WATER QUALITY

WATER QUALITY

Hydrologic cycle

WATER QUALITY Physical characteristics

Color - Due to organic industrial wastes Taste and odor Suspended solids - Inorganic particles e.g. clay, silt Organic particles e.g. plant fibres, bacterial cells Turbidity particles e.g. leaves, metal

Characteristic of water that respond to the senses of sight, taste or smell.

or

Temperature - Effect the rate of biological activities and solubility of gases in water.

Solids
Dissolved Colloidal Suspended or non filterable algae bacteria virus 10 -5 10 -3
Suspended solid

Size of particle, m 1 100

10 -8

10 -5

10 -3 Size of particle, mm

10 -1

WATER QUALITY
Chemical characteristics
Characteristic of water that respond to the solvent capabilities of water. pH : measures the strength of H+ ions in water.

Pure water, H

and OH- = 10

mol / liter

WATER QUALITY
Alkalinity ions) - Common constituents of alkalinity: HC03 (bicarbonate), CO32 (carbonate) and OH (hydroxide) - Natural source: rock e.g. limestone - Important for fish and aquatic life. Protect against pH changes due to acid rain, and other acid wastes.

- The ability of water to absorb acids (H+

WATER QUALITY
Dissolved solids Refer to substances which is in solution. Cannot be removed by filtration or sedimentation. e.g. Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Cl - etc.

Dissolved solids

Water containing iron

WATER QUALITY
Hardness The concentration of metallic cation
such as calcium and magnesium in water. Ca and Mg react with anion in water to form a solid precipitate. May clog pipes. Ca 2+ + 2 HCO3- ------- Ca CO3 (s) + CO2 + H2O In boilers, hard water form scale on the plates ; increasing fuel consumption. Increase soap consumption (interfere with cleaning), stain clothing, dishes.

C02+ H20 H2C03 Ca C03 (s) + H2CO3 -> Ca(HCO3)2

WATER QUALITY
Lead Arsenic

Metal

Non toxic: sodium, iron, manganese, zinc Toxic : arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury
Dissolved gases Oxygen, nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide
Cadmium

WATER QUALITY
Nutrient Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Organic nitrogen ----- ammonia nitrogen (Nitrosomonas ) (Nitrobacter) ----- Nitrite ------- Nitrate

Oxidation of nitrogen compound is called Nitrification

Time ---------- Forms of nitrogen compounds in wastewater under aerobic conditions. Source: Sawyer and McCarty (1978).

WATER QUALITY
Organics Major element --- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Minor element ---- Nitrogen, phosphorus Sources Natural or synthetic organics e.g. plant fibers, animal tissues, food waste Effects Color, taste and odor problems, microbial decomposition of organics requires oxygen.

WATER QUALITY
Biodegradable organics (Organics which can be utilized for food by microorganisms) Carbohydrates (C,H,O), protein (C,H,O,N,S), fat (C,H,O) Non biodegradable organics (Organics which are resistant to biological degradation) - Cellulose from woody plants - Molecules with strong bond e.g. DDT - Organics which are toxic to organisms e.g. pesticides Fat molecule

DDT molecule

WATER QUALITY
Biological Oxidation of organics
In the presence of oxygen, aerobic oxidation takes place. Part of the organic matter being synthesized to form new microorganisms and the remainder being converted to relatively stable end products. Organic matter Bacteria O2 New cells CO2, H2O, NO3-, SO42- , PO43-

WATER QUALITY
In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic oxidation will produce new cells and unstable products such as organic acids etc. which further will be converted to new cells and stable products such as CH4, CO2 etc. Organic matter Bacteria New cells New cells CO2, H2O, H2S, NH3, CH4

Alcohol & Acids

Sludge digester employing anaerobic oxidation

WATER QUALITY
Biological characteristics
- refer to biological community of water

Bacteria single cell

microorganism

Virus

Protozoa

Fungi

WATER QUALITY
Algae Rotifer

Helminth / parasitic worm

Crustacean

Macrophyte (aquatic plants)

Fish

Figure 3-9 Aquatic food chain. Energy and material pass from green plants formed by photosynthesis through small animals and immature insects that graze on algae to second-and third-order consumers, which are fishes. A body of water hosting large numbers of species with well balanced numbers of individuals are considered to be a healthy stream

WATER QUALITY
Pathogen Organisms which cause disease or infection. Detection of pathogen in water is difficult, uneconomical, impractical in routine water analysis. Water is tested using organism that is an indicator of fecal contamination. Nonpathogenic microorganisms which inhabit the intestines in large number and are always present in feces together with any pathogen may be used as indicators of fecal contamination.

Escherichia Coli

Pathogen indicator organisms

Coliform bacteria e.g. Escherichia Coli & Fecal streptococci

Fecal streptococci

E. coli cultured in Petri dishes

WATER QUALITY
Disease related to poor water supply and sanitation

Water washed disease

- Disease due to inadequate supplies of water for personal hygiene e.g. skin disease, eye disease. - Disease due to ingestion of water contaminated by pathogen or washing hands, food in contaminated water e.g. cholera, diarrhea etc. - Water provides the habitat for intermediate host organisms e.g. mosquitoes, worm, etc.

Water borne disease

Water based/related disease

WATER QUALITY
SOME BACTERIA OF SIGNIFICANCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Group of bacteria Pathogenic bacteria

Genus Salmonella Mycobacterium Escherichia Enterobacter Streptococcus Pseudomonas Flavobacterium Micrococcus Nitrobacter Nitrosomonas

Environmental significance Cause typhoid fever Cause tuberculosis

Indicator bacteria

Fecal pollution

Decay bacteria

Pseudomonas Degrade organics Degrade proteins Produce fatty acids from organics in anaerobic digester
Oxidize inorganic nitrogenous compounds

Nitrifying bacteria

Micrococcus

Flavobacterium

Nitrobacter

Nitrosomonas

WATER QUALITY
TABLE 8-5 TYPICAL BACTERIAL COUNTS IN WATER Coliform bacteria Source Tap water Clean, natural water Polluted water Raw sewage Bacteria per 100 mL 10
3 103 6- 108 106 108

per 100 mL 0 -1 102 103-105 105

Maximum allowable coliforms per 100 mL Water use Drinking water Raw water supply Recreational Treated wastewater Total 1 5000
1000

Fecal 0 500 100 200

------

WATER QUALITY
Calculated Virus-Coliform Ratios For Sewage And Polluted Surface Water
Virus Sewage Polluted surface water 500 /100 ml Coliform 44 x 10 4 /100 ml Virus/coliform Virus/coliform ratio 1:92000

1 /100 ml 5 x 10 4 /100 ml

1:50000

WATER QUALITY PARAMETER

Water quality parameter
A set of measurable factor that define water quality and its behavior

e.g. color, pH, turbidity, SS, TDS, BOD, COD etc.

BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

The amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria while oxidizing organic matter under aerobic condition. - It is an indicator of organic pollution

BOD test

A sample is placed in a BOD bottle and the initial DO level (DO0 ) is determined using DO meter. Then, the bottle is kept in an incubator (controlled environment e.g. temperature is held constant) for a pre selected period of time. The bottle is taken out from the incubator and the final DO level (DO f ) is measured. The BOD of a sample is BOD = DO 0 DO f

BOD test

BOD bottle

DO meter

Incubator

BOD test
e.g. DO 0 = 8.00 mg/L DO 3 = 6.22 mg/L BOD3 ,
o 30 C

= DO

DO

= 8.00 6.22 = 1.78 mg/L

WATER QUALITY PARAMETER

If dilution is carried out, then BOD = (DO 0 - DO f) x dilution times Or BOD = (DO 0 Dof) P P = dilution factor P = Volume of sample Total volume = Volume of sample Volume sample + volume of dilution water

where

P=

Vs
Vs + V DW

V (dilution water) V
Total

V (sample)

Result from a BOD test with P = 0.1 and T = 30oC

t DO0 DO, BOD t = (DO0 - DO t)/P BODt (mg/L) 1 2 3 4 5 6 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.1 8.2 7.1 6.1 5.2 4.6 4.1 3.8 (8.2 - 7.1 )/ 0.1 (8.2 - 6.1) / 0.1 (8.2 - 5.2) / 0.1 (8.2 - 4.6) / 0.1 (8.2-4.1) / 0.1 (8.2-3.8) / 0.1 11 21 30 36 41 44

BOD curve versus time BOD u

BOD t t time

Organic matter remaining versus time L0 Lt L0 = initial concentration of organics Lt = concentration of organics remaining at time t t time

WATER QUALITY PARAMETER

The rate of oxidation of organic matter at any time is proportional to the amount of organic matter available. dL = - k L dt L = concentration of organic matter remaining t = time (day) k = reaction constant (/day)

Integrating (from time, t = 0 to t = t) Lt t

dL = L L0 0 Lt Lt
=

- k dt

L0 10

-kt

(log 10)

L0 e k1 t (log e)

Relation between k and k1 k1 = 2.3 k

Oxygen demand is equivalent to organics oxidized BOD t = L

0

or

= L 0 L 0 10 k t BOD t = L 0 ( 1 -10 k t) BOD t = L 0 (1 - e k1t)

(log 10) (log e)

When t ----- Therefore,

L t= 0 BOD t BOD u = L 0

The value of k determines the speed of BOD reaction.

k is obtained by using Thomas Method

1/3

t BOD A

B = slope k = 2.61 B/A (log 10) time, t (days)

k is affected by temperature and can be approximated by Van't Hoff- Arrhenius model

k
T

= k 20 oC x

( T-20o C)

where k T = reaction constant at temperature T, per day k20 oC = reaction constant at 20 oC = temperature coefficient 1.047

L0 is also affected by temperature L0 T = L0 20o C (1 + 0.02 (T-20 oC))

L L

0T

= ultimate oxygen demand at temperature T = ultimate oxygen demand at 20 oC

0 20o C

Typical values of k1 and BODu for various waters

Water type k1 (base e) /day BOD u (mg/L) <0.1 0.1 - 0.23 0.35 0.40 0.12 - 0.23 0-1 1-30 150 250 10-30

Tap water Surface waters Weak municipal wastewater Strong municipal wastewater Treated effluent

Time, days

Figure 3-16 Hypothetical biochemical oxygen demand reaction showing the carbonaceous and nitrification demand curves.

WATER QUALITY PARAMETER

SOLIDS Total Solids Material left in a dish after evaporation of a sample of water or wastewater and subsequent drying in an oven at 103-105 C Fixed solids Solids remain in the drying dish after burning dry solids at 550 50C Volatile solids Solids which are lost during burning at 550oC 50 oC.
Water vapor Drying at 103o C Dry solids Volatile solids

Igniting at 550o C

Fixed solids

WATER QUALITY
Suspended solids Non filterable residue that is retained on a filter paper/glass fiber disk after filtration of sample.
Igniting at 550 C

vss

Drying at 103 C

Suspended solids

FSS

Dissolved solids Solids that pass through filter paper/glass fiber disk. TDS = Total solids(TS) - total suspended solids (TSS)

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) The amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic matter to carbon dioxide and water using oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate or potassium dichromate.
Organics + Cr2O 72- + H + heat CO2 + H2O + 2 Cr 3 + Ag +

Result is obtained quickly (within 3 hrs) No information on the proportion of the waste that can be oxidized by bacteria or the rate of biooxidation. COD > BOD

COD test kit

Water quality criteria

Safe concentration limit of pollutants for a particular beneficial use of water. Criteria is derived from scientific information based on effects on man, animals, aquatic life etc.

Water quality standards

Derived from consideration of water quality criteria, technological feasibilities and economic consideration. Set by a governmental agency and represent a statutory requirement.

DESIRABLE LEVEL OF RAW WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

PARAMETERS ACCEPTABLE VALUE (mg/1)

Coliform organism

less than 5000

Turbidity (NTU) Colour (HAZEN) pH Total dissolved solid Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Ammonia NH 4 Anionic Detergent MBAS Arsenic (As) Cadmium (Cd) Chloride Chromium (Cr) Copper (Cu) Cyanide (Cn) Fluoride Hardness as CaC03 Iron Lead (Pb) Manganese (Mn) Magnesium & Sodium Sulphate Mercury (Hg) Nitrate N0 3 Phenol Selenium (Se) Silver (Ag) Sulphate Total Nitrogen N (NO 3) Zinc (Zn)

1000 300 5.5 - 9.0 1500 6.0 0.5 1.0 0.05 0.01 100 0.05 1.5 0.05 1.5 500 1.0 0.1 0.2 1000 0.001 25 0.002 0.01 0.05 400 1.0 1.5

Table 3 Drinking Water Quality Standard and Frequency of Monitoring Parameters Column 1 Column 2 Standard Frequency To Be Monitored Treatment Service Well/ Spring Plant Distribution Outlet Reservoir Outlet System Microbiological: Total coliform MPN Method: W M 2Y Should not exceed 10 MPN/100 ml. 10 Should not be detectable in 2 consecutive samples throughout a year. 95% of samples should not detect coliform in 100 ml. Membrane filter method: Arithmetic mean of all monthly samples is 3 colonies/'100 ml Not more than 4 colonies/100 ml in 2 consecutive samples. Absent in 100 ml sample Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent

Column 3 Source of Reference

WH02

Faecal coliform Faecal streptococci Clostridium Perfringes Viruses Protozoa Helminths

W WN WN WN WN WN

W M WN WN WN WN WN WN WN WN WN WN

2Y WN WN WN WN WN WH02 NZ NZ British

Table 3 Drinking Water Quality Standard and Frequency of Monitoring Parameters Column 1 Standard Column 2 Frequency To Be Monitored Treat ment Plant Out let Physical-Group 1 Turbidity Colour 5 NTU a 15 TCU b 6.5-9.0 PH Free Residual Chlorine Combined Residual Chlorine Not less than 0.2mg/l Not less than 0.1 mg/l w w W W w W W W M W M WM M M 2Y 2Y WH02 WH02 Service Distribu Reservoir tion Outlet System Well/ Spring Source of Reference Column 3

2Y 2Y 2Y

MAL WH02 1

Drinking Water Quality Standard and Frequency of Monitoring

Parameters Column 1 Standard Column 2 Frequency To Be Monitored Treatment Service Distribution Plant Reservoir System Outlet Outlet M M M M M M M M M M M Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 M M M M VI VI VI VI M VI M Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y/2 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Column 3 Well/ Spring Source of Reference

Inorganic-Group II Total dissolved solids CCE Chloride Anionic Detergent MBAS Ammonia (as N) Nitrate Iron Flouride Hardness Aluminium Manganese Group 111 M.ercury Cadmium Selenium Arsenic CyanideLead Chromium Silver Copper Magnesium Zinc Sodium Sulphate Mineral Oil Phenol Chloroform

1000 mg/1 0.5 mg/l 250 mg/l l..0 mg'l 0.5 mg/l 10 mg/l 0.3 mg/l 0.5-.09 mg/l 500 mg/l 0.2 mg/l 0.1 mg/l 0.001 mg/l 0.005 mg/l 0.01 mg/l 0.05 mg/l 0.1 mg/l 0.05 mg I 0.05 mg/l 0.05 mg/l 1.0 mg/l 150 mg/l 5 mg/l 200 mg/1 400 mgd 0.3 mg/l 0.002 mg/t 0.03 mg/l

2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y

WH02 WHOl WH02 WHOl/AUS WHOl WH02 WH02 MAL WH02 WH02 WH02 WH02 WH02 WH02 WH02 WH02 WH02 WH.02 Canadian WH02 WHOl WH02 WH02 WH02 WH03 WH02 WH02

Drinking Water Quality Standard and Frequency of Monitoring

Parameters

Column 1 Standard

Column 2 Column 3 Frequency To Be Monitored Treatment Service Distribution Well/ Source of Plant Outlet Reservoir System Spring Reference Outlet

Group IV
Biocides : Total Organochlorine pesticides: Aidrin/dieldrin Chiordane DDT Heptachlor & heptachior epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Lindane Methoxychlor Herbicides: 2.4-D Group V - Radioactivity Grosss-Alpha Gross Beta 0.1Bq/l l..0 Bq/l Y Y WN WN WN WN WN WN WH02 WH02 0.1 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN Canadian

0.00003 mg/1 0.0003 mg/1 0.001 mg/1 0.0001 mg/1

Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4

WN WN WN WN

WN WN WN WN

WN WN WN WN

WH02 WH02 WH02 WH02

0.00001 mg/1

Y/4

WN

WN

WN

WH02

0.003 mg/1 0.03 mg/1 0.1 mg/1

Y/4 Y/4 Y/4

WN WN WN

WN WN WN

WN WN WN

WH02 WH02 WH02

W M Y/2 Y 2Y WN WHOl WH02 WH03 1 AUS a

= Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once a week = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once a month = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once in 6 month = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once a year = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once in 2 years = Indicates parameters to be monitored when necessary = Indicates WHO international Standards for Drinking Water 1963 = indicates WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 1984 = indicates WHO international Standards for Drinking Water 1971 = indicates research papers = Indicates Australian Standards = Nephelometric turbidity unit

= Time color unit

Note: Any toxic substances not listed here shall be deemed as not allowable in drinking water Source: Engineering Services Division/MO 1998