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Field
PHY 2049
Magnitude of the Electrostatic Force is given by Coulomb's Law: F = K q1q2/r2 (Coulomb's Law)
where K depends on the system of units K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 (in MKS system) K = 1/(40) where 0 = 8.85x10-12 C2/(Nm2)
Electric Charge:
electron charge = -e proton charge = e e = 1.6x10-19 C C = Coulomb
Electric charge is a conserved quantity (net electric charge is never created or destroyed!)
Chapter 22
chp22_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Units
MKS System (meters-kilograms-seconds):
also Amperes, Volts, Ohms, Watts Force: F = ma Newtons = kg m / s2 = 1 N Work: W = Fd Joule = Nm = kg m2 / s2 = 1 J Electric Charge: Q Coulomb = 1 C F = K q1q2/r2 K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 (in MKS system)
= K 2e2/hc
h = Plank's Constant
Chapter 22
chp22_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
(Coulomb's Law)
(in MKS system)
(Newton's Law)
(in MKS system)
e, m r
e, m
Fe / Fg = K e2 / G m2 = 4.16x1042
Chapter 22
chp22_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Vector Forces
^
r KqQ $ F = r 2 r
F3 F2 Q F1
q1
q2
q3
F = F1 + F2 +F3 +
Chapter 22
chp22_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Ay =A sin
A Ax =A cos x-axis
Vector Addition:
y-axis C A B
x-axis
r r r $ + ( Ay + By ) y $ + ( Az + Bz )z $ C = A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) x
r $ + Ay y $ + Az z $ A = Ax x r $ + By y $ + Bz z $ B = Bx x
Chapter 22
chp22_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
An electric "dipole" is two equal and opposite point charges separated by a distance d. It is an electrically neutral system. The "dipole moment" is defined to be the charge times the separation (dipole moment = Qd). Example Problem:
+Q d
x q
-Q
A dipole with charge Q and separation d is located on the y-axis with its midpoint at the origin. A charge q is on the x-axis a distance x from the midpoint of the dipole. What is the electric force on q due to the dipole and how does this force behave in the limit x >>d (dipole approximation)?
Example Problem:
-Q d +Q
x
A dipole with charge Q and separation d is located on the x-axis with its midpoint at the origin. A charge q is on the x-axis a distance x from the midpoint of the dipole. What is the electric force on q due to the dipole and how does this force behave in the limit x >>d (dipole approximation)?
Chapter 22
chp22_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
The charge Q produces an electric field which in turn produces a force on the charge q. The force on q is expressed as two terms:
F = K qQ/r2 = q (KQ/r2) = q E
The electric field at the point q due to Q is simply the force per unit positive charge at the point q:
E = F/q
E = KQ/r2
The units of E are Newtons per Coulomb (units = N/C). The electric field is a physical object which can carry both momentum and energy. It is the mediator (or carrier) of the electric force. The electric field is massless.
r KQ $ E = 2 r r
Chapter 23
chp23_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
+Q
-Q
Electric field line diverge from (i.e. start) on positive charge and end on negative charge. The direction of the line is the direction of the electric field.
The number of lines penetrating a unit area that is perpendicular to the line represents the strength of the electric field.
+Q
+2Q
Chapter 23
chp23_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
dE = K dQ/r2 r
The electric field from a continuous distribution of charge is the superposition (i.e. integral) of all the (infinite) contributions from each infinitesimal dQ as follows:
r E =
K $ 2 rdQ r
and
Q = dQ
(x) = charge/unit
Charge Distributions:
dQ = dx
Q = dQ = ( x)dx
Chapter 23
chp23_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Charge Distributions
Charge Distributions:
Linear charge density : length () = charge/unit arc
dQ = ds = R d R
Q = dQ = ( ) ds = ( ) Rd
dQ = dA
Q = dQ = ( x, y)dA
where A
Q = dQ = ( x, y, z)dV
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily distributed along a thin straight rod of length L. What is the electric field a a point P on the x-axis a distance x from the end of the rod? Answer:
r E=
KQ $ x x ( x + L)
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily distributed along a thin straight rod of length L. What is the electric field a a point P on the y-axis a distance y from the midpoint of the rod?
P y
Answer:
r E=
KQ y y 2 + ( L / 2) 2
$ y
Example:
A infinitely long straight rod has a uniform charge density . What is the electric field a point P a perpendicular distance r from the rod?
P r
Answer:
r 2 K $ E= r r
Chapter 23
chp23_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
(1 + ) 1 + p
p <<1
(1 ) << 1 p 1
p
e 1+ tan
<<1
<<1
sin
<<1
Indefinite Integrals:
(x
a2
2
(x
+a x +a
2 3/ 2
dx = dx =
x x2 + a2 1 x2 + a2
2 3/ 2
Chapter 23
chp23_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
R P
x-axis
r 2 KQ $ E= x R 2
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily distributed along a thin ring of radius R. What is the electric field a point P on the z-axis a distance z from the center of the ring?
R P z
z-axis
r Answer: E =
( z 2 + R 2 )3/2
KQz
$ z
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily distributed on the surface of a disk of radius R. What is the electric field a point P on the z-axis a distance z from the center of the disk?
R P z
z-axis
Answer:
r 2 KQ z $ z E = 2 1 2 R z + R2
Chapter 23 chp23_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r $ E= z 2 0
Example:
What is the electric field at a point P between two large (infinite) sheets carrying an equal but opposite uniform surface charge density of ? Answer:
-
r $ E= z 0
Chapter 23
chp23_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Flux = vA
Flux = 0
Flux = vA cos
Consider the fluid with a vector v which describes the velocity of the fluid
$ . The at every point in space and a square with area A = L2 and normal n flux is the volume of fluid passing through the square area per unit time.
Generalize to the Electric Field:
Electric flux through the infinitesimal area dA is equal to
where
r r d = E dA r $ dA = An
E
E dA ^ n
d =E dA cos
normal Surface S
r r E = E dA
S
Chapter 24
chp24_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r r Qenclosed S E dA = 0
Q enclosed =
For the discrete case the total charge enclosed is the sum over all the enclosed charges:
q
i =1
For the continuous case the total charge enclosed is the integral of the charge density over the volume enclosed by the surface S:
Qenclosed =
dV
Simple Case: If the electric field is constant over the surface and if it always points in the same direction as the normal to the surface then
r r E = E dA = EA
S
Chapter 24
chp24_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Conductor in Static Equilibrium: Conductor in When the charge distribution on a static equilibrium conductor reaches static equilibrium E=0 (i.e. nothing moving), the net electric V = constant field withing the conducting material is exactly zero (and the electric potential is constant).
E=0 V = constant =0
The electric field at the surface of a conductor in static equilibrium is normal to the surface and has a magnitude, E = /0, where is the surface charge density (i.e. charge per unit area) and the net charge on the conductor is
Q =
Surface
dA .
Chapter 24
chp24_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
$ E out = r r2 r KQr $ E in = r R3
Conducting Sphere R
Problem:
A solid conducting sphere of radius R has a net charge of Q. What is the magnitude of the electric field inside and outside the sphere? Where are the charges located? Answer: Charges are on the surface and
Net Charge Q
r KQ $ E out = r 2 r r E in = 0
A solid conducting sphere of radius b has a spherical hole in it of radius a and has a net charge of Q. If there is a point charge -q located at the center of the hole, what is the magnitude of the electric field inside and outside the conductor? Where are the charges on the conductor located? Answer: Charges are on the inside and outside surface with Qin=q and Qout=Q-q and
Problem:
Chapter 24
chp24_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Example:
vi = 0 h vf = ?
A ball is dropped from a height h. What is the speed of the ball when it hits the ground?
Ef = KEf + Uf = mvf2/2
Ei = E f v f = 2 gh
Chapter 25
chp25_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Work Energy Theorem: (work done on the system) W = EB - EA = (KEB - KEA) + (UB - UA) Energy Conservation: EA=EB (if no external work done on system) Electric Potential Difference V = U/q:
B
Work done (against the electric force) per unit charge in going from A to B (without changing the kinetic energy).
A q
Electric Potential V = U/q: U = qV Units for the Electric Field (Volts/meter): N/C = Nm/(Cm) = J/(Cm) = V/m Energy Unit (electron-volt): One electron-volt is the amount
of kinetic energy gained by an electron when it drops through one Volt potential difference 1 eV = (1.6x10-19 C)(1 V) = 1.6x10-19 Joules
1 MeV = 106 eV
Chapter 25
1 GeV=1,000 MeV
1 TeV=1,000 GeV
chp25_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Solution:
The total energy of the particle at A and B is
E A = KE A + U A = 0 + qV A 1 2 E B = KE B + U B = Mv B + qVB 2
1 2 Mv B = q (V A V B ) 2 2 q (V A V B ) M
(Note: the particle gains an amount of kinetic energy equal to its charge, q, time the change in the electric potential.)
vB =
(Note: positive particles fall from high potential to low potential VA >VB, while negative particles travel from low potential to high potential, VB >VA.)
vB =
Chapter 24
chp25_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
byF A B
r r = F dr
A B
againstF A B
r r = U = U B U A = F dr
A
r r U U U $ $ $ F = U = x y z x y z
Electrostatics (this semester): r r F = qE Electrostatic Force:
Electric Potential Energy Difference U:
(work done against E in moving q from A to B)
r r U = U B U A = qE dr
A
r r V = V B V A = E dr
A
r r V V V $ $ $ E = V = x y z x y z
Chapter 25 chp25_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
V(r) = KQ/r
+Q
q E
V =
i =1
Kq i ri
chp25_5.doc
Chapter 25
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
dV = K dQ/r
The electric potential from a continuous distribution of charge is the superposition (i.e. integral) of all the (infinite) contributions from each infinitesimal dQ as follows:
V =
Example:
K dQ r
and
Q = dQ
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily distributed along a thin circle of radius R. What is the electric potential at a point P at the center of the circle?
R P
x-axis
KQ V = Answer: R
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily distributed along a thin semicircle of radius R. What is the electric potential at a point P at the center of the circle?
R P
x-axis
KQ Answer: V = R
Chapter 25
chp25_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
R P z
z-axis
KQ z2 + R2
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily distributed on the surface of a disk of radius R. What is the electric potential at a point P on the z-axis a distance z from the center of the disk?
R P z
z-axis
2 KQ V ( z ) = Answer: R2
z2 + R2 z
Chapter 25
chp25_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Two Particles:
q1 r
q2
q1q2 1 Kq 2 1 Kq1 U =K = q1 + q r 2 r 2 2 r
so we see that
1 U = 2
qV
i =1 i
U =
1 2
qV
i i =1
N Particles:
1 U = 2
qV
i i=1
Chapter 25
chp25_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E=0
dQ=dA
Q =
dq
dA
V = constant
dU =
and hence
1 1 dQV = V dA 2 2
1 VQ 2
U =
1 2
Surface
VdQ =
1 V 2
Surface
dA =
Stored Energy:
conductor
1 = QV 2
where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of the conductor.
i =1 where Qi is the charge on the i-th conductor and Vi is the electric potential of the i-th conductor.
1 U = 2
QV
i
Chapter 25
chp25_9.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Capacitance:
C=Q/V
or
C=Q/V
1 F=10-6 F 1 pF=10-9 F
Stored Energy:
conductor
1 Q2 1 = QV = = CV 2 2C 2
where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of the conductor and C is the capacitance of the conductor.
Area A
E=Q/(A0)
For two parallel conducting plates of area A and separation d we know that E = /0 = Q/(A0) and V = Ed = Qd/(A0) so that C = A0/d. The stored energy is U = Q2/(2C) = Q2d/(2A0).
-Q
Area A
Chapter 26
chp26_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
In this case V1=V2=V and Q=Q1+Q2. Hence, Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1V1 + C2V2 = (C1+C2)V so C = Q/V = C1 + C2, where I used Q1 = C1V1 and Q2 = C2V2.
Parallel:
C1
C2
In this case V=V1+V2 and Q=Q1=Q2. Hence, V = V1 + V2 = Q1/C1+Q2/C2 = (1/C1+1/C2)Q so 1/C = V/Q = 1/C1 + 1/C2, where I used Q1 = C1V1 and Q2 = C2V2.
Series:
C1 V C2
Chapter 26
chp26_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
u = e0E2/2,
where E is the magnitude of the electric field. The energy density has units of Joules/m3.
Volume
U =
Volume
udV
+Q
Chapter 26
chp26_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
KQ 2 Answer: U = 2R
-Q Q
R1
Example:
How much electric energy is stored by a two thin spherical conducting shells one of radius R1 and charge Q and the other of radius R2 and charge -Q (spherical capacitor)?
R2
KQ 2 1 1 U = Answer: 2 R1 R2
Example:
How much electric energy is stored by a solid insulating sphere of radius R and total charge Q uniformly distributed throughout its volume?
2 3 KQ 2 1 KQ 1+ = Answer: U = 5 2 R 5 R
Charge Q
E
Chapter 26
chp26_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Consider n particles per unit volume all moving with velocity v and each carrying a charge q.
The number of particles, N, passing through the (directed) area A in a time and the amount of charge, Q, passing through t is the (directed) area A in a time t is
r r N = nv A t
r r Q = nqv At .
The current, I(A), is the amount of charge per unit time passing through the (directed) area A:
The current I is measured in Ampere's where 1 Amp is equal to one Coulomb per second (1A = 1C/s). For an infinitesimal area (directed) area dA:
r r dI = J dA
and
r dI $ = J n dA .
The "current density" is the amount of current per unit area and has units of A/m2. The current passing through the surface S is given by
r v I = J dA
S
Chapter 27
chp27_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
However, for a charged particle in a conductor the average velocity is proportional to the electric field r r strength E and since J = nqvave
we have
, where is the conductivity of the material and is a property of the conductor. The resistivity = 1/.
Length L
r r J = E
Ohm's Law:
r r J = E
I = JA = EA
V1
Current I A
V2
Chapter 27
chp27_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
In this case V1=V2=V and I=I1+I2. Hence, I = I1 + I2 = V1/R1 + V2/R2 = (1/R1+1/R2)V V1 so 1/R = I/V = 1/R1 + 1/R2, where I used I1 = V1/R1 and I2 = V2/R2. Also, V = I1R1 = I2R2 = IR so I1 = R2I/(R1+R2) and I2 = R1I/(R1+R2).
Parallel:
I
I1 R1 I2 R2 V2 V
In this case V=V1+V2 and I=I1=I2. Hence, V = V1 + V2 = I1R1+I2R2 = (R1+R2)I so R = V/I = R1 + R2, where I used V1 = I1R1 and V2 = I2R2.
Series:
I
V1 R1 V V2 R2
Chapter 27
chp27_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Electromotive Force:
The electromotive force EMF of a source of electric potential energy is defined as the amount of electric energy per Coulomb of positive charge as the charge passes through the source from low potential to high potental.
- IR = 0
+
R
Chapter 28
chp28_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
DC Circuit Rules
I + EMF EMF + V = 0 V
Loop Rule:
The algebraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete traversal of any loop of a circuit must be zero.
V
loop
= 0 .
Junction Rule:
The sum of the currents entering any junction must be equal the sum of the currents leaving that junction.
I = I
i in out
Resistor:
If you move across a resistor in the direction of the current flow then the potential change is VR = - IR.
I Q
+ -
V=-IR
Capacitor:
V=Q/C
If you move across a capacitor from minus to plus then the potential change is VC = Q/C, and the current leaving the capacitor is I = -dQ/dt.
I VL=-LdI/dt
Chapter 28
chp28_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Charging a Capacitor
Switch
R
C
+ -
After the switch is closed the current is entering the capacitor so that I = dQ/dt, where Q is the charge on the capacitor and summing all the potential changes in going around the loop gives
IR
Q =0 , C
where I(t) and Q(t) are a function of time. If the switch is closed at t=0 then Q(0)=0 and
R
which can be written in the form
dQ Q =0 , dt C
Q 0
dQ 1 t Q C = dt , which implies ln = . C (Q C ) 0
1.50
Charging a Capacitor
Q ( t ) = C (1 e t / )
.
1.25 1.00
Q(t) 0.75
0.50 0.25 0.00 0 1 2 3 4
Time
I (t ) =
Chapter 28
chp28_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Discharging a Capacitor
Switch
+
C
After the switch is closed the current is leaving the capacitor so that I = -dQ/dt, where Q is the charge on the capacitor and summing all the potential changes in going around the loop gives
Q IR = 0 , C
where I(t) and Q(t) are a function of time. If the switch is closed at t=0 then Q(0)=Q0 and
Q dQ + R =0 , C dt
which can be written in the form
Q Q0
t Q t dQ 1 = dt , which implies ln = . Q Q0 0
Discharging a Capacitor
Q (t ) = Q0e t / .
0.75
Q(t)
0.50
0.25
0.00 0 1 2 3 4
Time
I (t ) =
The quantity =RC is call the "time constant" and has dimensions of time.
Q0 t / e . RC
Chapter 28
chp28_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
The force between two charged particles at rest is the electrostatic force and is given by
r r V=0 Q
The force between two moving charged particles is the electromagnetic force and is given by
r KQq KQq r r $ $ FE M = r + 2 2 v V r r2 c r
(electromagnetic force) where K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 and c = 3x108 m/s Q (speed of light in a vacuum). The first term is the electric force and the second (new) term is the called the magnetic force so that FE M = FE + FB , with
r r KQq KQ $ = q 2 r $ = qE FE = 2 r r r r KQq r r r KQ r r r $ = qv 2 2 V r $ = qv B FB = 2 2 v V r c r c r
Electric and Magnetic Fields of a Charged Particle Q moving with Speed V (out of the paper)
Chapter 29
chp29_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
B = FB/(qv sin) is the definition of the magnetic field. (The units for B are Tesla, T, where 1 T = 1 N/(C m/s)). The magnetic force an infinitesimal charged particle r dq in a magnetic r field B is given by
r dF B = dqv B .
A current in a wire corresponds to moving charged particles with I = dq/dt. The magnetic force on the charge dq is
dq
r r r dF B = dqv B ,
dl dF
r r dl r dqv = dq = Idl , dt
r r FB = dFB =
v r Idl B ,
r r r FB = IL B .
Chapter 29
chp29_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r $ + Ay y $ + Az z $ A = Ax x r $ + By y $ + Bz z $ . B = Bx x r A = A= r B = B =
2 A x2 + A y + A z2
B A
B x2 + B y2 + B z2
r r r r S = A B = A B cos = Ax B x + Ay B y + Az Bz
r r r $ ( Ax Bz Az Bx ) y $ + ( Ax By Ay Bx )z $ C = A B = ( Ay Bz Az By ) x r r r r r C = A B = A B sin
The direction of the cross product can be determined from the "right hand rule".
Determinant Method:
The cross product can be constructed by evaluating the following determinant:
$ x r r r C = A B = Ax Bx
$ y Ay By
$ z Az Bz
Chapter 29
chp29_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
q x-axis R
E kin =
1 1 r r mv 2 = mv v , 2 2
B-in
r FB = qv B . The magnetic force does not change the speed (kinetic energy) of the charged particle. The magnetic force does no work on the
charged particle since the force is always perpendicular to the path of the particle. There is no change in the particle's kinetic energy and no change in its speed.
The magnetic force can change the direction a charged particle but not its speed. The particle undergoes circular motion v(t+dt) with angular velocity = qB/m.
Fdt/m d v(t)
vd =
F qvB dt = dt m m d qB = = dt m
Chapter 29
chp29_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
period of the rotation (time it takes to go around once) is given by 2 T=2r/v=2GM/v3 or T = r 3 / 2 . The angular velocity, = d /dt,
GM
and linear velocity v = ds/dt are related by v = r, since s = r . Thus, = GM / r 3 / 2 . The angular velocity an period are related by T = 2/ and the linear frequency f and are related by = 2f with T = 1/f. Planets further from the sum travel slower and thus have a longer period T.
Magnetism:
v
q r
For magnetic circular motion the force on the charged particle is equal its mass times the centripetal acceleration, a = v2/r, as follows: FB = qvB = mv2/r. Solving for the radius and speed gives,
B-in
2m/(qB) and is independent of the radius! The frequency (called the cyclotron frequency) is given by f = 1/T= qB/(2m) is the same for all particles with the same charge and mass ( = qB/m).
r = mv/(qB) = p/(qB) , and v = qBr/m. The period of the rotation is given by T = 2r/v =
Chapter 29
chp29_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r r
W ire
The magnetic field at the point P due to a charge dQ moving with speed V within a wire carrying a current I is given by
I
dQ
dl
r KdQ r $ dB = 2 2 V r c r
r r d Q V = Idl and,
r kI r $ (Law of Biot-Savart), dB = 2 dl r r where k = K/c2 = 10-7 Tm/A. For historical reasons we define 0 as
follows:
k =
K 0 = 2 , 4 c
(0 = 4 x 10-7 Tm/A).
An infinitely long straight wire carries a steady current I. What is the magnetic field at a distance r from the wire? Answer:
I-out
B (r ) =
2 kI r
Chapter 30
chp30_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
kI B ( r ) = Answer: y
L y 2 + L2
Example (Semi-Circle):
A thin wire carrying a current I is bent into a semi-circle of radius R. What is the magnitude of magnetic field at the center of the semi-circle?
I R P
kI B = Answer: R
Example (Circle):
A thin wire carrying a current I is forms a circle of radius R. What is the magnitude of magnetic field at the center of the semi-circle? Answer: B =
R P
2kI R
Chapter 30
chp30_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
I R P z
z-axis
Bz ( z) =
( z 2 + R 2 )3/2
2 kIR 2
P z
z-axis
2 k B B ( z ) = Answer: z z3
B = IR 2 = IA B = NIA,
The quantity B is called the magnetic dipole moment, where N is the number of loops, I is the current and A is the area.
Chapter 30
chp30_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Ampere's Law
Gauss' Law for Magnetism:
The net magnetic flux emanating from a closed surface S is proportional to the amount of magnetic charge enclosed by the surface as follows:
r r Magnetic B = B dA Qenclosed .
S
However, there are no magnetic charges (no magnetic monopoles) so the net magnetic flux emanating from a closed surface S is always zero,
r r B = B dA = 0
S
Ampere's Law:
Magnetic Field of an Infinite Wire Carrying Current I (out of the paper) is B(r) = 2kI/r.
The line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop (circle) of radius r around a current carrying wire is given by
Loop
r I-out Curve C
r B d l = 2 rB ( r ) = 4 kI = 0 I .
This result is true for any closed loop that encloses the current I.
The line integral of the magnetic field around any closed path C is equal to 0 times the current intercepted by the area spanning the path:
r B dl = 0 I enclosed
C
Ampere's Law
The current enclosed by the closed curve C is given by the integral over the surface S (bounded by the curve C) of the current density J as follows:
I enclosed =
r r J dA
Chapter 30
chp30_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
2 kI B out ( r ) = r 2 krI . B in ( r ) = R2
B out ( r ) = 0 B in ( r ) = 0 nI .
Example (Toroid):
A solenoid bent into the shape of a doughnut is called a toriod. What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field Toriod inside and outside a toriod of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 and N turns of wire carrying a current I (assume zero pitch)? Answer:
B out ( r ) = 0 2 kNI B in ( r ) = r
R1
R2
Chapter 30
chp30_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r r r FB = qv B .
FB
The induced EMF, , is equal to the amount of work done by the magnetic field in moving a unit charge across the rod,
r 1 r r r r = FB dl = v B dl = vLB . q
In Steady State:
In steady state a charge q in the rod experiences r no netrforce since,
Rod
---
B-out
FE + F B = 0 , r r r E = v B .
FE
q
and thus,
The induced EMF (change in electric potential across the rod) is calculated from the electric field in the usual way,
FB
+++
r r r r r = E dl = v B dl = vLB ,
which is the same as the work done per unit charge by the magnetic field.
Chapter 31
chp31_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
B-out
FE
q
r r r FB 1 = qv B1 ,
r r r FB 2 = qv B 2 . r r
FB 1
field is uniform, B1 = B 2 , +++ and the induced EMF's on side 1 and side 2 are equal, 1 = 2, and the net EMF around the loop (counterclockwise) is zero,
1 q
Loop
r r FB dl = 1 2 = 0 .
If we move a conducting loop through a non-uniform magnetic field then induced EMF's on side 1 and side 2 are not equal, 1 = vLB1, 2 = vLB2, and the net EMF around the loop (counterclockwise) is,
1 q
Loop
r r F B d l = 1 2 = v L ( B1 B 2 ) .
This induced EMF will cause a current to flow around the loop in a counterclockwise direction (if B1 > B2)!
Chapter 31
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PHY 2049
r r B dA .
In the simple case where B is constant and normal to the surface then
B = BA.
The units for magnetic flux are webbers (1 Wb = 1 Tm2).
The change in magnetic flux, d B, in a time dt through the moving loop is, d B = B2dA-B1dA, with dA = vdtL so that
d B = v L ( B1 B 2 ) = dt
d B dt
Substituting in the definition of the induced EMF and the magnetic flux yields,
We see that a changing magnetic field (with time) can produce an electric field!
Chapter 31 chp31_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Lenz's Law
Example (Loop of Wire in a Changing Magnetic Field):
A wire loop with a radius, r, of 1 meter is placed in a uniform magnetic field. Suppose that the electromagnetic is suddenly r switched off and the strength of the magnetic field decreases at a rate of 20 Tesla per second. What is the induced EMF in the loop (in Loop Volts)? If the resistance of the loop, R, is 5 Ohms, what is the induced current in the loop (in Amps)? What is the direction of the induced current? What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field produced by the induced current (the induced magnetic field) at the center of the circle? Answers: If I choose my orientation to be counterclockwise then B = BA and
B-out changing with time
= -d B/dt = -A dB/dt = -(r2)(-20T/s) = 62.8 V. The induced current is I = /R = (62.8 V)/(5 ) = 12.6 A. Since is positive the current is flowing in the direction of my chosen orientation (counterclockwise). The induced magnetic field at the center of the circle is given by Bind = 2kI/r = (2 x 10-7 Tm/A)(12.6 A)/(1 m) = 7.9 T and points out of the paper.
Lenz's Law:
It is a physical fact not a law or not a consequence of sign conventions that an electromagnetic system tends to resist change. Traditionally this is referred to as Lenz's Law:
Induced EMF's are always in such a direction as to oppose the change that generated them.
Chapter 31
chp31_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Induction Examples
Example (simple generator):
A conducting rod of length L is pulled along horizontal, frictionless, conducting rails at a constant speed v. A uniform Rod magnetic field (out of the paper) fills the R region in which the rod moves. The v rails and the rod have negligible resistance but are connected by a resistor R. What is the induced EMF in the loop? What is the induced current in the loop? At what rate is thermal energy being generated in the resistor? What force must be applied to the rod by an external agent to keep it in uniform motion? At what rate does this external agent do work on the system?
B-out
B-out
Mg
A rectangular loop of wire with length a, width b, and resistance R is moved with velocity v away from an infinitely long wire carrying a current I. What is the induced current in the loop when it is a distance c from the wire?
Chapter 31
chp31_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Coil 1
Coil 2
r r B 1 d A 2 = N 2 2 ,
where N2 is the number of loops in coil 2 and 2 is the flux through a single loop in coil 2. However, we know that B1 is proportional to I1 which means that 2 is proportional to I1. The mutual inductance M is defined to be the constant of proportionality between 2 and I1 and depends on the geometry of the situation, N M = 2 = 2 2 2 = N 2 2 = MI 1 . The induced EMF in coil 2 due I1 I1 to the varying current in coil 1 is given by,
d 2 dI = M 1 2 = dt dt
B1
Coil 1
where N1 is the number of loops in coil 1 and 1 is the flux through a single loop in coil 1. The induced EMF in coil 2 due to the varying current in coil 1 is given by,
1 =
d 1 dI = L 1 dt dt
Chapter 31
chp31_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Coil
Pb a c k = I = LI
dI dt ,
since = -LdI/dt. The power supplied by the external EMF (rate at which work is done against the back EMF) is
P =
dW dI = LI dt dt ,
U =
Pdt =
dI LI dt = dt
LIdI =
1 2 LI . 2
uB =
1 B2 20
where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field. The magnetic energy density has units of Joules/m3. The total amount of energy in an infinitesimal volume dV is dU = uBdV and
U =
Volume
dV .
Chapter 31
chp31_7.doc
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PHY 2049
RL Circuits
"Building-Up" Phase:
Connecting the switch to position A corresponds to the "building up" phase of an RL circuit. Summing all the potential changes in going around the loop gives
dI IR L = 0 , dt
+ A Switch B
R
L
where I(t) is a function of time. If the switch is closed (position A) at t=0 and I(0)=0 (assuming the current is zero at t=0) then dI 1 = I , where I have define =L/R. dt R Dividing by (I-/R) and multiplying by dt and integrating gives
t dI 1 I / R = dt ln = 0 ( I / R ) , which implies /R . 0
I t
I (t ) =
1 e t / ) . ( R
I(t)
The potential change across the inductor is given by VL(t)=-LdI/dt which yields
VL (t ) = e
t /
Time
The quantity =L/R is call the time constant and has dimensions of time.
"Collapsing" Phase:
Connecting the switch to position B corresponds to the "collapsing" phase of an RL circuit. Summing all the potential changes in going around the loop gives I R L
dI = 0 , where I(t) is a function of time. If the dt
Chapter 31
chp31_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
I Loop
orb = IA =
q q R 2 = vR , T 2
since I = q/T. The orbital magnetic r r rmoment can be written in terms of the orbital angular momentum, L = r p , as follows
orb =
where Lorb = Rmv. For an electron,
q L 2 m orb ,
S B
spin
/ e eh = gS = 2 me 2 me , (electron)
/ / 2 is the spin angular momentum of the electron and g = 2 is the where S = h / = h / 2 and h is Plank's Constant.). Here the units gyromagnetic ratio. ( h / eh are Bohr Magnitons, Bohr = , with Bohr = 9.27x10-24 J/T. 2me
Chapter 32
chp32_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Maxwell's Equations
I. (Gauss' Law): r r Qenclosed 1 = E = E dA = dV 0 0 Volume Surface
Volume Enclosed by Surface
Two Sources of Electric Fields E
Charge Q
Surface
E
Changing Magnetic Field
Surface
One Source of Magnetic Fields
r r J dA
Current Density J
Chapter 32
chp32_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
I
S1
+ -
S2
C1
r r d E = + B dl I 0 dt , C1
r r J dA
r r E dA ,
r r d E B dl I = + = 0 dt C1
since E = 0 through the surface S1.
r r r E J dA + = 0 I , 0 t S1
0 Must be equal, hence = 0 0.
r r d E B dl I = + = 0 dt C1
r r E r I 0 J + dA = t 0 , S1
0
E =
Q = 0 0 A
E 1 dQ I = = t 0 A dt 0 A .
r d A = 0 (I + I d ) ,
r r r r E d E B d l = 0 I + 0 0 = 0 J + 0 t d t Curve Surface r r r r E Id = Jd dA Jd = 0 t S
"Displacement Current"
Chapter 32
chp32_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Surface
No Magnetic Charges!
E
Chapter 32
chp32_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r E
A uniform magnetic field is confined to a circular region of radius, r, and is increasing with time. What is the direction and magnitude of the induced electric field at the radius r? Answer: If I choose my orientation to be counterclockwise then B = B(t)A with
r r d B 2 dB E d l = 2 r E ( r ) = = r dt dt , Circle
and hence E(r) = -(r/2) dB/dt. Since dB/dt > 0 (increasing with time), E is negative which means that it points opposite my chosen orientation.
A uniform electric field is confined to a circular region of radius, r, and is increasing with time. What is the direction and magnitude of the induced magnetic field at the radius r? Answer: If I choose my orientation to be counterclockwise then E = E(t)A with
r r d E r 2 dE B dl = 2 rB ( r ) = 0 0 = 2 dt c dt , Circle
and hence B(r) = (r/2c2) dE/dt. Since dE/dt > 0 (increasing with time), B is positive which means that it points in the direction of my chosen orientation.
Chapter 32
chp32_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
d 2x kx = m 2 dt
or
d 2 x (t ) + Cx (t ) = 0 , dt 2
where C is a positive constant (for the Hooke's Law spring C=k/m). The most general solution of this 2nd order differential equation can be written in the following four ways:
= C . In the chart, A is
the amplitude of the oscillations and T is the period. The linear frequency f = 1/T is measured in cycles per second (1 Hz = 1/sec). The angular frequency = 2f and is measured in radians/second. For the
x(t) = Acos(t+)
1.0 0.5 0.0 0 -0.5 -1.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T A
t+ (radians)
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
d 2 x (t ) + Cx (t ) = 0 , dt 2
where C is a constant. One way to solve this equation is to turn it into an algebraic equation by looking for a solution of the form
x ( t ) = Ae at .
Substituting this into the differential equation yields,
2 a 2 Ae at + CAe at = 0 or a = C .
= cos i sin
1. C . In this case,
x ( t ) = A e t + B e t
where A and B arbitrary constants.
Chapter 33
chp33_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Q C E
UE
Q = C VC uE = 1 0 E 2 2
Q2 = 2C
VC = Q / C
(E-field energy density)
Chapter 33
chp33_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
An LC Circuit
At t = 0 the switch is closed and a capacitor with initial charge Q0 is connected in series across a inductor (assume there is no resistance). The initial conditions are Q(0) = Q0 and I(0) = 0. Moving around the circuit in the direction of the current flow yields
Switch
Q
+++ +++
C --- ---
Q dI L = 0. C dt
1 d 2Q Q = 0. 2 + dt LC
This differential equation for Q(t) is the SHM differential equation we studied earlier with = 1 / LC and solution Q ( t ) = A cos t + B sin t . The current is thus,
I (t ) =
Thus, Q(t) and I(t) oscillate with SHM with angular frequency = 1 / LC . The stored energy oscillates between electric and magnetic according to
Q 2 (t ) Q 02 U E (t ) = = cos 2 t 2C 2C 1 1 U B ( t ) = LI 2 ( t ) = L Q 02 2 sin 2 t 2 2
Energy is conserved since Utot(t) = UE(t) + UB(t) = Q02/2C is constant.
Chapter 33
chp33_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
LC Oscillations
I Q
+++ +++
I t=0 t = T/4 L C B L
E --- ---
Q ( t ) = Q 0 cos t I ( t ) = Q 0 sin t
1.0
Q(t)
0.5
I(t)
0.0 0 -0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1.0
t (radians)
1.0
0.5
Q 02 U E (t ) = cos 2 t 2C Q 02 U B (t ) = sin 2 t 2C
0.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t (radians)
Chapter 33
chp33_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Mechanical Analogy
t=0
I Q
+++ +++
t=0 E C L
k m
x-axis
--- --x0
At t = 0:
E = 1 2 kx 2 0 v = 0
At t = 0:
U = 1 Q 02 2C I =0
At Later t: dx v= dt x ( t ) = x 0 cos t k = m 1 1 E = mv 2 + kx 2 2 2
Constant
Chapter 33
chp33_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
dx ( t ) d 2 x (t ) + + Cx ( t ) = 0 , D dt 2 dt
where C and D are constants. We solve this equation by turning it into an algebraic equation by looking for a solution of the form x ( t ) = Ae . Substituting this into the differential equation yields,
at
a 2 + Da + C = 0
or
D D a = C . 2 2
= D / 2 i , where
( D / 2 ) 2 C = D / 2 , where
( D / 2) 2 C . In this case,
x ( t ) = e D t / 2 ( A e t + B e t ) .
x (t ) = A e Dt /2
Chapter 33
chp33_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
An LRC Circuit
At t = 0 the switch is closed and a capacitor with initial charge Q0 is connected in series across an inductor and a resistor. The initial conditions are Q(0) = Q0 and I(0) = 0. Moving around the circuit in the direction of the current flow yields
Switch
Q
+++ +++
C --- --R
Q dI L IR = 0 . C dt
1 d 2Q R dQ + Q = 0. 2 + dt L dt LC
This differential equation for Q(t) is the differential equation we studied earlier. If we take the case where R2 < 4L/C (damped oscillations) then
Q(t ) = Q0 e Rt / 2 L cos t ,
with =
2 ( R / 2 L ) 2 and =
1 / LC .
1.0
0.5
Damped Oscillations
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
0.0
-0.5
Q(t)
-1.0
Time
Chapter 33
chp33_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Traveling Waves
A "wave" is a traveling disturbance that transports energy but not matter. Constructing Traveling Waves:
To construct a wave with shape y = f(x) at time t = 0 traveling to the right with speed v simply make the replacement x x vt .
y = f(x-vt) v
x=0
x = vt
y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx- t) right moving harmonic wave y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx+ t) left moving harmonic wave
Chapter 34
chp34_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
2 y( x, t ) 1 2 y( x, t ) 2 =0 2 2 x v t
Whenever analysis of a system results in an equation of the form given above then we know that the system supports traveling waves propagating at speed v. General Proof: If y = y(x,t) = f(x-vt) then
y = f x y = vf t
and
2y = f x 2 2y 2 = v f t 2
2 y(x,t) 1 2 y( x,t) 2 = f f = 0 . x 2 v t 2
Proof for Harmonic Wave: If y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx- t) then 2y 2 2 = k A sin( kx t ) x
and
2y 2 2 = A sin( kx t ) t
2 y( x,t ) 1 2 y( x, t ) 2 2 2 = k + 2 A sin( kx t ) = 0 , x 2 v t 2 v
since = kv.
Chapter 34
chp34_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
x-axis
E(x,t)
dx
E(x+dx,t)
h
x-axis
or
E y
B = z x t
z-axis
Ampere's Law:
Computing the left and right hand side of Ampere's Law using a rectangle (in the xz-plane) with width dx and height h (counterclockwise) gives
B z ( x , t ) h B z ( x + dx , t ) h = 0 0 E y t hdx
y-axis
h B(x,t)
z-axis dx
x-axis
or
E y Bz = 0 0 x t
B(x+dx,t)
Chapter 34
chp34_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E y Bz = t x
(1)
z-axis
x-axis
and
E y
1 Bz = t 0 0 x
(2)
which implies
2Ey x 2
0 0
2Ey t 2
= 0.
Thus Ey(x,t) satisfies the wave equation with speed v = 1 / 0 0 and has a solution in the form of traveling waves as follows: Ey(x,t) = E0sin(kx- t), where E0 is the amplitude of the electric field oscillations and where the wave has a unique speed 1 v=c= = f = = 2.99792 10 8 m / s (speed of light). k 0 0 From (1) we see that
E y Bz = = E 0 k cos( kx t ) , t x
Bz ( x , t ) = E 0
so that
k E sin( kx t ) = 0 sin( kx t ) , c
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Direction of Propagation
r $ E ( x , t ) = E 0 sin( kx t ) y r $ B ( x , t ) = B 0 sin( kx t ) z
x-axis
z-axis
Properties of the Electromagnetic Plane Wave: Wave travels at speed c ( c = 1/ 00 ). r r E E and B are perpendicular ( B = 0).r r The wave travels in the direction of E B . At any point and time E = cB. Electromagnetic Radiation:
Chapter 33
chp34_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
x-axis
z-axis
uE =
where I used E = cB. Thus, for light the electric and magnetic field energy densities are equal and the total energy density is
E
A Energy Flow x-axis
z-axis
B
cdt
Intensity
Chapter 34
chp34_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E2 = (cp)2 + (m0c2)2
energy momentum rest mass
E = cp
(for light)
For light the average momentum per unit time per unit area is equal to the intensity of the light, I, divided by speed of light, c, as follows:
1 dp 1 1 dU 1 = = I. A dt c A dt c
Total Absorption: dp 1 dU 1 F = = = IA dt c dt c F 1 P= = I (radiation pressure) A c Total Reflection: dp 2 dU 2 F = = = IA . dt c dt c F 2 P= = I (radiation pressure) A c
Light
Total Absorption
Light
Total Reflection
Chapter 34
chp34_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
The radiation power of the sun is 3.9x1026 W and the Sun distance from the Earth to d = 1.5 x 1011 m Earth the sun is 1.5x1011 m. (a) What is the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun at the surface of the Earth (outside the atmosphere)? (answer: 1.4 kW/m2) (b) What is the maximum value of the electric field in the light coming from the sun? (answer: 1,020 V/m) (c) What is the maximum energy density of the electric field in the light coming from the sun? (answer: 4.6x10-6 J/m3) (d) What is the maximum value of the magnetic field in the light coming from the sun? (answer: 3.4 T) (e) What is the maximum energy density of the magnetic field in the light coming from the sun? (answer: 4.6x10-6 J/m3) (f) Assuming complete absorption what is the radiation pressure on the Earth from the light coming from the sun? (answer: 4.7x10-6 N/m2) (g) Assuming complete absorption what is the radiation force on the Earth from the light coming from the sun? The radius of the Earth is about 6.4x106 m. (answer: 6x108 N) (h) What is the gravitational force on the Earth due to the sun. The mass of the Earth and the sun are 5.98x1024 kg and 1.99x1030 kg, respectively, and G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2. (answer: 3.5x1022 N)
Chapter 34
chp34_7e.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Geometric Optics
Fermat's Principle:
In traveling from one point to another, light follows the path that requires minimal time compared to the times from the other possible paths.
Theory of Reflection:
Let tAB be the time for light to go from the point A to the point B reflecting off the point P. Thus,
A
t AB
where
1 1 = L1 + L2 , c c
L1
a x P d i r
L2
d-x
L1 = x 2 + a 2 . L2 = ( d x ) 2 + b 2
To find the path of minimal time we set the derivative of tAB equal to zero as follows:
dt AB 1 dL1 1 dL2 = + = 0, dx c dx c dx
which implies
dL1 dL = 2, dx dx
but
L1
a x P d i r
L2
d-x
sin i = sin r
i = r
Chapter 34
chp34_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Law of Refraction
Index of Refraction:
Light travels at speed c in a vacuum. It travels at a speed v < c in a medium. The index for refraction, n, is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in the medium, n = c/v, n1 A where n is greater than or equal to L1 one.
a
Theory of Refraction:
Let tAB be the time for light to go from the point A to the point B refracting at the point P. Thus,
1 x P 2 d-x
t AB
where
1 1 = L1 + L v1 v2 2 ,
n2
d
L2
L1 = x 2 + a 2 . L2 = ( d x ) 2 + b 2
To find the path of minimal time we set the derivative of tAB equal to zero as follows:
dt AB 1 dL1 1 dL2 1 dL1 1 dL2 = + = 0 , which implies = dx v1 dx v2 dx v1 dx v2 dx , but dL1 x = = sin 1 dx L1 dL2 ( d x ) = = sin 2 dx L2
so that the condition for minimal time becomes
1 1 sin 1 = sin 2 v1 v2
n1 sin 1 = n 2 sin 2
Snell's Law
Chapter 34
chp34_9.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
2=90
n2 n1
n sin c = 2 n1
Problem:
R c
n 2 =1
n 1 =1.3
A point source of light is located 10 meters below the surface of a large lake (n=1.3). What is the area (in m2) of the largest circle on the pool's surface through which light coming directly from the source can emerge? (answer: 455)
Chapter 34
chp34_10.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Refraction Examples
Problem:
A scuba diver 20 meters beneath the smooth surface of a clear lake looks upward and judges the sun 2 n2=1 o to be 40 from directly overhead. At the same n1=4/3 time, a fisherman is in a 1 boat directly above the 20 m diver. (a) At what angle from the vertical would the fisherman measure the sun? (answer: 59o) (b) If the fisherman looks downward, at what depth below the surface would he judge the diver to be? (answer: 15 meters)
Chapter 34
chp34_11.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Spherical Mirrors
Vertex and Center of Curvature:
The vertex, V, is the point where the principal axis crosses the mirror and the center of curvature is the center of the spherical mirror with radius of curvature R. Concave Mirror
Light Ray Enters R = Radius of Curvature C = Center of Curvature F = Focal Point V = Vertex Principal Axis
R
R-side
V-side
The "R" or real side of a spherical mirror is the side of the mirror that the light exits and the other side is the "V" or virtual side. If the center of curvature lies on the R-side then the radius of curvature, R, is taken to be positive and if the center of curvature lies on the V-side then the radius of curvature, R, is taken to be negative.
Light Ray Exits R = Radius of Curvature C = Center of Curvature F = Focal Point V = Vertex
R V F C
V-side
Convex Mirror
Focal Point: A light ray parallel to the principal axis will pass through the focal point, F, where F lies a distance f (focal length) from the vertex of the mirror. For spherical mirrors a good approximation is f = R/2.
Concave and Convex Mirrors: A concave mirror is one where the center of curvature lies on the R-side so the R > 0 and f > 0 and a convex mirror is one where the center of curvature lies on the V-side so that R < 0 and f < 0. concave f>0 convex f<0 Flat Mirror: A flat mirror is the limiting case where the radius R (and thus the local length f) become infinite.
Chapter 35
chp35_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Mirror Equation
Object and Image Position:
For spherical mirrors,
1 1 1 + = p i f ,
where p is the distance from the vertex to the object, i is the distance from the vertex to the image, and f is the focal length.
p R-side
V-side
Focal Length:
For spherical mirrors the focal length, f, is one-half of the radius of curvature, R, as follows:
f = R/2.
Magnification:
The magnification is
m=
i p , (magnification equation)
where the magnitude of the magnification is the ratio of the height of the image, hi, to the height of the object, hp, as follows:
m =
hi hp .
Assigned a Negative Value
if image is on V-side (virtual image) if C is on V-side (convex) if C is on V-side (convex) if the image is inverted
Sign Conventions:
Variable
p (object distance) i (image distance) R (radius of curvature) f (focal length) m (magnification)
Chapter 35
chp35_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Mirror Examples (1 (1 )
Mirror Equations:
f = R 2 1 1 1 + = p i f m= i p
Example:
R = 2, p = 3 f = 1, i = 3/2, m = -1/2
i p R-side
Concave Mirror
F
V-side
Example:
R = 2, p = 3/2 f = 1, i = 3, m = -2
Concave Mirror
C
R-side
F
V-side
Chapter 35
chp35_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Mirror Examples (2 (2 )
Mirror Equations:
f = R 2 1 1 1 + = p i f m= i p
Example:
R = 2, p = 1/2 f = 1, i = -1, m = 2
C
R-side
Concave Mirror
F p
i V-side
Example:
Convex Mirror
Chapter 35
chp35_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
1 1 1 = ( n 1) f R1 R 2 ,
where f is the focal length, n is the index of refraction, R1 is the radius of curvature of side 1 (side that light enters the lense), and R2 is the radius of curvature of side 2 (side that light exits the lense).
Lense Equation:
1 1 1 + = p i f
Converging Lense
Magnification:
m= i p
V-side
C2
C1
R-side
Side 1
Side 2
Sign Conventions:
Variable
p (object distance) i (image distance) R1 (radius of curvature) R2 (radius of curvature) f (focal length) m (magnification)
R1 = R R2 = R
Chapter 35
chp35_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
f = 1, p = 2 i = 2, m = -1
V-side n
i F
R-side
F
1 2
Example:
Converging Lense
f = 1, p = 1/2 i = -1, m = 2
V-side
i F p
1
F
2
R-side
Chapter 35
chp35_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Diverging Lense
i
1 2
F
n
R-side
Example:
f = -1, p = 1/2 i = -1/3, m = 2/3
V-side
Diverging Lense
i
1 n 2
R-side
Chapter 35
chp35_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Interference
Wave Superposition
ysum = y1 +y2
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 0 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y2=Asin(k(x+))
y2=Asin(kx)
kx (radians)
Wave Superposition:
Consider the addition (superposition) of two waves with the same amplitude and wavelength:
y1 = A sin(kx) ysum = y1 + y2
y2 = A sin(k ( x + ))
The quantity is the "phase shift" between the two waves and k=2/ is the wave number.
1 = m + m = 0,1,2,K 2
(max destructive)
Chapter 36
chp36_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Interference Examples
Wave Superposition ( = ; max constructive):
Wave Superposition
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 0 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0
ysum = y1 + y2
kx (radians)
Wave Superposition
1.0 0.5 0.0 0 -0.5 -1.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ysum = y1 + y2
kx (radians)
ysum = y1 + y2
kx (radians)
Chapter 36
chp36_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Double Slit
P L1 S1 d S2 L2
L = L2 L1 = d sin ,
and thus
sin = m
m = 0,1,2,K d
Order of the Bright Fringe
S1 d S2
Double Slit
P
y = L tan
1 sin = m + m = 0,1,2,K 2 d
(Dark Fringes - max destructive)
Chapter 36
chp36_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
n1 "film" n2 2 n3 1 T
The overall phase shift between Phase Shift Condition Value the reflected waves 1 and 2 is n1 > n2 0 1 given by, n1 < n2 1 film/2 overall = 2T + 1 + 2 , n2 > n3 0 2 where it is assumed that the n2 < n3 2 film/2 incident light ray is nearly perpendicular to the surface and the phase shifts 1 and 2 are given the table.
Chapter 36
chp36_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Interference Problems
Chapter 36
chp36_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Diffraction Summary
Single Slit
Single Slit-Diffraction:
Angular position of the dark fringes:
sin = m W
m = 1,2,K
Width of the Slit
y = L tan
Round Hole-Diffraction:
Angular position of the first dark ring:
Diameter of the Hole
sin = 1.22
Diffraction Grating:
Angular position of the bright fringes:
Diffraction Grating
sin = m
m = 0,1,2, K
Slit
y d L
y = L tan
Chapter 37
chp37_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Diffraction Problems
Single Slit Example:
Light passes through a slit and shines on a flat screen that is located L = 0.4 m away. The width of the slit is W = 4x10-6 m. The distance between the middle of the central bright spot and the first dark fringe is y. Determine the width 2y of the central bright spot when the wavelength of light is = 690 nm. Answer: 2y = 0.14 m
Chapter 37
chp37_2.doc