ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING

(Contributed by : Prof N C Saxena,Centre of Mining Environment, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad(Jharkhand))

OVERVIEW Mining of minerals, being an environmentally unfriendly activity, has attracted attention from the stand point of environmental impacts and their mitigation. Another fact about mining is that it is a site specific activity and is only an intermediate use of the land because mining is done at the sites where the minerals exist and the land is of no use to the mining companies in the pre and post mining times. Mining affects all the components of environment and the impacts are permanent/temporary, beneficial/harmful, repairable/irreparable, and reversible/ irreversible. The impacts of various mining and associated activities on the environmental components are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs. IMPACTS ON SOCIETY It is generally believed that all the activities the human beings do are for the benefit of the society. Hence, the impacts of the human activities, specially mining and associated activities, on the society assume a great importance. As soon as a mineral is discovered and proved, and its mining potential is established the impacts on the ethnic society start as with this the value of the land increases, people from out side start buying land and establish business, etc. Mining and associated activities cause the following impacts on the society. Displacement of the people : For opencast as well as underground mining it is required to clear the surface of all the buildings and structures along with the vegetation not only in the area designated for mining purposes but also in a large area nearby which is required for making external dumps and placing associated activities. Therefore, all the people living in this area get displaced. Loss of livelihood : The ethnic people living in the designated areas depend generally for their livelihood on the land. Since, in mining areas the land is taken for mining and associated activities these people loose their livelihood. Changes in population dynamics : Invariably all the managerial, skilled, and semiskilled manpower required for mining and associated activities comes from out side as such trained manpower is usually not available in ethnic population. In addition people come to the mining areas for trade, etc. Thus, the population dynamics of the area undergoes a major change over the years resulting in dilution of the ethnic population and
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their culture and religion, reduction in sex ratio, etc.When the mining activities come to an end the population decreases at a faster rate.

Cost of living : Societies dependent on agriculture and forests usually have a lower level of economic scenario. The development of industrial and other associated activities in such areas increase the level of the economic activities manifolds. Increased industrial and economic activities generate more money and increase the buying power of the people directly and indirectly associated with these activities. This leads to an increase in the cost of living, which adversely affects the other people, including ethnic people, who are not associated with these activities. Water scarcity : Mining either by opencast or by underground methods damages the water regime and thus causes a reduction in the overall availability of water in and around the mining areas. In the sedimentary deposit mining areas the water table and aquifers are damaged and thus the availability of water from these sources reduces. Health impacts : Health and well being of the people living in and around the mining complexes get affected due to the pollutants in the air and water, noise and vibrations. In fact, the society in the mining complexes has to bear the various costs of abating the affects of environmental pollution in various ways. The people working in the mines and associated facilities also get affected by the work place environment, which can cause various problems, e.g., skin problems, lung diseases, deafening, etc. Infrastructure facilities : The mining and associated activities in the mineral bearing areas bring about infrastructural development, i.e., roads are constructed, schools and hospitals are established, communication facilities are developed, etc., which tend to improve the quality of life of the complexes. Employment opportunities : The mining and associated activities offer opportunities of employment to the eligible people from the ethnic population. The Project Affected People (PAPs) are given jobs and are trained for self employment as a result of the provisions in the Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R & R) schemes. People also get employment in the other developmental activities and also the mineral based activities in and around the complexes. Increase in aspirations : The ethnic people of the mineral bearing areas, with the advent of mining and associated activities, are exposed to various developments and this tends to increase their aspirations. In fact, this is necessary for the overall community development in the mining complexes. Addictions : Increased economic activities and effluence brings in more addictions in the society. In the tribal areas the ehtnic people may also get affected by additional addictions. Economic disparity and frustration : Industrial and economic activities in mining complexes bring about economic disparity among the population living in the complexes. The people employed in the organized activities usually earn more than those employed

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otherwise. This economic disparity leads to the development of frustrations in the poorer class of the people. IMPACTS ON ECOLOGY Although human beings are a part of the terrestrial ecology, the impacts on the human beings, i.e., the society, have been dealt earlier to have a better understanding of this aspect. The impacts of mining and associated activities on other parts of ecology, i.e., flora and fauna are discussed hereunder. Ecological impacts of opencast mining Removal of all vegetation (flora) and thereby fauna from the area required for mining and other purposes Pollution of water in the surrounding water bodies due to leaching from overburden dumps and due to the pollutants from the other activities. This affects the aquatic ecology of these water bodies. Dust in atmosphere, contributed by mining and associated activities, when deposited on the leaves of the plants in the surrounding areas may retard their growth. Noise and vibrations due to blasting and operation of the machines drive away the wild animals and birds from the nearby forests. Water scarcity caused due to the impacts of opencast mining on water regime affects the growth of vegetation and agriculture in and around the complexes.

Ecological impacts of underground mining Clearing of area for developing shaft/incline complex, infrastructure, colonies, etc. may require removal of some vegetation and thereby driving away the fauna. Water scarcity, caused due to the impacts of mining on water regime, along with pumping and release of polluted water on the surface may affect vegetation in the surrounding areas. Top-soil in tensile zones of subsiding areas may loose its vegetation supporting capability. Release of polluted water from the underground mines into the surface water bodies may affect their aquatic ecology.

Ecological impacts of mineral handling and preparation

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Land clearance of almost all vegetation in the area earmarked for the construction of the mineral handling and preparation units. Disturbances to fauna of the nearby areas from the noise and vibrations from the mineral handling and preparation units. Impacts on aquatic ecology due to discharge of effluents from the units. Retardation in vegetation growth in neighboring areas due to deposition of dust on the leafs.

Ecological impacts of other activities The growth of mining complexes need land and thus affects the ecology of the land and the surrounding areas. Cutting and felling of the trees to meet the timber requirement for various purposes. Other impacts are similar to those of the activities mentioned above.

It is evident that mining and associated activities have considerable impacts on the ecology of the mining and the surrounding areas. These impacts are evident in most of the mining complexes in the country. In order to minimize the impacts the following actions can be thought out. 1 2 3 Plan the mining layout so as to have the least requirement of the forest land and take necessary steps for reclamation of the mined out land so that the forest land taken for the mining purposes can be brought back to forest use. Develop a suitable compensatory forest. Cut the trees to the minimum possible extent and to preserve the flora it would be appropriate to uproot the trees and plants and then establish them at suitable locations, may be in the areas ermarked for compensatory afforestation. Develop a flora bank to preserve the typical floral species of the area so that these can be replanted and developed as and when needed. Surface layout of the mining complexes be designed to have the least impacts on the ecology of the area. The noise and vibration producing activities in the mines and the associated activities be planned to have the minimum possible intensity and impact on the wild life in the surrounding area.

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IMPACTS ON LAND Land is one of the most important resource for the human beings as this is needed for all the activities. Mining activities both by underground as well as by opencast methods affect the land in various ways. These impacts are briefly outlined hereunder.
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Impacts of opencast mining Topography and land scenario changes due to digging of open pits and dumping of overburden rock mass in the form of the heaps. The land-use pattern undergoes a change due to the use of the land for mining, dumping, and other mining and associated activities. The land-use in the surrounding areas may get affected due to the impacts of mining on water regime. Leachets from overburden dumps and other rock masses and polluted water from the pits affect the characteristics of the top-soil affecting the land-use. In the mines having mineral concentration/preparation it is required to make tailing dams to store the tailings form the concentration/preparation plants. These dams need land and may cause pollution of nearby underground and surface water sources. The drainage pattern on the surface undergoes a change due to the alterations in the surface topography due to mining and associated activities.

Impacts of underground mining Changes in land use due to constructions and infrastructure development. Changes in topography and drainage pattern due to subsidence. Disturbances in the effective land-use due to damage to the surface, subsurface and underground water bodies. Discharge of polluted water from the underground mines affects the topsoil on the surface. The rock mass having carbonaceous shales may develop mine fires and when these fires become surface fires they tend to damage the land over and adjacent to them due to subsidence and heat. In the con-coal mining sector there are chances of sudden collapse of underground workings causing a marked depression on the surface. This was observed at Zawar and Khetri.

Impacts of mineral handling and preparation Changes in the land use due to the construction of mineral handling and preparation plants. Impacts on top-soil due to effluent discharge from the plants.
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Pollution of underground water bodies (water table) due to effluent discharge and leachets.

Impacts of other activities Urbanisation, development of infrastructure and expansion of colonies and villages cause changes in the land use. Impacts on the top soil due to solid and liquid wastes discharged from the colonies, etc. Changes in the overall land scenario.

It is evident from the above stated impacts of the mining and associated activities on the land that in the mining complexes the land use and surface drainage pattern undergoes a major change. These changes can be minimized by carefully planning the surface layout of the mining areas and optimizing the land requirement for the various uses. Therefore, before planning the mining activities it is necessary to make a comprehensive study of the land use and drainage pattern of the area. Another important aspect of land management is the design of land reclamation and development of the post mining land use, which is a requirement for the efficient management of the land as well as the overall environmental scenario. The development of post mining land use plan along with the land reclamation takes care of the dumps outside the mine area as the overburden rocks are invariably required for filling the pits. The land developed after reclamation can be brought into various uses as per the requirement of the area in the post mining times. With these in view the practice of planning decommissioning the mines has been recently introduced in the country. IMPACTS ON WATER REGIME Mining and associated activities have quantitative as well as qualitative impacts on the water regime in and around the complexes. These are briefly outlined hereunder. Impacts of opencast mining All the surface water bodies have to be removed from the area designated for opencast mining and associated activities. All the aquifers, including the water-table aquifer, above the mineral deposit to be extracted are damaged because for exposing the mineral for extraction the overburden rocks are removed.

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If there are high pressure aquifers below the mineral deposit it becomes necessary to pump out water from these aquifers to reduce water pressure to facilitate mining. Water in the nearby water bodies gets polluted due to leaching from overburden dumps, discharge of pumped out mine water, and other activities in the vicinity of the water bodies. In the areas having pyrites and sulfides in the rock mass the mine water as well as the leachets may be acidic and their discharge in the surface water bodies may enhance heavy metal pollution potential. In the reclaimed open pits the filled out areas may accumulate water in rock's interspaces. This may in the long run serve the purpose of a water body. During rainy seasons the run off water from the areas surrounding the mines may carry with it a large doze of suspended solids into the nearby water bodies.

Impacts of underground mining Like opencast mining underground mining of minerals also affects the water regime. However, if necessary, the surface water bodies can be protected by controlling the subsidence movements. The impacts depend on the magnitude of the subsidence movements. The impacts are invariably more severe when underground extraction is done with caving. The impacts are briefly outlined hereunder. If the subsidence movements on the surface are more than the safe limits for the surface water bodies it becomes necessary to remove/drain them. Due to underground mining the overlying underground water bodies are disturbed and water from them finds way to the underground workings from where it is pumped out. The disturbances to the underground water bodies reduce the availability of water not only in the mining area but also in the neighboring areas. With the development of the cracks up to the surface water from the surface specially during rains finds way to the underground workings through the cracks. This water may carry with it various pollutants from the surface. The underground mine workings not in use may become waterlogged. The caved and stowed goaves also store a sizable quantity of water. These water bodies are sometimes very useful. The polluted underground water when pumped out and discharged on the surface may pollute the surface water bodies.

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Impacts of mineral preparation The effluents from the mineral preparation plants when discharged into the surface water bodies, pollute their water. The effluents when discharged on the surface pollute the top soil and sub soils and also the water table.

Impacts of other activities Domestic, agricultural and industrial effluents when discharged into the surface water bodies cause water pollution. The effluents when discharged on the surface pollute the soils and the water table water. Decaying of domestic and industrial solid wastes and use of open spaces for natural calls by the human beings also cause pollution of water in the surface water bodies and water table.

It is evident from the above that the mining and associated activities not only pollute the water in the surface and sub-surface water bodies but also tend to reduce the availability of water form the various sources in the complexes. Therefore it is necessary to plan the mining and associated activities in such a manner that their impacts on the water regime are minimum possible. In order to do such a planning comprehensive knowledge of the water regime is essential. In case of the opencast mining damage to the sub-surface and underground water bodies is unavoidable as thee are cut across during mining. However, removal of surface water bodies can be minimized by suitably planning the layout of the mining activities. It is also necessary to plan the layout for the minimum possible alterations in the surface drainage pattern. Such a planning is possible with the help of three dimensional modeling. Damage to the underground and sub-surface water bodies is also unavoidable in underground mining specially with caving. However, with proper planning of the underground workings the impacts on the surface water bodies and also on the surface drainage pattern can be minimized. In both the underground and opencast mining the water management needs development of suitable water bodies so that in the post mining times the availability of water can be ensured for various purposes. In the opencast mining surface as well as underground water bodies can be planned with reclamation, while in the underground mining areas underground water bodies can be developed at the time of decommissioning and closure of the mines.

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IMPACTS ON ATMOSPHERE INCLUDING NOISE POLLUTION The mining and associated activities in the mining complexes not only pollute the air but also cause noise pollution. These are briefly given below. Impacts of opencast mining Removal of vegetation from the area designated for mining and other purposes produces dust which when air-borne causes an increase in the concentration of SPM in the surrounding air. Removal, handling, transportation and storage of soils also causes an increase in the concentration of SPM in the atmosphere. The use of diesel equipment in these activities causes an increase in the level of NOx. Drilling and blasting of overburden and the mineral contribute SPM and explosive fumes into the atmosphere. In-pit crushing, loading and transportation of the mineral and the overburden rock mass and making the dumps contribute SPM and NOx. Minerals and rock mass having sulfur and its compounds may contribute SO2. Making of the overburden dumps and the use of diesel equipment for this purpose contribute SPM and NOx. Some of the sedimentary rocks may have CH4 and when mined they may contribute this gas to the surrounding air. Fires in opencast mines contribute heat, SPM, SO2, CO2 and CO. Use of petrol vehicles in the mines contributes hydrocarbons and lead. The equipment used in the opencast mines for various purposes including the transport of the overburden and mineral generate continuous noise, while blasting produces impulsive noise. All the noise generated in the mine does not become ambient nose as the noise generated from the different sources gets reflected and refracted and ultimately the resultant of all the noises after reflection and refraction reaches the surface to become the ambient noise.

Impacts of underground mining The exhaust air from the underground mines contributes SPM, CO 2, CH4, NOx, SO2, and other pollutants. The surface activities in the underground mining areas, e.g., diesel generating stations, boilers, etc. contribute SPM, NOx, and CO2. The machines and equipment installed at the shafts, inclines, compressor houses, workshops, etc. generate noise, which tends to become ambient noise as it is generated on the surface.
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Impacts of mineral preparation activities Mineral handling, mineral preparation and associated activities mainly contribute SPM to the atmosphere. In the mineral preparation plants having chemical processes producing gases the atmosphere may get polluted due to emission of the gases. The crushers, conveyors and other equipment installed in the mineral handling and preparation plants produce continuous noise.

Impacts of other activities Domestic burning of coal and other fuels, and open burning of coal produce SPM and CO2 and contribute them to the atmosphere. The transport network using diesel and petrol vehicles and generation of power by DG sets, and other activities in the mining complexes contribute SPM, NOx, CO2, CO and other atmospheric pollutants. Smoking contributes SPM and CO2. Industrial activities depending upon their processes, inputs and outputs contribute various air pollutants. Paddy cultivation contributes CH4. Use of pesticides, insecticides and other chemicals for spraying and in agricultural and horticultural activities may contribute air borne chemicals. The constructional activities contribute SPM to the atmosphere. Domestic activities, playing of music and loud speakers, plying of vehicles on the roads, DG sets, etc. produce noise which becomes ambient noise.

It is noted from the above mentioned impacts of the different activities on the atmosphere that the mining and associated activities not only contribute to the ambient air pollution but also to the ambient noise situation. Atmospheric pollution due to the mining and associated activities can be minimized by planning the activities in such a manner that the generation of the pollutants is minimum possible. In addition provisions may be made for arresting the dust by making suitable green belts. Some of the measures are as outlined below. Generation of dust in the removal of the vegetation and soils can be minimized by maintaining adequate moisture in the soil. This can also be expected to improve the efficiency of these operations as in dusty atmosphere the efficiency decreases. Use of dust extractors with the drill machines can be expected to minimize air pollution due to drilling.
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By optimizing the blast design the generation of dust due to blasting can be reduced. Proper maintenance of the haul roads can minimize the generation of air borne dust due to movement of dumpers on them. Water spraying at the transfer points tends to reduce air pollution. Enclosing the mineral handling and preparation units tend to reduce the contribution of SPM to the atmosphere. Proper maintenance of the equipment and machines in the mines and other places in the complexes helps not only in minimizing the contributions to the air pollution but also the noise generation. In the residential locations playing of the loud speakers specially after 9.00 pm should be avoided to minimize the noise levels. The locations of the residential locations should be planned such that they are on the up wind side of the mines and plants so that for most of times the atmospheric pollutants are taken away rather then being brought towards these locations. Green belts of adequate widths, say 25 -50 m, may be planned between the residential areas and the mines not only to attenuate noise but also to arrest dust.

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