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C. Derek Martin C. Derek Martin

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
Rock masses Rock masses
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Core logging Core logging
Traditional core logging
BIPS: Borehole image
Terzaghis Terzaghis 1946 Classifications 1946 Classifications
slowly advances into the tunnel without perceptible volume increase. A prerequisite for
squeeze is a high percentage of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles of micaceous
minerals or clay minerals with a low swelling capacity.
Squeezing
Rock
rock advances into the tunnel chiefly on account of expansion. The capacity to swell seems
to be limited to those rocks that contain clay minerals such as montmorillonite, with a high
swelling capacity.
Swelling
Rock
chemically intact rock has the character of crusher run. If most or all of the fragments
are as small as fine sand grains and no recementation has taken place, crushed rock below
the water table exhibits the properties of a water-bearing sand.
Crushed
Rock
consists of chemically intact or almost intact rock fragments which are entirely separated
from each other and imperfectly interlocked. In such rock, vertical walls may require
lateral support.
Blocky and
Seamy Rock
contains joints and hair cracks, but the blocks between joints are locally grown together
or so intimately interlocked that vertical walls do not require lateral support. In rocks of
this type, both spalling and popping conditions may be encountered.
Moderately
jointed
Rock
consists of individual strata with little or no resistance against separation along the
boundaries between the strata. The strata may or may not be weakened by transverse
joints. In such rock the spalling condition is quite common.
Stratified
Rock
contains neither joints nor hair cracks. Hence, if it breaks, it breaks across sound rock.
On account of the injury to the rock due to blasting, spalls may drop off the roof several
hours or days after blasting. This is known as a spalling condition. Hard, intact rock may
also be encountered in the popping condition involving the spontaneous and violent
detachment of rock slabs from the sides or roof.
Intact rock
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Downie Downie Slide Drainage Tunnels Slide Drainage Tunnels
Shallow tunnels
Disturbed rock mass
Foliated gneiss & schist
Terzaghis Terzaghis Blocky and Seamy Blocky and Seamy
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Effect of water Effect of water
Large quantities of water cause problems in tunneling Large quantities of water cause problems in tunneling
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Terzaghis Terzaghis intact rock intact rock
Lauffers Lauffers Standup Standup time (1958) time (1958)
Lauffer (1958) proposed that the stand-up time for
an unsupported span is related to the quality of the
rock mass in which the span is excavated. In a tunnel,
the unsupported span is defined as the span of the
tunnel or the distance between the face and the
nearest support, if this is greater than the tunnel
span. Lauffer's original classification has since been
modified by a number of authors, notably Pacher et al
(1974), and now forms part of the general tunnelling
approach known as the New Austrian Tunnelling
Method.
For hard rocks Standup time is not an issue
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Deeres 1969 Rock Quality Designation Deeres 1969 Rock Quality Designation
Classification schemes for tunnels
geomechanical classes - represent rock mass of
different qualities, characterized by a set of well-
defined geomechanical properties;
behavior categories - express the deformation
responses of the cavity upon excavation,
corresponding to different combinations of the
geomechanical and in-situ stress conditions
technical classes - directly associated with the
different project solutions (in terms of typical
sections of excavation and support).
After G.Russo, G.S. Kalamaras & P. Grasso, 1998
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Elements of Modern Empirical Methods Elements of Modern Empirical Methods
Rock Mass Rating Rock Mass Rating
RMR = A1+A2+A3+A4+A5 + B
= 0 to 100
Worst to Best
1 to 15% A1 = Uniaxial Strength
3 to 20% A2 = RQD
5 to 20% A3 = Joint Spacing
0 to 30% A4 = Condition of Joints
0 to 15% A5 = Groundwater
0 to -12% B = Joint Orientation
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Rock Quality Index: Q and Q Rock Quality Index: Q and Q
RQD = Rock Quality Designation
Jn = Joint Set Number
Jr = Joint Roughness Number
Ja = Joint Alteration Number
Jw = Joint Water Reduction Number
SRF = Stress Reduction Factor
RQD Jr Jw
Jn Ja SRF
Q Q = x x
For Characterization
For Tunnel
Support
Empirical Empirical Rockmass Rockmass Properties Properties
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Modified Modified Rockmass Rockmass Quality Index, Quality Index, Q Q
Q=1000
Q=10
Q=5
Q=0.5
Rock mass Quality and Velocity Rock mass Quality and Velocity
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Rock Mass Modulus Rock Mass Modulus
Note: Based largely on projects at depth
from 0 to 200m
Rock mass Quality and Confined Modulus Rock mass Quality and Confined Modulus
eg:
Rock-
mass
Modulus
(stiffness)
After Hutchinson & Diederichs 1996
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Empirical Stand Empirical Stand- -up Time Assessment up Time Assessment
Rockmass Rockmass Quality and Critical Span Quality and Critical Span
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Experience Based Design Experience Based Design
eg:from Civil Engineering
Experience
Design Philosophy Design Philosophy
Demands an understanding of the failure process.
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Rock mass strength Rock mass strength
2
3 3 1 c c
s m + + =
Hoek-Brown failure criterion
(developed for confined conditions around tunnels)
Intact rock strength
m
i
= Lab
s=1
Rock mass
strength

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m m & & s s are derived from empirical charts that are are derived from empirical charts that are
related to rock mass quality RMR & Q related to rock mass quality RMR & Q
m m ~ Friction
s s ~ Cohesion

c
GSI GSI
These papers introduced the concept of the
Geological Strength Index (GSI) as a
replacement for Bieniawskis RMR. It had
become increasingly obvious that
Bieniawskis RMR is difficult to apply to
very poor quality rock masses and also
that the relationship between RMR and m
and s is no longer linear in these very low
ranges. It was also felt that a system based
more heavily on fundamental geological
observations and less on numbers was
needed.
Hoek:
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GSI & GSI & Hoek Hoek- -Brown failure envelope Brown failure envelope
m
b
D m
i
exp

GS I 100
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a
ci
b ci
s m

+ + =

3
3 1
Hoek-Brown
Failure Criterion
Geological Strength Index
s D exp

GS I 100
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GSI GSI m m
i i
values values Igneous rocks Igneous rocks
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GSI GSI m m
i i
values values Metamorphic rocks Metamorphic rocks
GSI GSI m m
i i
values values Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks
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GSI + Block size GSI + Block size
How to incorporate Modes of Failure How to incorporate Modes of Failure
Ground Response
Rock mass
GSI
Classification
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SKBs SKBs Site Selection Process Site Selection Process
A challenge for Site Characterization A challenge for Site Characterization
* Depth 0 to 1000 m * Depth 0 to 1000 m
* Plan about 2 km * Plan about 2 km
2 2
Sites 1 & 2
Sites 3
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SKBs SKBs Rock Mechanics Model Project Rock Mechanics Model Project
How confidently can we predict geological How confidently can we predict geological
and and geoEngineering geoEngineering information information
Provide each team with 3 Borehole logs Provide each team with 3 Borehole logs
Teams were asked to assess: Teams were asked to assess:
1. The in-situ stress distribution
2. The Q and RMR distribution
3. The calculated rock mass strength
In a volume of 50 m x 50 m x 150 m In a volume of 50 m x 50 m x 150 m
Example from Aspo Hard Rock Laboratory, Sweden
Major Structure Major Structure
N
NE-1
NE-2
EW-1b
EW-3
EW-1a
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Aspo Aspo HRL HRL
420m level
450m level
Spot bolts & Shotcrete
Drill & Blast
No Support
TBM
Development of a Fracture Model Development of a Fracture Model
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Discrete Fracture Model Discrete Fracture Model
3D Network
2D Network
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
sigy [MPa]
Vertical deformation (m)
V
e
r
tic
a
l
s
tr
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
sigy [MPa]
UDEC Strength
3D Block modelling 3D Block modelling
Petteri Petteri Somervuori Somervuori
Gridpoint Gridpoint Finland Finland Oy Oy
A common software tool in mining:
e.g, Vulcan, Datamine, Surpac, GoCad, etc
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The Major Fracture Zones at The Major Fracture Zones at Aspo Aspo
Target volume Target volume
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Drillhole Drillhole information information
RMR statistics RMR statistics
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Variogram Variogram RMR along a borehole RMR along a borehole
Block modelling Block modelling - - inverse distance inverse distance
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RMR RMR - - kriging kriging interpolation interpolation
Kriging variance Kriging variance - - smaller close smaller close to to drillholes drillholes
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Average_distance_to_samples (m)
k
r
i
g
i
n
g

v
a
r
i
a
n
c
e
Kriging variance versus distance Kriging variance versus distance
SurPac SurPac
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3Dec 3Dec
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Conclusions Conclusions
Rock mass characteristics are described Rock mass characteristics are described
using ranges of values using ranges of values
Geostatistics hold much promise for Geostatistics hold much promise for
estimating the distribution of rock mass estimating the distribution of rock mass
properties properties
Existing software such as Existing software such as Surpac Surpac and and
GoCad GoCad facilitate the development of a facilitate the development of a
geological model and the associated geological model and the associated
GeoEngineering GeoEngineering data. data.