n$#ber and ,osited #at(e#ati&al. B$t t(ose %(o %is(ed to #a e t(e -or#s at t(e sa#e ti#e also n$#bers. b$t did not see. i' one ass$#ed t(ese ,rin&i,les. (o% #at(e#ati&al n$#ber %as to e1ist a,art 'ro# ideal. #ade ideal and #at(e#ati&al n$#ber t(e sa#e5in %ords. sin&e in 'a&t #at(e#ati&al n$#ber (as been destroyed* 'or t(ey state (y,ot(eses ,e&$liar to t(e#sel+es and not t(ose o' #at(e#ati&s. And (e %(o 'irst s$,,osed t(at t(e -or#s e1ist and t(at t(e -or#s are n$#bers and t(at t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s e1ist. nat$rally se,arated t(e t%o. T(ere'ore it t$rns o$t t(at all o' t(e# are ri)(t in so#e res,e&t. b$t on t(e %(ole not ri)(t. And t(ey t(e#sel+es &on'ir# t(is. 'or t(eir state#ents do not a)ree b$t &on'li&t. T(e &a$se is t(at t(eir (y,ot(eses and t(eir ,rin&i,les are 'alse. And it is (ard to #a e a )ood &ase o$t o' bad #aterials. a&&ordin) to E,i&(ar#$s> 3as soon as 3tis said. 3tis seen to be %ron).3 B$t re)ardin) n$#bers t(e 8$estions %e (a+e raised and t(e &on&l$sions %e (a+e rea&(ed are s$''i&ient /'or %(ile (e %(o is already &on+in&ed #i)(t be '$rt(er &on+in&ed by a lon)er dis&$ssion. one not yet &on+in&ed %o$ld not &o#e any nearer to &on+i&tion0* re)ardin) t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les and t(e 'irst &a$ses and ele#ents. t(e +ie%s e1,ressed by t(ose %(o dis&$ss only sensible s$bstan&e (a+e been ,artly stated in o$r %or s on nat$re. and ,artly do not belon) to t(e ,resent in8$iry* b$t t(e +ie%s o' t(ose %(o assert t(at t(ere are ot(er s$bstan&es besides t(e sensible #$st be &onsidered ne1t a'ter t(ose %e (a+e been #entionin). Sin&e. t(en. so#e say t(at t(e Ideas and t(e n$#bers are s$&( s$bstan&es. and t(at t(e ele#ents o' t(ese are ele#ents and ,rin&i,les o' real t(in)s. %e #$st in8$ire re)ardin) t(ese %(at t(ey say and in %(at sense t(ey

say it. T(ose %(o ,osit n$#bers only. and t(ese #at(e#ati&al. #$st be &onsidered later* b$t as re)ards t(ose %(o belie+e in t(e Ideas one #i)(t s$r+ey at t(e sa#e ti#e t(eir %ay o' t(in in) and t(e di''i&$lty into %(i&( t(ey 'all. -or t(ey at t(e sa#e ti#e #a e t(e Ideas $ni+ersal and a)ain treat t(e# as se,arable and as indi+id$als. T(at t(is is not ,ossible (as been ar)$ed be'ore. T(e reason %(y t(ose %(o des&ribed t(eir s$bstan&es as $ni+ersal &o#bined t(ese t%o &(ara&teristi&s in one t(in). is t(at t(ey did not #a e s$bstan&es identi&al %it( sensible t(in)s. T(ey t(o$)(t t(at t(e ,arti&$lars in t(e sensible %orld %ere a state o' 'l$1 and none o' t(e# re#ained. b$t t(at t(e $ni+ersal %as a,art 'ro# t(ese and so#et(in) di''erent. And So&rates )a+e t(e i#,$lse to t(is t(eory. as %e said in o$r earlier dis&$ssion. by reason o' (is de'initions. b$t (e did not se,arate $ni+ersals 'ro# indi+id$als* and in t(is (e t(o$)(t ri)(tly. in not se,aratin) t(e#. T(is is ,lain 'ro# t(e res$lts* 'or %it(o$t t(e $ni+ersal it is not ,ossible to )et no%led)e. b$t t(e se,aration is t(e &a$se o' t(e ob4e&tions t(at arise %it( re)ard to t(e Ideas. His s$&&essors. (o%e+er. treatin) it as ne&essary. i' t(ere are to be any s$bstan&es besides t(e sensible and transient s$bstan&es. t(at t(ey #$st be se,arable. (ad no ot(ers. b$t )a+e se,arate e1isten&e to t(ese $ni+ersally ,redi&ated s$bstan&es. so t(at it 'ollo%ed t(at $ni+ersals and indi+id$als %ere al#ost t(e sa#e sort o' t(in). T(is in itsel'. t(en. %o$ld be one di''i&$lty in t(e +ie% %e (a+e #entioned. !0 "et $s no% #ention a ,oint %(i&( ,resents a &ertain di''i&$lty bot( to t(ose %(o belie+e in t(e Ideas and to t(ose %(o do not. and %(i&( %as stated be'ore. at t(e be)innin). a#on) t(e ,roble#s. I' %e do not s$,,ose s$bstan&es to be se,arate. and in t(e %ay in %(i&( indi+id$al t(in)s are said to be se,arate. %e s(all destroy s$bstan&e in t(e sense in %(i&( %e $nderstand 3s$bstan&e3* b$t i' %e &on&ei+e s$bstan&es to be se,arable. (o% are %e to &on&ei+e t(eir ele#ents and t(eir ,rin&i,les< I' t(ey are indi+id$al and not $ni+ersal. /a0 real t(in)s %ill be 4$st o' t(e sa#e n$#ber as t(e ele#ents. and /b0 t(e ele#ents %ill not be no%able. -or /a0 let t(e syllables in s,ee&( be s$bstan&es. and t(eir ele#ents ele#ents o' s$bstan&es* t(en t(ere #$st be only one 3ba3 and one o' ea&( o' t(e syllables. sin&e t(ey are not $ni+ersal and t(e sa#e in 'or# b$t ea&( is one in n$#ber and a 3t(is3 and not a ind ,ossessed o' a &o##on na#e /and a)ain t(ey s$,,ose t(at t(e 34$st %(at a t(in) is3 is in ea&( &ase one0. And i' t(e syllables are $ni8$e. so too are t(e ,arts o' %(i&( t(ey &onsist* t(ere %ill not. t(en. be #ore a3s t(an one. nor #ore t(an one o' any o' t(e ot(er ele#ents. on t(e sa#e ,rin&i,le on %(i&( an identi&al syllable &annot e1ist in t(e ,l$ral n$#ber. B$t i' t(is is so. t(ere %ill not be ot(er t(in)s e1istin) besides t(e ele#ents. b$t only t(e ele#ents. /b0 A)ain. t(e ele#ents %ill not be e+en no%able* 'or t(ey are not $ni+ersal. and no%led)e is o' $ni+ersals. T(is is &lear 'ro# de#onstrations and 'ro# de'initions* 'or %e do not &on&l$de t(at t(is trian)le (as its an)les e8$al to t%o ri)(t an)les. $nless e+ery trian)le (as its an)les e8$al to t%o ri)(t an)les. nor t(at t(is #an is an ani#al. $nless e+ery #an is an ani#al. B$t i' t(e ,rin&i,les are $ni+ersal. eit(er t(e s$bstan&es &o#,osed o' t(e# are also $ni+ersal. or non5s$bstan&e %ill be ,rior to s$bstan&e* 'or t(e $ni+ersal is not a s$bstan&e. b$t t(e ele#ent or ,rin&i,le is $ni+ersal. and t(e ele#ent or ,rin&i,le is ,rior to t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( it is t(e ,rin&i,le or ele#ent. All t(ese di''i&$lties 'ollo% nat$rally. %(en t(ey #a e t(e Ideas o$t o' ele#ents and at t(e sa#e ti#e &lai# t(at a,art 'ro# t(e s$bstan&es %(i&( (a+e t(e sa#e 'or# t(ere are Ideas. a sin)le se,arate entity. B$t i'. e.). in t(e &ase o' t(e ele#ents o' s,ee&(. t(e a3s and t(e b3s #ay 8$ite %ell be #any and t(ere need be no a5itsel' and

b5itsel' besides t(e #any. t(ere #ay be. so 'ar as t(is )oes. an in'inite n$#ber o' si#ilar syllables. T(e state#ent t(at an no%led)e is $ni+ersal. so t(at t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(in)s #$st also be $ni+ersal and not se,arate s$bstan&es. ,resents indeed. o' all t(e ,oints %e (a+e #entioned. t(e )reatest di''i&$lty. b$t yet t(e state#ent is in a sense tr$e. alt(o$)( in a sense it is not. -or no%led)e. li e t(e +erb 3to no%3. #eans t%o t(in)s. o' %(i&( one is ,otential and one a&t$al. T(e ,oten&y. bein). as #atter. $ni+ersal and inde'inite. deals %it( t(e $ni+ersal and inde'inite* b$t t(e a&t$ality. bein) de'inite. deals %it( a de'inite ob4e&t. bein) a 3t(is3. it deals %it( a 3t(is3. B$t ,er a&&idens si)(t sees $ni+ersal &olo$r. be&a$se t(is indi+id$al &olo$r %(i&( it sees is &olo$r* and t(is indi+id$al a %(i&( t(e )ra##arian in+esti)ates is an a. -or i' t(e ,rin&i,les #$st be $ni+ersal. %(at is deri+ed 'ro# t(e# #$st also be $ni+ersal. as in de#onstrations* and i' t(is is so. t(ere %ill be not(in) &a,able o' se,arate e1isten&e5i.e. no s$bstan&e. B$t e+idently in a sense no%led)e is $ni+ersal. and in a sense it is not. Boo ?IE ! RE:ARDI2: t(is ind o' s$bstan&e. %(at %e (a+e said #$st be ta en as s$''i&ient. All ,(iloso,(ers #a e t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les &ontraries> as in nat$ral t(in)s. so also in t(e &ase o' $n&(an)eable s$bstan&es. B$t sin&e t(ere &annot be anyt(in) ,rior to t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le o' all t(in)s. t(e ,rin&i,le &annot be t(e ,rin&i,le and yet be an attrib$te o' so#et(in) else. To s$))est t(is is li e sayin) t(at t(e %(ite is a 'irst ,rin&i,le. not 8$a anyt(in) else b$t 8$a %(ite. b$t yet t(at it is ,redi&able o' a s$b4e&t. i.e. t(at its bein) %(ite ,res$,,oses its bein) so#et(in) else* t(is is abs$rd. 'or t(en t(at s$b4e&t %ill be ,rior. B$t all t(in)s %(i&( are )enerated 'ro# t(eir &ontraries in+ol+e an $nderlyin) s$b4e&t* a s$b4e&t. t(en. #$st be ,resent in t(e &ase o' &ontraries. i' any%(ere. All &ontraries. t(en. are al%ays ,redi&able o' a s$b4e&t. and none &an e1ist a,art. b$t 4$st as a,,earan&es s$))est t(at t(ere is not(in) &ontrary to s$bstan&e. ar)$#ent &on'ir#s t(is. 2o &ontrary. t(en. is t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le o' all t(in)s in t(e '$ll sense* t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le is so#et(in) di''erent. B$t t(ese t(in ers #a e one o' t(e &ontraries #atter. so#e #a in) t(e $ne8$al %(i&( t(ey ta e to be t(e essen&e o' ,l$rality5#atter 'or t(e ;ne. and ot(ers #a in) ,l$rality #atter 'or t(e ;ne. /T(e 'or#er )enerate n$#bers o$t o' t(e dyad o' t(e $ne8$al. i.e. o' t(e )reat and s#all. and t(e ot(er t(in er %e (a+e re'erred to )enerates t(e# o$t o' ,l$rality. %(ile a&&ordin) to bot( it is )enerated by t(e essen&e o' t(e ;ne.0 -or e+en t(e ,(iloso,(er %(o says t(e $ne8$al and t(e ;ne are t(e ele#ents. and t(e $ne8$al is a dyad &o#,osed o' t(e )reat and s#all. treats t(e $ne8$al. or t(e )reat and t(e s#all. as bein) one. and does not dra% t(e distin&tion t(at t(ey are one in de'inition. b$t not in n$#ber. B$t t(ey do not des&ribe ri)(tly e+en t(e ,rin&i,les %(i&( t(ey &all ele#ents. 'or so#e na#e t(e )reat and t(e s#all %it( t(e ;ne and treat t(ese t(ree as ele#ents o' n$#bers. t%o bein) #atter. one t(e 'or#* %(ile ot(ers na#e t(e #any and 'e%. be&a$se t(e )reat and t(e s#all are #ore a,,ro,riate in t(eir nat$re to #a)nit$de t(an to n$#ber* and ot(ers na#e rat(er t(e $ni+ersal &(ara&ter &o##on to t(ese53t(at %(i&( e1&eeds and t(at %(i&( is e1&eeded3. 2one o' t(ese +arieties o' o,inion #a es any di''eren&e to s,ea o'. in +ie% o' so#e o' t(e &onse8$en&es* t(ey a''e&t only t(e abstra&t ob4e&tions. %(i&( t(ese t(in ers ta e &are to a+oid be&a$se t(e de#onstrations t(ey t(e#sel+es o''er are abstra&t.5%it( t(is e1&e,tion. t(at i' t(e e1&eedin) and t(e e1&eeded are t(e ,rin&i,les. and not t(e )reat and t(e s#all. &onsisten&y re8$ires t(at n$#ber s(o$ld &o#e 'ro# t(e ele#ents be'ore does* 'or n$#ber is #ore $ni+ersal t(an as t(e e1&eedin) and t(e e1&eeded are #ore $ni+ersal t(an t(e )reat and t(e s#all. B$t as

it is. t(ey say one o' t(ese t(in)s b$t do not say t(e ot(er. ;t(ers o,,ose t(e di''erent and t(e ot(er to t(e ;ne. and ot(ers o,,ose ,l$rality to t(e ;ne. B$t i'. as t(ey &lai#. t(in)s &onsist o' &ontraries. and to t(e ;ne eit(er t(ere is not(in) &ontrary. or i' t(ere is to be anyt(in) it is ,l$rality. and t(e $ne8$al is &ontrary to t(e e8$al. and t(e di''erent to t(e sa#e. and t(e ot(er to t(e t(in) itsel'. t(ose %(o o,,ose t(e ;ne to ,l$rality (a+e #ost &lai# to ,la$sibility. b$t e+en t(eir +ie% is inade8$ate. 'or t(e ;ne %o$ld on t(eir +ie% be a 'e%* 'or ,l$rality is o,,osed to 'e%ness. and t(e #any to t(e 'e%. 3T(e one3 e+idently #eans a #eas$re. And in e+ery &ase t(ere is so#e $nderlyin) t(in) %it( a distin&t nat$re o' its o%n. e.). in t(e s&ale a 8$arter5tone. in s,atial #a)nit$de a 'in)er or a 'oot or so#et(in) o' t(e sort. in r(yt(#s a beat or a syllable* and si#ilarly in )ra+ity it is a de'inite %ei)(t* and in t(e sa#e %ay in all &ases. in 8$alities a 8$ality. in 8$antities a 8$antity /and t(e #eas$re is indi+isible. in t(e 'or#er &ase in ind. and in t(e latter to t(e sense0* %(i&( i#,lies t(at t(e one is not in itsel' t(e s$bstan&e o' anyt(in). And t(is is reasonable* 'or 3t(e one3 #eans t(e #eas$re o' so#e ,l$rality. and 3n$#ber3 #eans a #eas$red ,l$rality and a ,l$rality o' #eas$res. /T($s it is nat$ral t(at one is not a n$#ber* 'or t(e #eas$re is not #eas$res. b$t bot( t(e #eas$re and t(e one are startin)5,oints.0 T(e #eas$re #$st al%ays be so#e identi&al t(in) ,redi&able o' all t(e t(in)s it #eas$res. e.). i' t(e t(in)s are (orses. t(e #eas$re is 3(orse3. and i' t(ey are #en. 3#an3. I' t(ey are a #an. a (orse. and a )od. t(e #eas$re is ,er(a,s 3li+in) bein)3. and t(e n$#ber o' t(e# %ill be a n$#ber o' li+in) bein)s. I' t(e t(in)s are 3#an3 and 3,ale3 and 3%al in)3. t(ese %ill s&ar&ely (a+e a n$#ber. be&a$se all belon) to a s$b4e&t %(i&( is one and t(e sa#e in n$#ber. yet t(e n$#ber o' t(ese %ill be a n$#ber o' 3 inds3 or o' so#e s$&( ter#. T(ose %(o treat t(e $ne8$al as one t(in). and t(e dyad as an inde'inite &o#,o$nd o' )reat and s#all. say %(at is +ery 'ar 'ro# bein) ,robable or ,ossible. -or /a0 t(ese are #odi'i&ations and a&&idents. rat(er t(an s$bstrata. o' n$#bers and #a)nit$des5t(e #any and 'e% o' n$#ber. and t(e )reat and s#all o' #a)nit$de5li e e+en and odd. s#oot( and ro$)(. strai)(t and &$r+ed. A)ain. /b0 a,art 'ro# t(is #ista e. t(e )reat and t(e s#all. and so on. #$st be relati+e to so#et(in)* b$t %(at is relati+e is least o' all t(in)s a ind o' entity or s$bstan&e. and is ,osterior to 8$ality and 8$antity* and t(e relati+e is an a&&ident o' 8$antity. as %as said. not its #atter. sin&e so#et(in) %it( a distin&t nat$re o' its o%n #$st ser+e as #atter bot( to t(e relati+e in )eneral and to its ,arts and inds. -or t(ere is not(in) eit(er )reat or s#all. #any or 'e%. or. in )eneral. relati+e to so#et(in) else. %(i&( %it(o$t (a+in) a nat$re o' its o%n is #any or 'e%. )reat or s#all. or relati+e to so#et(in) else. A si)n t(at t(e relati+e is least o' all a s$bstan&e and a real t(in) is t(e 'a&t t(at it alone (as no ,ro,er )eneration or destr$&tion or #o+e#ent. as in res,e&t o' 8$antity t(ere is in&rease and di#in$tion. in res,e&t o' 8$ality alteration. in res,e&t o' ,la&e lo&o#otion. in res,e&t o' s$bstan&e si#,le )eneration and destr$&tion. In res,e&t o' relation t(ere is no ,ro,er &(an)e* 'or. %it(o$t &(an)in). a t(in) %ill be no% )reater and no% less or e8$al. i' t(at %it( %(i&( it is &o#,ared (as &(an)ed in 8$antity. And /&0 t(e #atter o' ea&( t(in). and t(ere'ore o' s$bstan&e. #$st be t(at %(i&( is ,otentially o' t(e nat$re in 8$estion* b$t t(e relati+e is neit(er ,otentially nor a&t$ally s$bstan&e. It is stran)e. t(en. or rat(er i#,ossible. to #a e not5s$bstan&e an ele#ent in. and ,rior to. s$bstan&e* 'or all t(e &ate)ories are ,osterior to s$bstan&e. A)ain. /d0 ele#ents are not ,redi&ated o' t(e t(in)s o' %(i&( t(ey are ele#ents. b$t #any and 'e% are ,redi&ated bot( a,art and to)et(er o' n$#ber. and lon) and s(ort o' t(e line. and bot( broad and narro% a,,ly to t(e ,lane. I' t(ere is a ,l$rality. t(en. o' %(i&( t(e one ter#. +i6. 'e%. is al%ays ,redi&ated. e.). 7 /%(i&( &annot be #any.

'or i' it %ere #any. ! %o$ld be 'e%0. t(ere #$st be also one %(i&( is absol$tely #any. e.). !0 is #any /i' t(ere is no n$#ber %(i&( is )reater t(an !00. or !0.000. Ho% t(en. in +ie% o' t(is. &an n$#ber &onsist o' 'e% and #any< Eit(er bot( o$)(t to be ,redi&ated o' it. or neit(er* b$t in 'a&t only t(e one or t(e ot(er is ,redi&ated. 7 We #$st in8$ire )enerally. %(et(er eternal t(in)s &an &onsist o' ele#ents. I' t(ey do. t(ey %ill (a+e #atter* 'or e+eryt(in) t(at &onsists o' ele#ents is &o#,osite. Sin&e. t(en. e+en i' a t(in) e1ists 'or e+er. o$t o' t(at o' %(i&( it &onsists it %o$ld ne&essarily also. i' it (ad &o#e into bein). (a+e &o#e into bein). and sin&e e+eryt(in) &o#es to be %(at it &o#es to be o$t o' t(at %(i&( is it ,otentially /'or it &o$ld not (a+e &o#e to be o$t o' t(at %(i&( (ad not t(is &a,a&ity. nor &o$ld it &onsist o' s$&( ele#ents0. and sin&e t(e ,otential &an be eit(er a&t$al or not.5t(is bein) so. (o%e+er e+erlastin) n$#ber or anyt(in) else t(at (as #atter is. it #$st be &a,able o' not e1istin). 4$st as t(at %(i&( is any n$#ber o' years old is as &a,able o' not e1istin) as t(at %(i&( is a day old* i' t(is is &a,able o' not e1istin). so is t(at %(i&( (as lasted 'or a ti#e so lon) t(at it (as no li#it. T(ey &annot. t(en. be eternal. sin&e t(at %(i&( is &a,able o' not e1istin) is not eternal. as %e (ad o&&asion to s(o% in anot(er &onte1t. I' t(at %(i&( %e are no% sayin) is tr$e $ni+ersally5t(at no s$bstan&e is eternal $nless it is a&t$ality5and i' t(e ele#ents are #atter t(at $nderlies s$bstan&e. no eternal s$bstan&e &an (a+e ele#ents ,resent in it. o' %(i&( it &onsists. T(ere are so#e %(o des&ribe t(e ele#ent %(i&( a&ts %it( t(e ;ne as an inde'inite dyad. and ob4e&t to 3t(e $ne8$al3. reasonably eno$)(. be&a$se o' t(e ens$in) di''i&$lties* b$t t(ey (a+e )ot rid only o' t(ose ob4e&tions %(i&( ine+itably arise 'ro# t(e treat#ent o' t(e $ne8$al. i.e. t(e relati+e. as an ele#ent* t(ose %(i&( arise a,art 'ro# t(is o,inion #$st &on'ront e+en t(ese t(in ers. %(et(er it is ideal n$#ber. or #at(e#ati&al. t(at t(ey &onstr$&t o$t o' t(ose ele#ents. T(ere are #any &a$ses %(i&( led t(e# o'' into t(ese e1,lanations. and es,e&ially t(e 'a&t t(at t(ey 'ra#ed t(e di''i&$lty in an obsolete 'or#. -or t(ey t(o$)(t t(at all t(in)s t(at are %o$ld be one /+i6. Bein) itsel'0. i' one did not 4oin iss$e %it( and re'$te t(e sayin) o' Par#enides> 3-or ne+er %ill t(is (e ,ro+ed. t(at t(in)s t(at are not are.3 T(ey t(o$)(t it ne&essary to ,ro+e t(at t(at %(i&( is not is* 'or only t($s5o' t(at %(i&( is and so#et(in) else5&o$ld t(e t(in)s t(at are be &o#,osed. i' t(ey are #any. B$t. 'irst. i' 3bein)3 (as #any senses /'or it #eans so#eti#es s$bstan&e. so#eti#es t(at it is o' a &ertain 8$ality. so#eti#es t(at it is o' a &ertain 8$antity. and at ot(er ti#es t(e ot(er &ate)ories0. %(at sort o' 3one3. t(en. are all t(e t(in)s t(at are. i' non5bein) is to be s$,,osed not to be< Is it t(e s$bstan&es t(at are one. or t(e a''e&tions and si#ilarly t(e ot(er &ate)ories as %ell. or all to)et(er5so t(at t(e 3t(is3 and t(e 3s$&(3 and t(e 3so #$&(3 and t(e ot(er &ate)ories t(at indi&ate ea&( so#e one &lass o' bein) %ill all be one< B$t it is stran)e. or rat(er i#,ossible. t(at t(e &o#in) into ,lay o' a sin)le t(in) s(o$ld brin) it abo$t t(at ,art o' t(at %(i&( is is a 3t(is3. ,art a 3s$&(3. ,art a 3so #$&(3. ,art a 3(ere3. Se&ondly. o' %(at sort o' non5bein) and bein) do t(e t(in)s t(at are &onsist< -or 3nonbein)3 also (as #any senses. sin&e 3bein)3 (as* and 3not bein) a #an3 #eans not bein) a &ertain s$bstan&e. 3not bein) strai)(t3 not bein) o' a &ertain 8$ality. 3not bein) t(ree &$bits lon)3 not bein) o' a &ertain 8$antity. W(at sort o' bein) and non5bein). t(en. by t(eir $nion ,l$rali6e t(e t(in)s t(at are< T(is t(in er #eans by t(e non5bein) t(e $nion o' %(i&( %it( bein) ,l$rali6es t(e t(in)s t(at are. t(e 'alse and t(e &(ara&ter o'

'alsity. T(is is also %(y it $sed to be said t(at %e #$st ass$#e so#et(in) t(at is 'alse. as )eo#eters ass$#e t(e line %(i&( is not a 'oot lon) to be a 'oot lon). B$t t(is &annot be so. -or neit(er do )eo#eters ass$#e anyt(in) 'alse /'or t(e en$n&iation is e1traneo$s to t(e in'eren&e0. nor is it non5bein) in t(is sense t(at t(e t(in)s t(at are are )enerated 'ro# or resol+ed into. B$t sin&e 3non5bein)3 ta en in its +ario$s &ases (as as #any senses as t(ere are &ate)ories. and besides t(is t(e 'alse is said not to be. and so is t(e ,otential. it is 'ro# t(is t(at )eneration ,ro&eeds. #an 'ro# t(at %(i&( is not #an b$t ,otentially #an. and %(ite 'ro# t(at %(i&( is not %(ite b$t ,otentially %(ite. and t(is %(et(er it is so#e one t(in) t(at is )enerated or #any. T(e 8$estion e+idently is. (o% bein). in t(e sense o' 3t(e s$bstan&es3. is #any* 'or t(e t(in)s t(at are )enerated are n$#bers and lines and bodies. 2o% it is stran)e to in8$ire (o% bein) in t(e sense o' t(e 3%(at3 is #any. and not (o% eit(er 8$alities or 8$antities are #any. -or s$rely t(e inde'inite dyad or 3t(e )reat and t(e s#all3 is not a reason %(y t(ere s(o$ld be t%o inds o' %(ite or #any &olo$rs or 'la+o$rs or s(a,es* 'or t(en t(ese also %o$ld be n$#bers and $nits. B$t i' t(ey (ad atta& ed t(ese ot(er &ate)ories. t(ey %o$ld (a+e seen t(e &a$se o' t(e ,l$rality in s$bstan&es also* 'or t(e sa#e t(in) or so#et(in) analo)o$s is t(e &a$se. T(is aberration is t(e reason also %(y in see in) t(e o,,osite o' bein) and t(e one. 'ro# %(i&( %it( bein) and t(e one t(e t(in)s t(at are ,ro&eed. t(ey ,osited t(e relati+e ter# /i.e. t(e $ne8$al0. %(i&( is neit(er t(e &ontrary nor t(e &ontradi&tory o' t(ese. and is one ind o' bein) as 3%(at3 and 8$ality also are. T(ey s(o$ld (a+e as ed t(is 8$estion also. (o% relati+e ter#s are #any and not one. B$t as it is. t(ey in8$ire (o% t(ere are #any $nits besides t(e 'irst !. b$t do not )o on to in8$ire (o% t(ere are #any $ne8$als besides t(e $ne8$al. Yet t(ey $se t(e# and s,ea o' )reat and s#all. #any and 'e% /'ro# %(i&( ,ro&eed n$#bers0. lon) and s(ort /'ro# %(i&( ,ro&eeds t(e line0. broad and narro% /'ro# %(i&( ,ro&eeds t(e ,lane0. dee, and s(allo% /'ro# %(i&( ,ro&eed solids0* and t(ey s,ea o' yet #ore inds o' relati+e ter#. W(at is t(e reason. t(en. %(y t(ere is a ,l$rality o' t(ese< It is ne&essary. t(en. as %e say. to ,res$,,ose 'or ea&( t(in) t(at %(i&( is it ,otentially* and t(e (older o' t(ese +ie%s '$rt(er de&lared %(at t(at is %(i&( is ,otentially a 3t(is3 and a s$bstan&e b$t is not in itsel' bein)5+i6. t(at it is t(e relati+e /as i' (e (ad said 3t(e 8$alitati+e30. %(i&( is neit(er ,otentially t(e one or bein). nor t(e ne)ation o' t(e one nor o' bein). b$t one a#on) bein)s. And it %as #$&( #ore ne&essary. as %e said. i' (e %as in8$irin) (o% bein)s are #any. not to in8$ire abo$t t(ose in t(e sa#e &ate)ory5(o% t(ere are #any s$bstan&es or #any 8$alities5b$t (o% bein)s as a %(ole are #any* 'or so#e are s$bstan&es. so#e #odi'i&ations. so#e relations. In t(e &ate)ories ot(er t(an s$bstan&e t(ere is yet anot(er ,roble# in+ol+ed in t(e e1isten&e o' ,l$rality. Sin&e t(ey are not se,arable 'ro# s$bstan&es. 8$alities and 8$antities are #any 4$st be&a$se t(eir s$bstrat$# be&o#es and is #any* yet t(ere o$)(t to be a #atter 'or ea&( &ate)ory* only it &annot be se,arable 'ro# s$bstan&es. B$t in t(e &ase o' 3t(ises3. it is ,ossible to e1,lain (o% t(e 3t(is3 is #any t(in)s. $nless a t(in) is to be treated as bot( a 3t(is3 and a )eneral &(ara&ter. T(e di''i&$lty arisin) 'ro# t(e 'a&ts abo$t s$bstan&es is rat(er t(is. (o% t(ere are a&t$ally #any s$bstan&es and not one. B$t '$rt(er. i' t(e 3t(is3 and t(e 8$antitati+e are not t(e sa#e. %e are not told (o% and %(y t(e t(in)s t(at are are #any. b$t (o% 8$antities are #any. -or all 3n$#ber3 #eans a 8$antity. and so does t(e 3$nit3. $nless it #eans a #eas$re or t(e 8$antitati+ely indi+isible. I'. t(en. t(e 8$antitati+e and t(e 3%(at3 are di''erent. %e are not told %(en&e or (o% t(e 3%(at3 is #any* b$t i' any one says t(ey are t(e sa#e. (e (as to 'a&e #any in&onsisten&ies. ;ne #i)(t 'i1 one3s attention also on t(e 8$estion. re)ardin)

t(e n$#bers. %(at 4$sti'ies t(e belie' t(at t(ey e1ist. To t(e belie+er in Ideas t(ey ,ro+ide so#e sort o' &a$se 'or e1istin) t(in)s. sin&e ea&( n$#ber is an Idea. and t(e Idea is to ot(er t(in)s so#e(o% or ot(er t(e &a$se o' t(eir bein)* 'or let t(is s$,,osition be )ranted t(e#. B$t as 'or (i# %(o does not (old t(is +ie% be&a$se (e sees t(e in(erent ob4e&tions to t(e Ideas /so t(at it is not 'or t(is reason t(at (e ,osits n$#bers0. b$t %(o ,osits #at(e#ati&al n$#ber. %(y #$st %e belie+e (is state#ent t(at s$&( n$#ber e1ists. and o' %(at $se is s$&( n$#ber to ot(er t(in)s< 2eit(er does (e %(o says it e1ists #aintain t(at it is t(e &a$se o' anyt(in) /(e rat(er says it is a t(in) e1istin) by itsel'0. nor is it obser+ed to be t(e &a$se o' anyt(in)* 'or t(e t(eore#s o' arit(#eti&ians %ill all be 'o$nd tr$e e+en o' sensible t(in)s. as %as said be'ore. 3 As 'or t(ose. t(en. %(o s$,,ose t(e Ideas to e1ist and to be n$#bers. by t(eir ass$#,tion in +irt$e o' t(e #et(od o' settin) o$t ea&( ter# a,art 'ro# its instan&es5o' t(e $nity o' ea&( )eneral ter# t(ey try at least to e1,lain so#e(o% %(y n$#ber #$st e1ist. Sin&e t(eir reasons. (o%e+er. are neit(er &on&l$si+e nor in t(e#sel+es ,ossible. one #$st not. 'or t(ese reasons at least. assert t(e e1isten&e o' n$#ber. A)ain. t(e Pyt(a)oreans. be&a$se t(ey sa% #any attrib$tes o' n$#bers belon)in) te sensible bodies. s$,,osed real t(in)s to be n$#bers5not se,arable n$#bers. (o%e+er. b$t n$#bers o' %(i&( real t(in)s &onsist. B$t %(y< Be&a$se t(e attrib$tes o' n$#bers are ,resent in a #$si&al s&ale and in t(e (ea+ens and in #any ot(er t(in)s. T(ose. (o%e+er. %(o say t(at #at(e#ati&al n$#ber alone e1ists &annot a&&ordin) to t(eir (y,ot(eses say anyt(in) o' t(is sort. b$t it $sed to be $r)ed t(at t(ese sensible t(in)s &o$ld not be t(e s$b4e&t o' t(e s&ien&es. B$t %e #aintain t(at t(ey are. as %e said be'ore. And it is e+ident t(at t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s do not e1ist a,art* 'or i' t(ey e1isted a,art t(eir attrib$tes %o$ld not (a+e been ,resent in bodies. 2o% t(e Pyt(a)oreans in t(is ,oint are o,en to no ob4e&tion* b$t in t(at t(ey &onstr$&t nat$ral bodies o$t o' n$#bers. t(in)s t(at (a+e li)(tness and %ei)(t o$t o' t(in)s t(at (a+e not %ei)(t or li)(tness. t(ey see# to s,ea o' anot(er (ea+en and ot(er bodies. not o' t(e sensible. B$t t(ose %(o #a e n$#ber se,arable ass$#e t(at it bot( e1ists and is se,arable be&a$se t(e a1io#s %o$ld not be tr$e o' sensible t(in)s. %(ile t(e state#ents o' #at(e#ati&s are tr$e and 3)reet t(e so$l3* and si#ilarly %it( t(e s,atial #a)nit$des o' #at(e#ati&s. It is e+ident. t(en. bot( t(at t(e ri+al t(eory %ill say t(e &ontrary o' t(is. and t(at t(e di''i&$lty %e raised 4$st no%. %(y i' n$#bers are in no %ay ,resent in sensible t(in)s t(eir attrib$tes are ,resent in sensible t(in)s. (as to be sol+ed by t(ose %(o (old t(ese +ie%s. T(ere are so#e %(o. be&a$se t(e ,oint is t(e li#it and e1tre#e o' t(e line. t(e line o' t(e ,lane. and t(e ,lane o' t(e solid. t(in t(ere #$st be real t(in)s o' t(is sort. We #$st t(ere'ore e1a#ine t(is ar)$#ent too. and see %(et(er it is not re#ar ably %ea . -or /i0 e1tre#es are not s$bstan&es. b$t rat(er all t(ese t(in)s are li#its. -or e+en %al in). and #o+e#ent in )eneral. (as a li#it. so t(at on t(eir t(eory t(is %ill be a 3t(is3 and a s$bstan&e. B$t t(at is abs$rd. 2ot b$t %(at /ii0 e+en i' t(ey are s$bstan&es. t(ey %ill all be t(e s$bstan&es o' t(e sensible t(in)s in t(is %orld* 'or it is to t(ese t(at t(e ar)$#ent a,,lied. W(y t(en s(o$ld t(ey be &a,able o' e1istin) a,art< A)ain. i' %e are not too easily satis'ied. %e #ay. re)ardin) all n$#ber and t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s. ,ress t(is di''i&$lty. t(at t(ey &ontrib$te not(in) to one anot(er. t(e ,rior to t(e ,osterior* 'or i' n$#ber did not e1ist. none t(e less s,atial #a)nit$des %o$ld e1ist 'or t(ose %(o #aintain t(e e1isten&e o' t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s only. and i' s,atial #a)nit$des did not e1ist. so$l and sensible bodies %o$ld e1ist. B$t t(e obser+ed 'a&ts s(o% t(at nat$re is not a series o' e,isodes. li e a bad tra)edy. As 'or t(e

belie+ers in t(e Ideas. t(is di''i&$lty #isses t(e#* 'or t(ey &onstr$&t s,atial #a)nit$des o$t o' #atter and n$#ber. lines o$t o' t(e n$#ber ,lanes do$btless o$t o' solids o$t o' or t(ey $se ot(er n$#bers. %(i&( #a es no di''eren&e. B$t %ill t(ese #a)nit$des be Ideas. or %(at is t(eir #anner o' e1isten&e. and %(at do t(ey &ontrib$te to t(in)s< T(ese &ontrib$te not(in). as t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s &ontrib$te not(in). B$t not e+en is any t(eore# tr$e o' t(e#. $nless %e %ant to &(an)e t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s and in+ent do&trines o' o$r o%n. B$t it is not (ard to ass$#e any rando# (y,ot(eses and s,in o$t a lon) strin) o' &on&l$sions. T(ese t(in ers. t(en. are %ron) in t(is %ay. in %antin) to $nite t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s %it( t(e Ideas. And t(ose %(o 'irst ,osited t%o inds o' n$#ber. t(at o' t(e -or#s and t(at %(i&( is #at(e#ati&al. neit(er (a+e said nor &an say (o% #at(e#ati&al n$#ber is to e1ist and o' %(at it is to &onsist. -or t(ey ,la&e it bet%een ideal and sensible n$#ber. I' /i0 it &onsists o' t(e )reat and s#all. it %ill be t(e sa#e as t(e ot(er5ideal5n$#ber /(e #a es s,atial #a)nit$des o$t o' so#e ot(er s#all and )reat0. And i' /ii0 (e na#es so#e ot(er ele#ent. (e %ill be #a in) (is ele#ents rat(er #any. And i' t(e ,rin&i,le o' ea&( o' t(e t%o inds o' n$#ber is a !. $nity %ill be so#et(in) &o##on to t(ese. and %e #$st in8$ire (o% t(e one is t(ese #any t(in)s. %(ile at t(e sa#e ti#e n$#ber. a&&ordin) to (i#. &annot be )enerated e1&e,t 'ro# one and an inde'inite dyad. All t(is is abs$rd. and &on'li&ts bot( %it( itsel' and %it( t(e ,robabilities. and %e see# to see in it Si#onides 3lon) ri)#arole3 'or t(e lon) ri)#arole &o#es into ,lay. li e t(ose o' sla+es. %(en #en (a+e not(in) so$nd to say. And t(e +ery ele#ents5t(e )reat and t(e s#all5see# to &ry o$t a)ainst t(e +iolen&e t(at is done to t(e#* 'or t(ey &annot in any %ay )enerate n$#bers ot(er t(an t(ose )ot 'ro# ! by do$blin). It is stran)e also to attrib$te )eneration to t(in)s t(at are eternal. or rat(er t(is is one o' t(e t(in)s t(at are i#,ossible. T(ere need be no do$bt %(et(er t(e Pyt(a)oreans attrib$te )eneration to t(e# or not* 'or t(ey say ,lainly t(at %(en t(e one (ad been &onstr$&ted. %(et(er o$t o' ,lanes or o' s$r'a&e or o' seed or o' ele#ents %(i&( t(ey &annot e1,ress. i##ediately t(e nearest ,art o' t(e $nli#ited be)an to be &onstrained and li#ited by t(e li#it. B$t sin&e t(ey are &onstr$&tin) a %orld and %is( to s,ea t(e lan)$a)e o' nat$ral s&ien&e. it is 'air to #a e so#e e1a#ination o' t(eir ,(ysi&al t(eori&s. b$t to let t(e# o'' 'ro# t(e ,resent in8$iry* 'or %e are in+esti)atin) t(e ,rin&i,les at %or in $n&(an)eable t(in)s. so t(at it is n$#bers o' t(is ind %(ose )enesis %e #$st st$dy. = T(ese t(in ers say t(ere is no )eneration o' t(e odd n$#ber. %(i&( e+idently i#,lies t(at t(ere is )eneration o' t(e e+en* and so#e ,resent t(e e+en as ,rod$&ed 'irst 'ro# $ne8$als5t(e )reat and t(e s#all5%(en t(ese are e8$ali6ed. T(e ine8$ality. t(en. #$st belon) to t(e# be'ore t(ey are e8$ali6ed. I' t(ey (ad al%ays been e8$ali6ed. t(ey %o$ld not (a+e been $ne8$al be'ore* 'or t(ere is not(in) be'ore t(at %(i&( is al%ays. T(ere'ore e+idently t(ey are not )i+in) t(eir a&&o$nt o' t(e )eneration o' n$#bers #erely to assist &onte#,lation o' t(eir nat$re. A di''i&$lty. and a re,roa&( to any one %(o 'inds it no di''i&$lty. are &ontained in t(e 8$estion (o% t(e ele#ents and t(e ,rin&i,les are related to t(e )ood and t(e bea$ti'$l* t(e di''i&$lty is t(is. %(et(er any o' t(e ele#ents is s$&( a t(in) as %e #ean by t(e )ood itsel' and t(e best. or t(is is not so. b$t t(ese are later in ori)in t(an t(e ele#ents. T(e t(eolo)ians see# to a)ree %it( so#e t(in ers o' t(e ,resent day. %(o ans%er t(e 8$estion in t(e ne)ati+e. and say t(at bot( t(e )ood and t(e bea$ti'$l a,,ear in t(e nat$re o' t(in)s only %(en t(at nat$re (as #ade so#e ,ro)ress. /T(is t(ey do to a+oid a real ob4e&tion %(i&( &on'ronts t(ose %(o say. as so#e do. t(at t(e one is a 'irst ,rin&i,le. T(e ob4e&tion arises not 'ro# t(eir as&ribin) )oodness to t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le as an

attrib$te. b$t 'ro# t(eir #a in) t(e one a ,rin&i,le5and a ,rin&i,le in t(e sense o' an ele#ent5and )eneratin) n$#ber 'ro# t(e one.0 T(e old ,oets a)ree %it( t(is inas#$&( as t(ey say t(at not t(ose %(o are 'irst in ti#e. e.). 2i)(t and Hea+en or C(aos or ;&ean. rei)n and r$le. b$t De$s. T(ese ,oets. (o%e+er. are led to s,ea t($s only be&a$se t(ey t(in o' t(e r$lers o' t(e %orld as &(an)in)* 'or t(ose o' t(e# %(o &o#bine t(e t%o &(ara&ters in t(at t(ey do not $se #yt(i&al lan)$a)e t(ro$)(o$t. e.). P(ere&ydes and so#e ot(ers. #a e t(e ori)inal )eneratin) a)ent t(e Best. and so do t(e Ma)i. and so#e o' t(e later sa)es also. e.). bot( E#,edo&les and Ana1a)oras. o' %(o# one #ade lo+e an ele#ent. and t(e ot(er #ade reason a ,rin&i,le. ;' t(ose %(o #aintain t(e e1isten&e o' t(e $n&(an)eable s$bstan&es so#e say t(e ;ne itsel' is t(e )ood itsel'* b$t t(ey t(o$)(t its s$bstan&e lay #ainly in its $nity. T(is. t(en. is t(e ,roble#.5%(i&( o' t(e t%o %ays o' s,ea in) is ri)(t. It %o$ld be stran)e i' to t(at %(i&( is ,ri#ary and eternal and #ost sel'5s$''i&ient t(is +ery 8$ality55sel'5s$''i&ien&y and sel'5#aintenan&e55belon)s ,ri#arily in so#e ot(er %ay t(an as a )ood. B$t indeed it &an be 'or no ot(er reason indestr$&tible or sel'5s$''i&ient t(an be&a$se its nat$re is )ood. T(ere'ore to say t(at t(e 'irst ,rin&i,le is )ood is ,robably &orre&t* b$t t(at t(is ,rin&i,le s(o$ld be t(e ;ne or. i' not t(at. at least an ele#ent. and an ele#ent o' n$#bers. is i#,ossible. Po%er'$l ob4e&tions arise. to a+oid %(i&( so#e (a+e )i+en $, t(e t(eory /+i6. t(ose %(o a)ree t(at t(e ;ne is a 'irst ,rin&i,le and ele#ent. b$t only o' #at(e#ati&al n$#ber0. -or on t(is +ie% all t(e $nits be&o#e identi&al %it( s,e&ies o' )ood. and t(ere is a )reat ,ro'$sion o' )oods. A)ain. i' t(e -or#s are n$#bers. all t(e -or#s are identi&al %it( s,e&ies o' )ood. B$t let a #an ass$#e Ideas o' anyt(in) (e ,leases. I' t(ese are Ideas only o' )oods. t(e Ideas %ill not be s$bstan&es* b$t i' t(e Ideas are also Ideas o' s$bstan&es. all ani#als and ,lants and all indi+id$als t(at s(are in Ideas %ill be )ood. T(ese abs$rdities 'ollo%. and it also 'ollo%s t(at t(e &ontrary ele#ent. %(et(er it is ,l$rality or t(e $ne8$al. i.e. t(e )reat and s#all. is t(e bad5itsel'. /Hen&e one t(in er a+oided atta&(in) t(e )ood to t(e ;ne. be&a$se it %o$ld ne&essarily 'ollo%. sin&e )eneration is 'ro# &ontraries. t(at badness is t(e '$nda#ental nat$re o' ,l$rality* %(ile ot(ers say ine8$ality is t(e nat$re o' t(e bad.0 It 'ollo%s. t(en. t(at all t(in)s ,arta e o' t(e bad e1&e,t one55t(e ;ne itsel'. and t(at n$#bers ,arta e o' it in a #ore $ndil$ted 'or# t(an s,atial #a)nit$des. and t(at t(e bad is t(e s,a&e in %(i&( t(e )ood is reali6ed. and t(at it ,arta es in and desires t(at %(i&( tends to destroy it* 'or &ontrary tends to destroy &ontrary. And i'. as %e %ere sayin). t(e #atter is t(at %(i&( is ,otentially ea&( t(in). e.). t(at o' a&t$al 'ire is t(at %(i&( is ,otentially 'ire. t(e bad %ill be 4$st t(e ,otentially )ood. All t(ese ob4e&tions. t(en. 'ollo%. ,artly be&a$se t(ey #a e e+ery ,rin&i,le an ele#ent. ,artly be&a$se t(ey #a e &ontraries ,rin&i,les. ,artly be&a$se t(ey #a e t(e ;ne a ,rin&i,le. ,artly be&a$se t(ey treat t(e n$#bers as t(e 'irst s$bstan&es. and as &a,able o' e1istin) a,art. and as -or#s. 5 I'. t(en. it is e8$ally i#,ossible not to ,$t t(e )ood a#on) t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les and to ,$t it a#on) t(e# in t(is %ay. e+idently t(e ,rin&i,les are not bein) &orre&tly des&ribed. nor are t(e 'irst s$bstan&es. 2or does any one &on&ei+e t(e #atter &orre&tly i' (e &o#,ares t(e ,rin&i,les o' t(e $ni+erse to t(at o' ani#als and ,lants. on t(e )ro$nd t(at t(e #ore &o#,lete al%ays &o#es 'ro# t(e inde'inite and in&o#,lete5%(i&( is %(at leads t(is t(in er to say t(at t(is is also tr$e o' t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les o' reality. so t(at t(e ;ne itsel' is not e+en an e1istin) t(in). T(is is in&orre&t. 'or e+en in t(is %orld o' ani#als and ,lants t(e ,rin&i,les 'ro# %(i&( t(ese &o#e are &o#,lete* 'or it is a #an t(at ,rod$&es a #an. and

t(e seed is not 'irst. It is o$t o' ,la&e. also. to )enerate ,la&e si#$ltaneo$sly %it( t(e #at(e#ati&al solids /'or ,la&e is ,e&$liar to t(e indi+id$al t(in)s. and (en&e t(ey are se,arate in ,la&e* b$t #at(e#ati&al ob4e&ts are no%(ere0. and to say t(at t(ey #$st be so#e%(ere. b$t not say %(at ind o' t(in) t(eir ,la&e is. T(ose %(o say t(at e1istin) t(in)s &o#e 'ro# ele#ents and t(at t(e 'irst o' e1istin) t(in)s are t(e n$#bers. s(o$ld (a+e 'irst distin)$is(ed t(e senses in %(i&( one t(in) &o#es 'ro# anot(er. and t(en said in %(i&( sense n$#ber &o#es 'ro# its 'irst ,rin&i,les. By inter#i1t$re< B$t /!0 not e+eryt(in) is &a,able o' inter#i1t$re. and /70 t(at %(i&( is ,rod$&ed by it is di''erent 'ro# its ele#ents. and on t(is +ie% t(e one %ill not re#ain se,arate or a distin&t entity* b$t t(ey %ant it to be so. By 4$1ta,osition. li e a syllable< B$t t(en /!0 t(e ele#ents #$st (a+e ,osition* and /70 (e %(o t(in s o' n$#ber %ill be able to t(in o' t(e $nity and t(e ,l$rality a,art* n$#ber t(en %ill be t(is5a $nit and ,l$rality. or t(e one and t(e $ne8$al. A)ain. &o#in) 'ro# &ertain t(in)s #eans in one sense t(at t(ese are still to be 'o$nd in t(e ,rod$&t. and in anot(er t(at t(ey are not* %(i&( sense does n$#ber &o#e 'ro# t(ese ele#ents< ;nly t(in)s t(at are )enerated &an &o#e 'ro# ele#ents %(i&( are ,resent in t(e#. Does n$#ber &o#e. t(en. 'ro# its ele#ents as 'ro# seed< B$t not(in) &an be e1&reted 'ro# t(at %(i&( is indi+isible. Does it &o#e 'ro# its &ontrary. its &ontrary not ,ersistin)< B$t all t(in)s t(at &o#e in t(is %ay &o#e also 'ro# so#et(in) else %(i&( does ,ersist. Sin&e. t(en. one t(in er ,la&es t(e ! as &ontrary to ,l$rality. and anot(er ,la&es it as &ontrary to t(e $ne8$al. treatin) t(e ! as e8$al. n$#ber #$st be bein) treated as &o#in) 'ro# &ontraries. T(ere is. t(en. so#et(in) else t(at ,ersists. 'ro# %(i&( and 'ro# one &ontrary t(e &o#,o$nd is or (as &o#e to be. A)ain. %(y in t(e %orld do t(e ot(er t(in)s t(at &o#e 'ro# &ontraries. or t(at (a+e &ontraries. ,eris( /e+en %(en all o' t(e &ontrary is $sed to ,rod$&e t(e#0. %(ile n$#ber does not< 2ot(in) is said abo$t t(is. Yet %(et(er ,resent or not ,resent in t(e &o#,o$nd t(e &ontrary destroys it. e.). 3stri'e3 destroys t(e 3#i1t$re3 /yet it s(o$ld not* 'or it is not to t(at t(at is &ontrary0. ;n&e #ore. it (as not been deter#ined at all in %(i&( %ay n$#bers are t(e &a$ses o' s$bstan&es and o' bein)5%(et(er /!0 as bo$ndaries /as ,oints are o' s,atial #a)nit$des0. T(is is (o% E$ryt$s de&ided %(at %as t(e n$#ber o' %(at /e.). one o' #an and anot(er o' (orse0. +i6. by i#itatin) t(e 'i)$res o' li+in) t(in)s %it( ,ebbles. as so#e ,eo,le brin) n$#bers into t(e 'or#s o' trian)le and s8$are. ;r /70 is it be&a$se (ar#ony is a ratio o' n$#bers. and so is #an and e+eryt(in) else< B$t (o% are t(e attrib$tes5%(ite and s%eet and (ot5n$#bers< E+idently it is not t(e n$#bers t(at are t(e essen&e or t(e &a$ses o' t(e 'or#* 'or t(e ratio is t(e essen&e. %(ile t(e n$#ber t(e &a$ses o' t(e 'or#* 'or t(e ratio is t(e essen&e. %(ile t(e n$#ber is t(e #atter. E.). t(e essen&e o' 'les( or bone is n$#ber only in t(is %ay. 3t(ree ,arts o' 'ire and t%o o' eart(3. And a n$#ber. %(ate+er n$#ber it is. is al%ays a n$#ber o' &ertain t(in)s. eit(er o' ,arts o' 'ire or eart( or o' $nits* b$t t(e essen&e is t(at t(ere is so #$&( o' one t(in) to so #$&( o' anot(er in t(e #i1t$re* and t(is is no lon)er a n$#ber b$t a ratio o' #i1t$re o' n$#bers. %(et(er t(ese are &or,oreal or o' any ot(er ind. 2$#ber. t(en. %(et(er it be n$#ber in )eneral or t(e n$#ber %(i&( &onsists o' abstra&t $nits. is neit(er t(e &a$se as a)ent. nor t(e #atter. nor t(e ratio and 'or# o' t(in)s. 2or. o' &o$rse. is it t(e 'inal &a$se. @ ;ne #i)(t also raise t(e 8$estion %(at t(e )ood is t(at t(in)s )et 'ro# n$#bers be&a$se t(eir &o#,osition is e1,ressible by a n$#ber. eit(er by one %(i&( is easily &al&$lable or by an odd n$#ber. -or in

'a&t (oney5%ater is no #ore %(oleso#e i' it is #i1ed in t(e ,ro,ortion o' t(ree ti#es t(ree. b$t it %o$ld do #ore )ood i' it %ere in no ,arti&$lar ratio b$t %ell dil$ted t(an i' it %ere n$#eri&ally e1,ressible b$t stron). A)ain. t(e ratios o' #i1t$res are e1,ressed by t(e addin) o' n$#bers. not by #ere n$#bers* e.). it is 3t(ree ,arts to t%o3. not 3t(ree ti#es t%o3. -or in any #$lti,li&ation t(e )en$s o' t(e t(in)s #$lti,lied #$st be t(e sa#e* t(ere'ore t(e ,rod$&t !?7?3 #$st be #eas$rable by !. and =?5?@ by = and t(ere'ore all ,rod$&ts into %(i&( t(e sa#e 'a&tor enters #$st be #eas$rable by t(at 'a&tor. T(e n$#ber o' 'ire. t(en. &annot be 7?5?3?@ and at t(e sa#e ti#e t(at o' %ater 7?3. I' all t(in)s #$st s(are in n$#ber. it #$st 'ollo% t(at #any t(in)s are t(e sa#e. and t(e sa#e n$#ber #$st belon) to one t(in) and to anot(er. Is n$#ber t(e &a$se. t(en. and does t(e t(in) e1ist be&a$se o' its n$#ber. or is t(is not &ertain< E.). t(e #otions o' t(e s$n (a+e a n$#ber. and a)ain t(ose o' t(e #oon.5yes. and t(e li'e and ,ri#e o' ea&( ani#al. W(y. t(en. s(o$ld not so#e o' t(ese n$#bers be s8$ares. so#e &$bes. and so#e e8$al. ot(ers do$ble< T(ere is no reason %(y t(ey s(o$ld not. and indeed t(ey #$st #o+e %it(in t(ese li#its. sin&e all t(in)s %ere ass$#ed to s(are in n$#ber. And it %as ass$#ed t(at t(in)s t(at di''ered #i)(t 'all $nder t(e sa#e n$#ber. T(ere'ore i' t(e sa#e n$#ber (ad belon)ed to &ertain t(in)s. t(ese %o$ld (a+e been t(e sa#e as one anot(er. sin&e t(ey %o$ld (a+e (ad t(e sa#e 'or# o' n$#ber* e.). s$n and #oon %o$ld (a+e been t(e sa#e. B$t %(y need t(ese n$#bers be &a$ses< T(ere are se+en +o%els. t(e s&ale &onsists o' se+en strin)s. t(e Pleiades are se+en. at se+en ani#als lose t(eir teet( /at least so#e do. t(o$)( so#e do not0. and t(e &(a#,ions %(o 'o$)(t a)ainst T(ebes %ere se+en. Is it t(en be&a$se t(e n$#ber is t(e ind o' n$#ber it is. t(at t(e &(a#,ions %ere se+en or t(e Pleiad &onsists o' se+en stars< S$rely t(e &(a#,ions %ere se+en be&a$se t(ere %ere se+en )ates or 'or so#e ot(er reason. and t(e Pleiad %e &o$nt as se+en. as %e &o$nt t(e Bear as t%el+e. %(ile ot(er ,eo,les &o$nt #ore stars in bot(. 2ay t(ey e+en say t(at ?. Ps and D are &on&ords and t(at be&a$se t(ere are t(ree &on&ords. t(e do$ble &onsonants also are t(ree. T(ey 8$ite ne)le&t t(e 'a&t t(at t(ere #i)(t be a t(o$sand s$&( letters* 'or one sy#bol #i)(t be assi)ned to :P. B$t i' t(ey say t(at ea&( o' t(ese t(ree is e8$al to t%o o' t(e ot(er letters. and no ot(er is so. and i' t(e &a$se is t(at t(ere are t(ree ,arts o' t(e #o$t( and one letter is in ea&( a,,lied to si)#a. it is 'or t(is reason t(at t(ere are only t(ree. not be&a$se t(e &on&ords are t(ree* sin&e as a #atter o' 'a&t t(e &on&ords are #ore t(an t(ree. b$t o' do$ble &onsonants t(ere &annot be #ore. T(ese ,eo,le are li e t(e old5'as(ioned Ho#eri& s&(olars. %(o see s#all rese#blan&es b$t ne)le&t )reat ones. So#e say t(at t(ere are #any s$&( &ases. e.). t(at t(e #iddle strin)s are re,resented by nine and ei)(t. and t(at t(e e,i& +erse (as se+enteen syllables. %(i&( is e8$al in n$#ber to t(e t%o strin)s. and t(at t(e s&ansion is. in t(e ri)(t (al' o' t(e line nine syllables. and in t(e le't ei)(t. And t(ey say t(at t(e distan&e in t(e letters 'ro# al,(a to o#e)a is e8$al to t(at 'ro# t(e lo%est note o' t(e 'l$te to t(e (i)(est. and t(at t(e n$#ber o' t(is note is e8$al to t(at o' t(e %(ole &(oir o' (ea+en. It #ay be s$s,e&ted t(at no one &o$ld 'ind di''i&$lty eit(er in statin) s$&( analo)ies or in 'indin) t(e# in eternal t(in)s. sin&e t(ey &an be 'o$nd e+en in ,eris(able t(in)s. B$t t(e la$ded &(ara&teristi&s o' n$#bers. and t(e &ontraries o' t(ese. and )enerally t(e #at(e#ati&al relations. as so#e des&ribe t(e#. #a in) t(e# &a$ses o' nat$re. see#. %(en %e ins,e&t t(e# in t(is %ay. to +anis(* 'or none o' t(e# is a &a$se in any o' t(e senses t(at (a+e been distin)$is(ed in re'eren&e to t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. In a sense. (o%e+er. t(ey #a e it ,lain t(at )oodness belon)s to n$#bers. and t(at t(e odd. t(e strai)(t. t(e s8$are. t(e ,oten&ies o' &ertain n$#bers. are in t(e &ol$#n o' t(e bea$ti'$l. -or t(e seasons and a ,arti&$lar ind o' n$#ber )o to)et(er* and t(e ot(er a)ree#ents t(at t(ey &olle&t 'ro# t(e t(eore#s o' #at(e#ati&s all (a+e

t(is #eanin). Hen&e t(ey are li e &oin&iden&es. -or t(ey are a&&idents. b$t t(e t(in)s t(at a)ree are all a,,ro,riate to one anot(er. and one by analo)y. -or in ea&( &ate)ory o' bein) an analo)o$s ter# is 'o$nd5as t(e strai)(t is in len)t(. so is t(e le+el in s$r'a&e. ,er(a,s t(e odd in n$#ber. and t(e %(ite in &olo$r. A)ain. it is not t(e ideal n$#bers t(at are t(e &a$ses o' #$si&al ,(eno#ena and t(e li e /'or e8$al ideal n$#bers di''er 'ro# one anot(er in 'or#* 'or e+en t(e $nits do0* so t(at %e need not ass$#e Ideas 'or t(is reason at least. T(ese. t(en. are t(e res$lts o' t(e t(eory. and yet #ore #i)(t be bro$)(t to)et(er. T(e 'a&t t(at o$r o,,onnts (a+e #$&( tro$ble %it( t(e )eneration o' n$#bers and &an in no %ay #a e a syste# o' t(e#. see#s to indi&ate t(at t(e ob4e&ts o' #at(e#ati&s are not se,arable 'ro# sensible t(in)s. as so#e say. and t(at t(ey are not t(e 'irst ,rin&i,les. 5THE E2D5 .