Giao trnh Logic hoc

CHNG I.

PHN ON V CC PHP LOGIC 1. PHN ON V PH NH CA PHN ON

1.1. Phn on v cu Phn on l mt khi nim c bn ca logic hc. Phn on c din t di dng ngn ng thnh mt cu phn nh tnh ng hay sai mt thc t khch quan. Cu phn nh thc t khch quan ng, c gi l phn on ng hoc cng gi l phn on nhn gi tr chn l ng. Cu phn nh thc t khch quan sai, c gi l phn on sai hoc cng gi l phn on nhn gi tr chn l sai. Logic hc, m mt phn on ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr chn l nh trn, gi l logic lng tr. Trong gio trnh ca chng ta ch xt logic lng tr m thi. V d v phn on ng: Dy ng dn in. Tc gi ca truyn Kiu l Nguyn Du. S 7 l s nguyn t. V d v phn an sai: Paris l th ca nc Anh. Tc gi ca tc phm Chinh Ph ngm l B Huyn Thanh Quan. S 12 l s nguyn t. Phn on c din t di dng ngn ng thnh mt cu, nhng khng phi cu no cng l mt phn on. Chng hn nhng cu sau y. Bng hoa ny p qu! Phi tp trung trong gi hp. Ch nht ny bn c i chi khng? Nhng cu cm thn, mnh lnh, cu hi thng khng din t mt phn on. V ni dung khng chuyn ti c tnh ng hay sai mt thc t. Tuy nhin nhng cu hi tu t th li din t mt phn on. t no l t chng cay y l mt phn on ng, v ni dung ca n ni ln tnh cht cay ca mi tri t. Thng thng ngi ta dng cc ch ci A, B, C, k hiu mt phn on. Tnh ng hay sai ca phn on c k hiu l (hoc 1) hay S (hoc 0). V d: A= Tc gi ca truyn Kiu l Nguyn Du l mt phn an ng. K hiu: A==1. P= Tc gi ca truyn Quan m Th Knh l Nguyn Du l mt phn an sai. K hiu: P=S=0. Hai phn an c gi l bng nhau nu c cng gi tr chn l. Vi nh ngha ny th hai phn an sau l bng nhau, mc d ni dung khng lin quan n nhau. Ta cng gi hai phn an bng nhau l hai phn an tng ng logic. A = Truyn Quan m Th Knh l mt truyn th xut hin trong dn gian, m hin nay cha r tc gi v B = 2+2=4. Chng bng nhau v c hai u phn nh mt thc t khch quan ng. Ta cng vit A=B. Chng ta ch ch n nhng phn on c cng ni dung v tng ng logic vi nhau. 5

Nguyen nh Tung

1.2. Lin t logic ca mt phn on: T khng, t v, t hay (hoc), nu th , v.v c gi l cc lin t logic ca mt phn on. Phn on khng c cc lin t logic c gi l phn on n. Phn on c cc lin t logic c gi l phn on phc. Chng hn phn on: s 2 l s nguyn t l mt phn on n. Phn on s 2 l s nguyn t v l s chn l phn on phc. 1.3. Ph nh mt phn an. Cho phn an P. Ph nh ca phn an P l mt phn an, k hiu P , c ni dung v gi tr chn l ngc li vi P.
V d:

P = Tc gi ca truyn Quan m Th Knh l Nguyn Du (S). Ph nh ca P l P = Khng phi tc gi ca truyn Quan m Th Knh l Nguyn Du ().
Q= 3+4=7 (). Ph nh ca phn an Q l phn an Q = "3 + 4 7" (S).

Gi tr chn l ca P v P c cho trong bng sau: P S P S

Ph nh ca phn an P c th din t nhiu cch khc nhau. Chng hn phn an P trn c nhng cch ph nh nh sau: P = Tc gi ca truyn Quan m Th Knh khng phi l Nguyn Du. P = Ni rng tc gi ca truyn Quan m Th Knh l Nguyn Du l sai. By gi chng ta th xt phn an ph nh ca phn an P trn. Khi ( P ) s l: Ni rng tc gi ca truyn Quan m Th Knh khng phi l Nguyn Du l ni sai. iu ny cng c ngha Tc gi ca truyn Quan m Th Knh l Nguyn Du = P. Q = 3+4=7 hay l: 3 cng 4 bng 7. Q = "3 + 4 7" = 3 cng 4 khng bng 7. Ph nh ca phn an 3 cng 4 khng bng 7 l: ( Q) =Khng th 3 cng 4 khng bng 7. Khng th 3 cng 4 khng bng 7, tc l 3 cng 4 bng 7. Tm li, qua hai v d trn ta c ( P ) = P . iu ny khng ch ng cho hai v d trn m ng cho mi phn an. Tht vy chng ta c th thy kt qa ny trong bng gi tr chn l sau: P S P S ( P) S

Vy, ( P ) = P (khng phi khng P bng P). Trong ngn ng hng ngy P v khng phi khng P thng c dng trong nhng tnh hung khc nhau v c th c ngha khc nhau. P thng dng khng nh, khng phi khng P thng chng ta mun, mt mt khng nh P, mt mt mun bc b mt kin no khng chp nhn P. Chng hn: Chng ti yu ha bnh. iu ny c ngha l ta khng nh chn l Chng ti yu ha bnh. Cn nh ni: Khng phi chng ti khng yu ha bnh l ta mun bc b mt kin no ni rng chng ta khng yu ha bnh. Mt mt mun khng nh chng ta yu ha bnh. Trong logic m mt phn on ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr chn l nh trn (gi l logic lng tr) ta coi hai cu ny l mt.

Giao trnh Logic hoc

2. HI V TUYN CA CC PHN ON
2.1. Php hi 2.1.1. Php hi v lin t logic v: Hi ca hai phn an P; Q l phn an P v Q c gi tr chn l cho bng sau: P S S K hiu P v Q l P Q hoc PQ. V d: Cho hai phn an sau: P = Tc gi ca truyn Kiu l Nguyn Du (); Q = Tc gi ca Bnh Ng i Co l Nguyn Tri (). Khi phn an hi l: P Q = Tc gi ca Truyn Kiu l Nguyn Du v tc gi ca Bnh Ng i Co l Nguyn Tri. Ta thy phn an ny ng, v P; Q u ng. Xt hai phn on: A = 3<5 (); B = 3>7 (S). Khi phn on hi l A B = 3 nh hn 5 v ln hn 7. Ta thy phn on ny sai, v A ng cn B sai. Nh vy khi thnh lp phn an hi chng ta ch vic ni t v vo gia hai phn an. Tuy nhin ta c th lc b bt mt s t trng lp. Tc gi ca Truyn Kiu l Nguyn Du v tc gi ca Bnh Ng i Co l Nguyn Tri = Tc gi ca Truyn Kiu l Nguyn Du v ca Bnh Ng i Co l Nguyn Tri. 2.1.2. Nhng lin t khc c ngha ca php hi. Trong ngn ng t nhin php hi c din t bi mt s t nh: ng thi, nhng, m, song, vn, cng, cn thm ch ch bng du phy. Tc gi ca truyn Kiu l Nguyn Du cn ca Bnh Ng i Co l Nguyn Tri. Tc phm ny qa di nhng rt hay (Tc phm ny qa di v tc phm ny rt hay). o chng ta rng pha, Nga chng sc trng nh l tuyt in ( Chinh ph ngm) (o chng ta rng pha v nga chng sc trng nh l tuyt in). Va ti sc li nt na ng thi hiu vi m, cha sinh thnh (Truyn Quan m Th Knh). 2.2. Php tuyn. 2.2.1. Php tuyn v lin t logic hay: Tuyn ca hai phn an P; Q l phn an P hay Q c gi tr chn l cho bng sau:
P S S Q S S P hay Q S

Q S S

P v Q S S S

K hiu P hay Q l P Q . 7

Nguyen nh Tung

V d: Cho hai phn an sau: P=Hm nay l ngy Ch nht; Q=Hm nay l ngy l. Khi phn an tuyn l:
P Q = Hm nay l ngy Ch nht hay hm nay l ngy l.

Phn an ny l ng nu c t nht mt phn an P hoc Q ng. Tc l Hm nay l ngy Ch nht l ng, hoc Hm nay l ngy l l ng, hoc c hai u ng. Phn an ny l sai nu c hai phn an P v Q u sai. 2.2.2. Nhng lin t khc c ngha ca php tuyn trong ngn ng t nhin. Trong ngn ng t nhin php tuyn c din t bi mt s t nh: hay, hay l, hoc cng c th l du phy. Mt s v d minh ha cho iu ny. Hm nay l ngy Ch nht hoc hm nay l ngy l. Phng trnh x 2 4 x + 3 = 0 c nghim x = 1 hay x = 3 .
Trong chuyn i tham quan di ngy ti y chng ta c th n nhng ni sau: Vng Tu, Lt, Phan Thit. T hay, hoc hay l trong ngn ng t nhin thng thng dng cu hi. Khc u m m dng ha, y l H ip, hay l Trang Sinh? Khc u m i xun tnh y hn Thc , hay mnh Quyn? (Truyn Kiu, Nguyn Du)

2.2.3. Php tuyn cht v lin t logic hochoc:

Trong ngn ng t nhin hng ngy chng ta vn thng gp nhng cu nh: Hoc con ci c y, hoc con i tu, Hoc con nghe li m, hoc con i ra khi nh. Nhng cu nh vy ngi nghe thng hiu l chn mt trong hai t ra ni dung ca cu. Trong logic hc ta c php tuyn cht c nh ngha nh sau: Tuyn cht ca hai phn an P; Q l phn an hoc P hoc Q c gi tr chn l cho bng sau: P S S K hiu hoc P hoc Q l P + Q . Nu ta k hiu P = Con ci c y; Q=Con i tu. Khi P + Q = Hoc con ci c y, hoc con i tu. Phn an ny m ng th con ci c y v con khng i tu, hoc con khng ci c y v con i tu. Phn an ny m sai th con va ci c y v con va i tu, hoc con khng ci c y m con cng khng i tu. T iu phn tch trn ta c ngay Q S S hoc P hoc Q S S

P + Q = ( P Q ) ( P Q ) .
Tht vy, kt qa ny s thy trong bng gi tr chn l sau:

Giao trnh Logic hoc

P S S

Q S S

P S S

Q S S

P ( Q) S S S

( P ) Q S S S

P+Q S S

P ( Q ) ( P ) Q S S

Php tuyn m chng ta va ni mc 2.2.3 l tuyn cht, khc vi php tuyn ni mc 2.2.1. Chng ta cng c th gi php tuyn mc 2.2.1 l tuyn khng cht hay ch tuyn. Lin t logic ca php tuyn cht hoc php tuyn khng cht trong mt on vn nhiu khi ch l hay, hoc,, nhng ngi c (nghe) vn phn bit c. Chng hn:

T l hc sinh u tt nghip ph thng trung hc nm 2008 l 76% hay r c th tm trong bo tui tr hay (2) bo thanh nin.
R rng y, (1) tuyn cht, (2) tuyn khng cht.

(1)

78%, mun bit

Php tuyn cht cng c th hin bng mt du phy. on th sau y trong truyn Quan m Th Knh l mt v d: Nu con thit c chuyn ny, Lng trn ra sch, t ny xin cha,(*) Nu khng m phi ting ng, Cng nn gng gng lm ng ko bun. Du phy v tr du (*) c ngha ca php tuyn hai phn an.

3. TNH CHT CA PHP HI V PHP TUYN

3.1. Tnh giao hon
Trong ngn ng t nhin nu chng ta ni Bn An hc Vn v bn An hc Tan th cng c th ni Bn An hc Tan v bn An hc Vn. Nu ni Hm nay l ngy Ch nht hoc l ngy l th cng c th ni Hm nay l ngy l hoc l ngy Ch nht. Tng qut, php hi v php tuyn u c tnh giao han. Ngha l ta c cc cng thc sau:

P Q = Q P. P Q = Q P. P + Q = Q + P. Trong logic hc th cc cng thc trn ng cho mi phn an. chng minh cc cng thc ny chng ta ch cn lp bng gi tr chn l. Trong ngn ng t nhin hng ngy P Q v Q P c khi ni dung khc nhau. Chng hn hai cu sau: Ma xun n v nhng bng hoa ua n. (1) Nhng bng hoa ua n v ma xun n. (2) Ni dung hai cu ny l khc nhau. Cu (1) ngi nghe s hiu Ma xun mang n nhng bng hoa, cn phn an (2) ngi nghe s hiu Nhng bng hoa mang theo ma xun.

3.2. Tnh kt hp.

Cho ba phn an ty P; Q; R chng ta c cc cng thc sau:

( P Q ) R = P (Q R ). ( P Q ) R = P (Q R ). ( P + Q ) + R = P + (Q + R ).
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Nguyen nh Tung

Vic chng minh cc cng thc ch cn lp bng gi tr chn l. Chng ta chng minh mt cng thc ( P + Q ) + R = P + ( Q + R ) . Tnh ng n ca cng thc chng ta s thy trong bng gi tr chn l sau: P Q R P+Q Q+R ( P + Q ) + R P + (Q + R ) S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

V c cc cng thc trn nn chng ta thng khng phn bit du ngoc n trong cc cng thc. Do ta hiu ( P Q ) R = P ( Q R ) = P Q R. Trong ngn ng t nhin nu phi dng n hi ca ba phn an (hoc hn na) thng thng chng ta hiu cng thc P Q R . Khi chng ta hiu P; Q; R xy ra cng mt lc, hay xy ra trn cng mt i tng.
Tt t t lu sm d phn trong cc cuc m lun ca nhng bc tr thc, thng tranh bin vi Thin Hu v cng vi bn suy t qun tng. (Cu chuyn dng sng, Hermann Hesse).

an vn trn c hnh thc ca cu trc logic l P Q R . i vi ngi c, khi c an vn ny s khng phn bit l cng thc ( P Q ) R , hay cng thc P ( Q R ) , m thng hiu l: Tt t d phn trong cc cuc m lun ca nhng bc tr thc, v Tt t thng tranh bin vi Thin Hu v Tt t cng vi Thin Hu suy t qun tng. Ngha l ba s kin ni trn, cng din ra trong Tt t, tc l hiu theo cng thc P Q R hoc mt han v ca n. 3.3. Tnh phn phi ca php hi v php tuyn. Cho ba phn an ty P; Q; R chng ta c cng thc sau:

P ( Q R ) = ( P Q ) ( P R ) = PQ PR
Vic chng minh cc cng thc ch cn lp bng gi tr chn l. Chng ta cng c th m rng cng thc vi nhiu phn an hn na. Trong Tan hc cng thc trn c th c vn dng vo vic gii cc h phng trnh, hay bt phng trnh. x 1 0 V d: H bt phng trnh ( x 6)( x 8) 0 H trn c th vit dng tng ng nh sau: x 1 ( x 1) ( x 8 x 6 ) ( x 1 x 8 ) ( x 1 x 6 ) . x 8 x 6 Vy nghim ca bt phng trnh l x 8 1 x 6 .
Trong ngn ng t nhin cng thc trn c th c dng cho trng hp s kin P ng thi xy ra vi s kin Q hay R. Anh y i hc hay i lm u bng xe p. Ngi nghe s hiu l: Anh y hc bng xe p, hoc anh y i lm cng bng xe p.

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Giao trnh Logic hoc

Mt chng thang nhng nt trm t mi lc chng do chi trong khu vn xai khi nghe m ht, trong nhng bui hc vi cha, hay khi chuyn tr cng ngi thc gi. (Cu chuyn dng sng, Hermann Hesse). an vn ny c hnh thc ca cu trc logic l P ( Q R T ) . Ngi c y s hiu l: Mt chng thang nhng nt trm t mi lc chng do chi trong khu vn xai khi nghe m ht, hoc mt chng thang nhng nt trm t trong nhng bui hc vi cha, hoc mt chng thang nhng nt trm t khi chuyn tr cng ngi thc gi.. Cch hiu ny l hiu theo cng thc PQ PR PT . M rng ta c ( A B ) ( C D ) = AC AD BC BD . Chng hn Bui sng cc em i tham quan A hoc B, cn bui chiu i tham quan C hoc D. Cu vn ny c hnh thc cu trc logic v tri ca cng thc, nhng ngi c (nghe) thng hiu theo v phi. Ch : Ngi ta quy c thc hin cc php logic trong mt phn an phc hp theo th t nh sau: trc tin l php ph nh, k l php hi v cui cng l php tuyn. Hin nhin, cng nh cc php tan i s chng ta phi u tin trong ngoc n ( ) trc. 3.4. Tnh ly ng. Vi mi phn an P ta ta d dng chng minh c:
P P = P, P P = P

Trong ngn ng t nhin hng ngy c l chng ta cng t dng nhng cu ni nh: Tri ma hay Tri ma . Tc l dng cng thc P P t dng. Nhng vn thng ni Tri ma v Tri ma , mun nhn mnh s kin Tri ma.
V d: y ma thu ti, ma thu ti (Xun Diu). Dng cng thc P P = P .

Phn ru, ru vy cng ru, (Xt lng eo ng by lu mt li) (Truyn Kiu, Nguyn Du). Dng cng thc P P P = P . Hnh thc P P = P ta s gp trong v d: Phng trnh x 2 4 x + 4 = 0 c nghim kp x = 2 l vit rt gn ca Phng trnh x 2 4 x + 4 = 0 c nghim x = 2 x = 2 .

3.5. Cc cng thc De Morgan.

Cho hai phn an ty P; Q chng ta c cc cng thc sau:

( P Q ) = P Q ( P Q ) = P Q
Vic chng minh cc cng thc cng ch lp bng gi tr chn l. Chng ta cng c th m rng cng thc vi nhiu phn an hn na. Sau y l mt vi v d p dng cc cng thc De Morgan. Nu chng ta bit nghim phng trnh x 2 5 x + 4 = 0 l x = 1 x = 4 . Khi nhng x lm cho biu thc x 2 5 x + 4 khc 0 s l x 1 x 4 .

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Nguyen nh Tung

Khng c chuyn em b 5 tui bit c thng tho v vit vn tri chy c . Ngi nghe cu ny s hiu Em b 5 tui c khng thng tho hoc vit vn khng tri chy. Trc, sau no thy bng ngi ( Truyn Kiu). Ngi c cu ny s hiu: trc khng c ngi v sau cng khng c ngi, tc l p dng cng thc ( P Q ) = P Q . V do du phy trong cu th c ngha ca php tuyn.

4. PHP KO THEO
4.1. Php ko theo v lin t logic nu th. Cho hai phn an P; Q. Php ko theo ca hai phn an, theo th t P; Q l mt phn an Nu P th Q c gi tr chn l cho bng sau P S S Q S S Nu P th Q S

K hiu ca phn an Nu P th Q l P Q hay P Q .

V d:

t P=c la v Q=c khi. Khi phn an P Q = Nu P th Q l: Nu c la th c khi. Phn an ny l sai nu tht s c la (P ng) m li khng c khi (Q sai). iu ny l hp l. Phn an ny l ng trong mi trng hp cn li. Nu P=c la l ng v Q=c khi cng ng, th phn an Nu c la th c khi l ng. Nu P=c la l sai v Q=c khi cng sai, th phn an Nu c la (sai) th c khi (sai) l ng. Nu P=c la l sai v Q=c khi ng, th phn an Nu c la (sai) th c khi (ng) vn c th xem l ng c. Chng hn khi xut hin t cc phn ng ha hc. Trong phn an P Q = Nu P th Q, P c gi l tin cn Q c gi l hu . Phn an ko theo khng ging nh php hi hay php tuyn ca hai phn an, php ko theo khng c tnh giao han. Chng hn ta xt phn an nu Tri ma th ng ph t. Ta thy nu c Tri ma th hin nhin l ng ph t. Nhng phn an nu ng ph t th Tri ma khng phi lc no cng ng. Ngha l PQQP 4.2. Phn an o. Phn an nu Q th P c gi l phn an o ca phn an nu P th Q .
V d: P=T gic ABCD l hnh thang cn; Q=T gic ABCD c hai ng cho bng nhau. Khi phn an P Q l Nu t gic ABCD l hnh thang cn th t gic ABCD c hai ng cho bng nhau. Phn an o Q P l Nu t gic ABCD c hai ng cho bng nhau th t gic ABCD l hnh thang cn. Trong trng hp ny khng phi lc no c hai phn an cng u ng. Hin nhin.

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Giao trnh Logic hoc

P=Hm s f c o hm ti x=a; Q= Hm s f lin tc ti x=a. Khi phn an P Q l Nu hm s f c o hm ti x=a th f lin tc ti x=a. Phn an ny ng. Phn an o Q P l Nu f lin tc ti x=a th f c o hm ti x=a. Phn an ny sai. Trong ngn ng t nhin cu ni Nu c du chn trn bi bin th c ngi i qua y l ng. Cn cu ni Nu c ngi i qua bi bin ny th phi li du chn khng phi lc no cng ng. Nhng nu ni Nu khng c ngi i qua trn bi bin ny th khng c du chn li l han tan ng. 4.3. Phn an phn o. Phn an nu khng Q th khng P c gi l phn an phn o ca phn an nu P th Q . Hn na ta c cng thc sau:
P Q = Q P

Nh vy nu P Q l ng (hoc sai) th Q P cng ng (hoc sai). Do ni nu P th Q hay ni nu khng Q th khng P l tng ng logic vi nhau.
V d: Nu hm s f c o hm ti x=a th f lin tc ti x=a l tng ng logic vi Nu f khng lin tc ti x=a th f khng c o hm ti x=a. Khng hip th chng n y; n y tc l khng ai khng hip (Hang L Nht thng ch, dn theo Hang Chng, tr 61) Nu gic nh nh v bo th khng ng s, ng s l gic gm nhm nh tm n du. (Trn Hng o, dn theo Ng vn lp 8, tp 1, tr 119).

4.4. Nhng lin t khc c ngha ca php ko theo trong ngn ng t nhin. Theo GS. Hang Ph, trong ngn ng t nhin phn an nu P th Q c nhiu cch pht biu khc nh sau:
Nu nh P th Q; Nu m P th Q; Nu qa P th Q; Gi d P th Q; Gi nh P th Q; Gi m P th Q; H P th Q; H m P th Q; H c P th Q; Nhc bng P th Q; (m) P th Q; P l Q; P th Q; P l Q; P, thnh th Q; P, cho nn Q; P, nn chi Q; Q, nu nh P; Q, nu qa P; Q tr phi khng P; v.v (Da theo Hang Ph, Tuyn tp ngn ng hc, tr 152)

Hoc: Khi c P th c Q; C Q khi c P; V c P nn c Q; C Q v c P; Do c P m c Q; Nh c P nn c Q; C Q nh c P; P th Q Hoc nhng dng gi nh: Phi chi c P m c Q; Bao gi c P m c Q; c g c P cho c Q
V d:

P th Q :
n, th nt cng hay, Ni iu rng buc, th tay cng gi (Truyn Kiu, Nguyn Du) .

P l Q: Hay ni m , l con vt bu. Hay hi u u, l con ch vn (Trn ng Khoa) 13

Nguyen nh Tung

V c P nn c Q: V tm em phi chy du, V chng em phi qua cu gi bay. (Ca dao) H P th Q: H cn mt tn xm luc trn t nc ta, th ta phi tip tc chin u, qut sch n i. (Dn theo Hang Chng, tr 41) C Q khi c P: Ngi dng bc ng du kht ngi bn ti khi ti ng thip trong rng. (Cu chuyn dng sng, tr 208) Phi chi c P m c Q: Phi chi ngai bin c cu, anh ra gii an su cho em (Ca dao) Bao gi c P m c Q: Bao gi cho ma tr bng, Cho ch c chng em gm gi heo (Ca dao) c g c P cho c Q: c g gn gi tc gang, Gii nim cay ng chng t hay (Chinh ph ngm) Q tr phi khng P: Chiu nay ti s n thm anh tr phi Tri ma=Nu Tri khng ma th ti n thm anh. Bnh ny khng th qua khi tr phi c thuc tin=Nu khng c thuc tin th bnh ny khng th qua khi. 4.5. Mi lin h ca php ko theo v php tuyn. Trc tin chng ta c cng thc m vic chng minh l khng kh khn
P Q = PQ .

Trong ngn ng hng ngy c rt nhiu cu ni (vit) m ngi nghe (c) dng cng thc trn. Chng hn, cu ca dao sau: S c khng giu th ngho. Sinh con u lng chng gi th trai Hnh thc logc ca cu ca dao l cng thc P Q , nhng ngi nghe (c) thng hiu l theo cu trc logc P Q . Tc l hiu s c giu hoc ngho; sinh con u lng l con gi hoc con trai. Hc hi hay l khng hiu bit. Hnh thc logc ca cu vn ny l P Q . Tuy nhin ngi c s hiu Nu khng hc hi th khng hiu bit, tc l hiu theo hnh thc logc PQ. 4.6. Php tng ng. Cho hai phn an P; Q. Php tng ng ca hai phn an P; Q l phn an Nu P th Q v nu Q th P. K hiu ca phn an Nu P th Q v nu Q th P l P Q , v c l P tng ng Q. Theo nh ngha, r rng ta c: P Q = ( P Q ) (Q P ) . 14

Giao trnh Logic hoc

T ta c P Q ch ng khi P; Q c cng gi tr chn l, v sai khi P; Q khc gi tr chn l. V d: P=T gic ABCD l hnh ch nht; Q=T gic ABCD l hnh bnh hnh c hai ng cho bng nhau. Khi phn an P Q l: T gic ABCD l hnh ch nht tng ng t gic ABCD l hnh bnh hnh c hai ng cho bng nhau. 4.7. iu kin . iu kin cn. iu kin cn v . Xt phn an P Q . Khi ta ni: P l iu kin c Q v, Q l iu kin cn c P Hay Mun c Q th c P l . P l iu kin c Q, nhng khng phi l iu kin duy nht c Q. Chng hn c x 7 c th t x 7 0 hoc ( x 7 ) > 0 vn rt ra c x 7 .
2

Q l iu kin cn c P hay Q l chng t c P. Bi v khng c Q th khng c P ri ( P Q = Q P ). T cng thc P Q = ( P Q ) ( Q P ) , chng ta c th pht biu rng: Nu P Q th P iu kin v cng iu kin cn c Q hay ngc li. P tng ng Q th P l iu kin cn v c Q, v Q cng l iu kin cn v c P.

iu kin cn v c dng nhiu nht trong cc nh l Tan hc. Sau y l mt s lin t logic c ngha ca lin t iu kin cn, iu kin .
P Q: P l iu kin c Q; Q l iu kin cn c P. P l iu kin c Q; Q l iu kin t c c P. Ch cn c P l c Q; Mun c P th cn c Q. C Q khi c P; C P ch khi c Q. C Q nu c P; C P ch nu c Q. PQ: P l iu kin cn v c Q; Q l iu kin cn v c P. C P khi v ch khi c Q; C Q khi v ch khi c P. C P nu v ch nu c Q; C Q nu v ch nu c P. V d: c iu khin xe hi iu kin l bn phi c cp giy php li xe.. Hm s f c o hm ti x=a iu kin cn l f lin tc ti x=a.. Tam gic ABC vung ti A cn v l BC 2 = BA2 + AC 2 . Lc ny chng ta s hiu l: Nu tam gic ABC vung ti A th BC 2 = BA2 + AC 2 , v ngc li nu tam gic ABC c ba cnh tha BC 2 = BA2 + AC 2 th tam gic ABC vung ti A.. Mun thng mt trn ny t phi c chun b k hach (H Ch Minh, dn theo Hang Chng, tr 45) Tuy nhin trong nhng nh ngha dng P nu Q chng ta phi hiu hai chiu. C P l c Q v ngc li c Q l c P. Chng hn: S thc a c gi l gii hn ca dy s an khi n + nu: Vi mi s dng , ta lun tm c s nguyn dng ln N, sao cho vi mi n khng nh hn N th ta c: an a < .

15

Nguyen nh Tung

Thng thng cc iu lut P nu Q chng ta phi hiu hai chiu. C P l c Q v ngc li c Q l c P. Chng hn: Sinh vin c xem l han thnh mn Logic hc nu im ba bi kim tra khng c bi no di 5 im. Gii php k thut c cng nhn l mi nu trc ngy np n ng k sng ch, gii php hoc cc gii php tng t cha c bc l cng khai trong v ngai nc di mi hnh thc n mc cn c vo c th thc hin c. (Ngh nh ca Chnh Ph; 31/CP ngy 23.1.1981, dn theo Hang Chng, tr 44)

5. MT S QUY LUT LOGIC

Trong bi ny, chng ta s gii thiu mt s quy lut ca Logic hc. Cc quy lut ny cng gi l quy lut ca t duy. l quy lut ng nht, quy lut cm mu thun, quy lut bi trung, quy lut nhn qa. 5.1. Quy lut ng nht. Quy lut: Mi vt l chnh n m khng phi l vt khc. Cng thc ca quy lut ny l a = a . Trong logic lng tr nguyn l trn c hiu l mi s vt, mi khi nim,trong mt iu kin, mt khong thi gian no phi c hiu mt cch nht qun. Quy lut ny con ngi bit t rt sm. Trang T (369-286, tr. CN) th hin quy lut ny trong Nam Hoa Kinh nh sau: Ly ngn tay m th d rng ngn tay khng phi l ngn tay, sao bng ly ci khng phi l ngn tay m th d. Ly con nga m th d rng con nga khng phi l con nga, sao bng ly ci khng phi l con nga m th d.. (Da theo Trang T, Nam Hoa Kinh. Bn dch ca Thu Giang Nguyn Duy Cn) Trong Tan hc quy lut ny chnh l quy lut bc cu: Nu a = b v a = c th b = c . Mt s trng hp vi phm lut ng nht. Nu khi nim ban u khng c hiu mt cch nht qun c th dn n sai lm rt ln v sau. Khi mt khi nim c hiu theo hai ngha khc nhau, ngi ta gi l nh tro khi nim. Mt khi khi nim b nh tro c th dn n nhiu chuyn kh lng. Chng hn khi ni v Lc Vn Tin, Nguyn nh Chiu vit: Tui va hai tm ngh chuyn hc hnh. Cu: tui va hai tm, nu ngi c cu ny quan im hin nay c th s hiu l hai mi tm (28) tui. Tuy nhin cu th ny thng c hiu: hai tm l hai ln tm tc mi su (16) tui.
Du mt cy khng bn.

y l mt cu chuyn c tht tng xy ra tnh Qung nam vo khang nm 1945, theo li truyn min ca dn gian. ng A (tn chng ti t t v khng nh r) l ngi c hc v c nhiu ngi trong lng v n, ng B l ngi dn lng thin. C hai ng u chung mt lng. ng A bn t cho ng B. 16

Giao trnh Logic hoc

ng A ni vi ng B: V chng ti rt thch n mui du lai m trong vn ch c mt cy du, bn t cho anh th ti khng c mui du n na, tht tic!. ng B vn ngi dn d cht phc: C chi m! Anh c li cy du, coi nh l khng bn . Tuy nhin khi vit Giy bn t th ng A vit l: Tt c mi vt trong vn u bn ht, nhng du mt cy cng khng bn. Khi c ln cho ng B nghe, vn l ngi cht phc ng B hiu :du mt cy cng khng bn chnh l cy du lai khng bn nh ni. Giy c vit bng hai t ging nhau, mi ng gi mt t. Chuyn xy ra m xui, ng B giao tin cho ng A, ng B qun l t ai chm sc cy tri trong vn, cho n ma thu hach. C th l n ma thu hach cau, ng B n b cau (hi cau), ng A khng cho hi cau. ng A cho rng, ng ch bn t m khng bn cy n tri. iu ny c ghi r trong Giy bn t:du mt cy cng khng bn, ngha l khng c cy no bn ht. S vic phi trnh ln Lng gii quyt. Lng cn c vo Giy bn t m hai ng ang gi, x cho ng A thng kin. ng B phi a thm mt s tin na mi c tan quyn s dng t. Nh vy y khi nim du mt cy cng khng bn lc u hiu l mt cy du lai khng bn, lc sau hiu l khng c cy no bn ht. Tht l tai hi. Nhng cng c khi khi nim b nh tro rt tinh vi m khng d nhn ra ngay. Trong sch Logic hc ca GS. Nguyn c Dn c dn mt cu chuyn nh sau. C mt ngi tn l Evat xin n hc php ngy bin Protago. Thy v tr quy nh rng tr s tr hc ph lm hai ln, v ln th hai s tr sau khi Evat ra ta ln u tin v c kin. Hc xong, Evat khng ra ta ln no c. V vy Protago quyt nh khi kin Evat. ng ni vi Evat rng: D ta n c quy nh anh khng phi tr tin cho ti hay phi tr tin cho ti, th anh vn phi tr cho ti. Ny nh, nu anh c kin th theo quy nh gia chng ta, anh s phi tr tin cho ti; cn nh anh thua kin, th theo quy nh ca ta anh phi tr tin cho ti. Evat, ngi hc tr hc c php ngy bin, p: Tha thy, trong c hai trng hp ti u khng phi tr tin cho thy. V rng nu ta bt tr, ngha l ti thua kin ln u, th theo quy nh vi thy, ti khng phi tr; cn nh ti c kin, th theo quy nh ca ta tt nhin ti khng phi tr. y anh hc tr Evat nh tro khi nim. Bn c th ngh xem khi nhim no b nh tro. 5.2. Quy lut cm mu thun. Quy lut: Trong cng mt quan h v cng mt lc, mt i tng khng th va l A va l khng A. Ni cch khc mnh P P hng sai. Quy lut r rng. Trong cng mt lp lun nu chng ta cng nhn mnh P th khng c cng nhn mnh ph nh ca P. Nu vi phm iu ny th phm lut cm mu thun. T mu thun c ngun gc t cu chuyn bn mc bn gio c chp trong sch C Hc 17

Nguyen nh Tung

Tinh Hoa. C ngi nc S va bn mc va bn gio. Khi rao bn mc th anh ta rao: Mc ny tht chc khng g m thng. n khi bn gio th anh ta li rao: Gio ny tht sc ci g n m cng thng. C ngi i ng nghe vy bn hi: Nu ly ci gio ca ng m vo mc ca ng th th no?. Anh ta khng p c. Anh ta khng p c v phm lut cm mu thun. y anh cng nhn mnh P=Mc ny tht chc khng g m thng. Ngha l mc ny tht chc mi ci gio u m khng thng, k c ci gio ca anh ta. Trong khi anh ta li cng nhn mnh Gio ny tht sc ci g n m cng thng. iu ny c ngha l ci mc trn, gio ny m cng thng. Tc l cng nhn mnh P . Mc l vt chng , gi l thun. Gio l vt dng m, gi l mu. Ch c mt mnh tao l khng ni ting no! Khang th k 17, Thin c truyn vo Nht bn v c ph bin trong mi tng lp dn chng. Ti mt trng hc Thin vn c dy cho mt s hc sinh. Hm l ngy c bn hc sinh thc hnh Thin. H quy nh vi nhau rng: s khng ni ting no c v thi gian ko di 7 ngy. Vic im lng nh vy tri qua tht p sut ngy u cho n chiu ti. Mt Thin sinh h tnh thp ln mt ngn nn gip h. Mt ngn gi thi vo cn phng lm cho ngn nn sp tt. Thin sinh th nht khng gi c bnh tnh buc ming ni: Hy gi ngn nn li!. Thin sinh th hai nghe vy lin nhc: Chng ta ang tnh khu 7 ngy m!. Thin sinh th ba thc mc hi: Ti sao chng my li ni?. Cui cng Thin sinh th t kt lun: Ch c mnh tao l ngi khng ni ting no. Thin sinh th t ny phm lut cm mu thun.
(Da theo Gp nht ct , Tsai Chih Chung, Phm Cao Han dch, tr. 28)

5.3. Quy lut bi trung. Quy lut: Trong cng mt quan h v cng mt lc, mt i tng ch c th l A hoc khng l A ch khng c kh nng no khc. Ni cch khc mnh P P hng ng. Trong Tan hc m phn ln chng ta ang s dng hin nay, cng thc ny l ht sc quan trng. n ni nh Tan hc c Hilbert ni rng: Ly i lut bi trung nh Tan hc khng khc g ly mt knh thin vn ca nh Thin vn hc, hoc cm v s quyn anh dng nm m. (Dn theo Logic hc ca GS Nguyn c Dn). iu ny han tan ng. Chng ta c th xt mt vi v d sau. Trong mt phng khi xt hai ng thng phn bit a; b, ngi ta ch xt hai kh nng l: a song song b hoc a ct b. y chnh l mnh P hay P , khng c trng hp no khc. Trong khng gian khi xt hai ng thng phn bit a; b, ngi ta cng ch xt hai kh nng l: a ng phng vi b (tc l a v b cng nm trong mt mt phng), hay a khng ng phng vi b. y chnh l mnh P hay P , khng c trng hp no khc. (Ch khi hai ng thng nm trong 18

Giao trnh Logic hoc

mt mt phng ta quay li trng hp trn) Khi xt mt phn t x v mt tp hp A cng ch c hai kh nng x A hay x A . Khi xt mt phng trnh f(x)=0 cng c hai kh nng l phng trnh c nghim hay phng trnh v nghim Trong cuc sng mt s s kin sau l tun theo Logic lng tr, tt nhin phi tun theo lut bi trung. Bng n c hai kh nng sng hoc ti. Dng in c hoc khng c. Nh vy nhng s kin nu xt nhiu kh nng l khng tun theo lut bi trung. Bng n lc t lc m. Dng in lc mnh lc yu. Cu ca dao ni v tnh yu i la sau y b chi phi bi lut bi trung:
C yu, th yu cho chc, Bng nh trc trc, th trc trc cho lun.

5.4. Quy lut c l do y (Quy lut ny do nh Tan hc Leibniz a ra) Quy lut: Mi vt tn ti u c l do tn ti. Chng hn mn Logic c hc hm nay l c l do ca n. y l mt l do: ngi san chng trnh mun ngi hc phi chnh xc trong lp lun v suy ngh. Tri to ri xung t l c l do ca n. L do l n chn mi, cun ca tri khng th bm vo cnh v nh lc ht ca Tri t. C th ni, quy lut c l do y l trng hp ring ca quy lut Nhn qa trong Trit hc Pht gio. Cch y trn 2500 nm, c Pht Thch Ca Mu Ni ni rng: mi s vt hin tng trong th gii u do nhn v duyn m hnh thnh. Ci nhn nh ci duyn sinh ra lm qa. Qa ny ng vai tr l nhn nh duyn mi sinh ra qa mi, c th tip ni nhau mi. C th nhn vo v d bng s sau: CY LA HT LA (Nhn) (Nh nc; phn cy la tr bng) (Qa) CY LA (Ri xung t) (Qa)

Qua v d trn ta thy Cy la ng vai tr Nhn, nh c duyn l gp nc phn m tr bng kt ht la gi l qa. Qa ny ng vai tr l nhn mi, nh c duyn c ri xung t mc thnh cy la mi, gi l qaQa trnh ny khng gin an, v ta khng tm c nhn ban u v qa cui cng. Qu trnh ni tip nhau xoay vng nh vy c Pht gi l lun hi:
Lut Nhn qa r rng li Pht Kip lun hi quay vt vng xa.

Vi mt vi nt trnh by trn chng ta c th thy quy lut c l do y ca Leibnitz l mt phn nh ca lut Nhn qa. Qua mt s phn trnh by chung 3, chng ta thy rng xut pht t quy lut ng nht a = a m ai cng thy ng, s suy ra c lut cm mu thun v ph nh lut cm mu thun chnh l lut bi trung. BI TP. 1.1. Trong cc cu sau, cu no l phn an, nu l phn an hy cho bit phn an l phn an n hay phc v gi tr chn l ca phn an . 19

Nguyen nh Tung

a) H ni l th ca nc Vit nam. b) S t nhin 121 l s chnh phng. c) S t nhin 169 l s nguyn t. d) H ni l th ca nc Vit nam cn Paris l th ca nc Anh. e) Toronto l th ca Canada hoc Paris l th ca nc Anh. f) Sapa (Vit nam) nu nhit di khng th c tuyt ri. g) Mn Logic mt mn hc hay. h) Bn c thch hc mn Logic khng? i) Ngi no li khng yu hnh phc? 1.2. Ph nh cc phn an sau. a) Cc phn an a); b); c); d); e) cu 1.1. b) Phn s 1/2 l s v t. c) Hm nay l th by. d) Hm nay l Ch nht hoc hm nay l ngy l. e) Ti i lt v Phan thit. 1.3. Bn hy cho bit t hoc hoc l cm t hay l trong cc phn an sau c ngha ca php tuyn hay php tuyn cht. a) Nu phm lut giao thng bn c th b giam xe hoc b pht tin. b) Bn khng c iu khin xe hi, nu bn khng c giy php hoc bn nh hn 18 tui. c) n d tic sinh nht ca ti bn c th ngi dy bn bn tri hoc dy bn bn phi. d) Bn ch c chn thm A hay thm B cho ln quay s may mn ny. e) Chin tranh c th ko di 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm hoc lu hn na 1.4. Cc t v , hay, hoc, du phy trong cc phn on sau c ngha ca php logic g? a) Cng nhn, vin chc khi v hu, gi yu, bnh tt hoc mt sc lao ng c hng quyn li bo him x hi. b) Con sng tip tc chy v mc ch ca nTt c nhng ln sng v nc u vi v, kh au, i v mc ch, chy v ngun thc, v bin, v ng, v i dng v khi mi mc ch t ri li tip theo mt mc ch khc. (Hermann Hesse, Cu chuyn dng sng). 1.5. Trong truyn Quan m Th Knh, lc Knh Tm (B Th Knh) b oan, S ng khuyn: Nu con thit c chuyn ny, Lng trn ra sch, t ny xin cha, Nu khng m phi ting ng, Cng nn gng gng lm ng ko bun. a) Cho bit du phy cui cu th th hai c ngha ca php logic g? b) Vit li phn an trn dng cng thc. c) Chng minh cng thc vit phn b) khng hng ng. 1.6. Cho P; Q l hai phn an. P=Nhit di khng; Q=Tuyt ri. Vit cc phn an sau di dng cng thc. a) Nhit di khng v tuyt ri. b) Nhit di khng nhng khng c tuyt ri. c) Nhit di khng v khng c tuyt ri. d) C tuyt ri hay nhit di khng. e) Nu nhit di khng th c tuyt ri. f) Hoc nhit di khng hoc c tuyt ri nhng s khng c tuyt ri nu nhit khng di khng. g) Ni rng nhit khng di khng m li c tuyt ri l ni khng ng. h) Tuyt khng ri tr phi nhit di khng. i) Ni rng nu nhit di khng th tuyt ri l khng ng. j) Khng phi nhit di khng m tuyt khng ri. k) Tuyt ri khng phi v nhit di khng. 20

Giao trnh Logic hoc

1.7. Cho P; Q; R l cc phn an. P=Ma xun; Q=Hoa mai n; R=Hoa o n. Hy din t cc phn an sau thnh li. a) Q R . b) Q R . c) P Q . d) ( P Q ) . e) ( P Q ) . f) ( P Q ) . g) P ( Q R ) . j) ( Q R ) P . h) P ( Q R ) . k) P ( Q R ) . n) ( Q R ) P . i) ( Q R ) P . o) ( P Q ) . l) ( Q R ) P .

m) P ( Q R ) .

1.8. Chng minh cc cng thc sau: a) ( P Q ) = P Q . d) P Q = ( P Q ) .

P Q = Q P .

b) ( P Q ) = P Q . d) P Q = P Q e) P Q = ( Q P ) .

c)

f) P Q = ( P Q ) + ( P Q ) + ( P Q ) . g) P Q = ( P Q ) ( P Q ) . 1.9. Dng cc cng thc bi 1.5, hy vit cc cu sau thnh nhng cu tng ng. a) Khng phi hoa mai n hay hoa o n. b) Khng phi hoa mai n v hoa o n. c) Nu ma xun th hoa mai v hoa o n. d) Nu ma xun th hoa mai n. e) Con ci c y hay con i tu. f) Hoc hoa cc khng n cn hoa lan n, hoc hoa cc n cn hoa lan khng n, hoc c hai hoa ny u n. g) Trong mt nm hoa mai n v hoa o n hoc hoa mai khng n v hoa o khng n. 1.10. K hiu =1 l phn on hng ng, S=0 l phn on hng sai. Chng minh cc cng thc sau: a) P 1 = P . b) P 1 = 1 . c) P 0 = 0 . d) P 0 = P . e) P + 1 = P . f) P + 0 = P . 1.11. C ba thy gio tn l Tan, L, Ha dy ba mn khc nhau l Tan, L, Ha. Thy gio dy mn Ha ni rng: Chng ta dy cc mn trng tn vi chng ta, nhng khng c ai dy mn trng vi tn chnh mnh. Thy gio c tn l Tan ni: Anh ni ng. Dng cc cng thc logic hy cho bit mn dy ca tng thy gio. 1.12. C nm bn An, Bi, Can, Dn, Yn qu nm a phng khc nhau. Vi cu hi: Qu cc bn u?, ta nhn c cc cu tr li: Bn An: Qu ti H ni, cn qu Dn Ngh An. Bn Bi: Qu ti H ni, cn qu Can Sng b. Bn Can: Qu ti H ni, cn qu Dn Qung nam. Bn Dn: Qu ti Ngh an, cn qu Yn Ph th. Bn Yn: Qu ti Ph th, qu An Qung nam.
Bit cc cu trn u l cc phn ng. Hy xc nh qu ca tng bn.

1.13. Mt trong nm anh em nh v knh ca s. Ch c th hoc l Bo, hoc l Tun. An ni. Ti khng nh v. Bo ci li, v c Khi cng th. C hai u ni khng ng. Tun ni. Khng! Tun , mt ngi ni ng, mt ngi ni sai. c tip li. c ni khng ng. Khi can thip. Ba ca cc em (hin nhin ta c th tin tng c) tin chc rng ba em ni ng. Hi ai nh v knh ca s? 21

Nguyen nh Tung

1.14. Vit cc phn an sau y di dng nuth. a) Tri s trong xanh khi Ma Thu v. b) Cn hc t nht nm tun na mi kt thc mn hc ny. c) i t TP. H Ch Minh n H ni trong khang 3 gi ng h cn phi i bng my bay. d) Bn s hc tt mn Tan nu bn c kin thc v mn Logic. e) Ti s i d sinh nht ca bn tr phi ngy trng vi ngy thi mn Logic. f) Gi nhng c tc y a m ti l mt vt nh hn hay cc thy tinh, u mu g, ti quyt v ngay ly m cn, m nhai, m nghin cho k nt vn mi thi. (Nguyn Hng, Nhng ngy th u, dn theo Ng vn lp 8, tp 1, tr 113). g) H ch cho ng chia li thi, nu c li. (li; l trong bun bn) h) Bi chng bc m ti ngho, cho nn ti phi bm bo thi khoai. (Ca dao) i) Bao gi rau dip lm nh, g lim thi mn th mnh ly ta. (Ca dao) j) Nn th, nn thy v lo hc, No n, no mc bi hay lm. (Nguyn Tri) k) L lun s tr thnh lc lng vt cht mt khi n thm nhp c vo qun chng (K. Marx). 1.15. Vit cc phn an bi 1.13 di dng nu khng th khng. 1.16. Vit phn an o ca cc phn an sau. Cho bit gi tr chn l ca cc phn an thun v o trong cc cu a); b); c). a) Nu x 2 = x th x khng m. b) N n ln hn 3 th n2 ln hn 9. c) Nu anh thi mn Tan c 9 im th anh u. d) Gn n th rng. 1.17. a) Chng minh cng thc ( P Q ) = P Q . b) Ph nh phn on: Nu ng y phm ti th ng y b pht t . c) Ph nh phn on: Chiu nay ti s n thm anh tr phi Tri ma. 1.18. (Bi tp- Hong Chng) Vit cc phn on sau di dng cng thc: a) Khng phi v bnh m n gy i. b) N gy i khng phi v lm vic nhiu. c) N gy i khng phi v lm vic nhiu, cng khng phi v bnh. d) N gy i khng phi v lm vic nhiu, hay v bnh. e) ng i kh, khng kh v ngn sng cch ni m kh v lng ngi ngi ni e sng. (Nguyn B Hc) f) Ru ngon khng c bn hin, Khng mua, khng phi khng tin khng mua. (Nguyn Khuyn)

22

Giao trnh Logic hoc

CHNG 2

LOGIC V T 1. HM PHN ON. PHN ON PH BIN. PHN ON TN TI

1.1. Hm phn an. 1.1.1. Mt s v d m u. Gi S=N l tp hp cc s t nhin, gi n l mt s no thuc tp S=N. Xt cu: n l s nguyn t. Ta k hiu cu ny l P(n). P(n) khng phi l mt phn an, v chng ta khng bit c tnh ng hay sai ca cu . Nu ta thay n=5, th ta c P(5)=5 l s nguyn t. y l mt phn an ng. Nu ta thay n=4, th ta c P(4)=4 l s nguyn t. y l mt phn an sai. Gi S l tp hp nhng ngi Vit Nam, v gi x l mt ngi Vit Nam no . Xt cu: x l nh th. Cng nh trn ta k hiu cu ny l P(x). P(x) khng phi l mt phn an. Nu ta thay x bi ng Nguyn Du, th ta c P(Nguyn Du) = Nguyn Du l nh th. y l mt phn an ng. Nu ta thay x bi B Phng H, th ta c P(Phng H) = Phng H l nh th. y l mt phn an sai, v B Phng H l mt ngh s ci lng. Qua mt s v d trn, ta thy trong thc t c nhng cu m tnh ng hay sai ca cu ta ch xc nh c trong cc trng hp c th. 1.1.2. Bin, Hng ca tp hp. Khi chng ta xt mt tp hp S no , chng hn tp hp cc s t nhin, tp hp nhng ngi da vng, tp hp nhng ngi lm ngh dy hc. Khi ta gi chung chung mt phn t no ca S, phn t s hiu l mt bin. Nu gi c th mt phn t ca S th phn t c hiu l mt hng. V d: Gi S l tp hp nhng nh th (ngi lm th) ca Vit Nam. Xt mt ngi no thuc S, th ngi no l mt bin. Thng thng chng ta hay k hiu bng ch x,y,z, ng Xun Diu l mt ngi nm trong tp S. ng Xun Diu l mt hng. Nu x l phn t ca S, chng ta k hiu x S . Nu x khng l phn t ca S, chng ta k hiu x S . Vy ng Xun Diu S , cn nh B Phng H th khng thuc S. B Phng H S . 1.1.3. Th no l mt hm phn an? Ta gi mt hm phn an xc nh trn tp S l mt cu c cha bin, v cu ny tr thnh phn an khi ta thay bin bi mt hng c th trong S. 23

Nguyen nh Tung

K hiu hm phn an l P ( x), x S .

Hai v d nu trn mc 1.1.1. u l hm phn an.

1.2. Phn an ph bin.

Cho hm phn an P ( x), x S . Ta lp phn an sau y: Vi mi x thuc S, P(x) (Hay P(x) ng vi mi x thuc S) . Phn an ny gi l phn an ph bin. K hiu: x S , P( x) .

V d:
Xt li hm phn an trn: S l tp hp nhng ngi Vit Nam, v P(x)= x l nh th. Phn an ph bin c thnh lp t hm phn an ny l: Vi mi x thuc tp S nhng ngi Vit Nam, x l nh th (Mi ngi Vit Nam u l nh th).

gi l phn an, th cu ny phi ni ln c tnh ng sai ca mt thc t m n phn nh. Chng ta thy ngay rng cu trn l sai, tc l phn an sai.
Xt hm phn an x 2 + 1 > 0, x R ( R l tp s thc). Phn an ph bin c thnh lp t hm phn an ny l: Vi mi s thc x, x 2 + 1 > 0 = x R, x 2 + 1 > 0 . y l mt phn an ng.

1.3. Phn an tn ti.

Cho hm phn an P( x), x S . Ta lp phn an sau y: Tn ti x thuc S, P(x) (Hay P(x) ng vi mt x no thuc S). Phn an ny gi l phn an tn ti. K hiu: x S , P( x) .

V d:
Xt li hm phn an trn: S l tp hp nhng ngi Vit Nam, v P(x) = x l nh th. Phn an tn ti c thnh lp t hm phn an ny l: Tn ti x thuc tp S nhng ngi Vit Nam, x l nh th (Tn ti ngi Vit Nam l nh th). y l phn an ng. Xt hm phn an x 2 1 = 0, x R ( R l tp s thc). Phn an tn ti c thnh lp t hm phn an ny l: Tn ti s thc x, x 2 1 = 0 = x R, x 2 1 = 0 . y l mt phn an ng.

1.4. Ph nh ca cc phn an ph bin, phn an tn ti.

Xt phn an ph bin Mi ngi Vit Nam u l nh th. Ph nh ca phn an ny l phn an: Khng phi mi ngi Vit Nam u l nh th. iu ny c ngha l: C ngi Vit Nam khng l nh th=Tn ti ngi Vit Nam khng l nh th. Xt phn an ph bin Vi mi s thc x, x 2 0 . Ph nh ca phn an ny l phn an: Khng phi mi s thc x, x 2 0 . iu ny c ngha l: C s thc x, m x 2 < 0 . Phn an C s thc x, m x 2 < 0 vit di dng cng thc: x R, x 2 < 0 . Ta c cng thc tng qut sau:

( x, P ( x) ) = x, P( x)

( x, P ( x) ) = x, P ( x)

24

Giao trnh Logic hoc

V d: Ph nh ca phn an C ngi Vit Nam c gii Nobel Vn hc l phn an: Mi ngi Vit Nam u cha c gii Nobel Vn hc. Khng phi mi s t nhin n, 3n+1 u l s l. iu ny c ngha l Tn ti s t nhin n, 3n+1 l s chn. 1.5. Bng ghi nh phn an ph bin v phn an tn ti. Phn an x S , P ( x)
x S , P ( x) x, P ( x) x, P ( x)

Khi no ng P(x) ng vi mi x thuc S P(x) ng vi mt x no thuc S Phn an x S , P ( x) l sai Phn an x S , P ( x) l sai

Khi no sai P(x) sai vi mt x no thuc S P(x) sai vi mi x thuc S

Phn an x S , P ( x) l ng Phn an x S , P ( x) l sai

1.6. Nhn xt.

Nu tp S l hu hn, (c th lit k c) th phn an x S , P ( x) chnh l phn an hi P ( x1 ) P ( x2 ) ... P ( xn ) , trong x1 , x2 ,..., xn S .

x S , P ( x) chnh l phn an tuyn P ( x1 ) P ( x2 ) ... P ( xn ) , trong x1 , x2 ,..., xn S .

Do m cc cng thc nu mc 1.4. cng gi l cng thc De Morgan m rng.

1.7. Hm phn an nhiu bin. cc phn trn chng ta bit v hm phn an, chnh l hm phn an mt bin. Nhiu vn khng th dng hm phn an mt bin c. Chng ta hy xt mt vi v d.
S thc x ln hn s thc y. R rng y l mt cu m chng ta cha thy c tnh ng sai ca n. Nu thay x=7, v y=5 ta c mt phn an ng. Nu thay x=7, v y=15 ta c mt phn an sai. ng x l ba (cha) ca ng y. Cng nh trn ta thy y khng phi l phn an. Nhng nu thay x=Nguyn Phi Khanh, v y=Nguyn Tri ta c mt phn an ng. Cn nu thay x=Nguyn Phi Khanh, v y=Trn Nguyn n ta c mt phn an sai. Ta gi mt hm phn an hai (hoc ba) bin l mt cu c cha hai (hoc ba) bin, v cu ny s tr thnh mt phn an khi ta thay cc bin ny bi cc hng trong nhng tp hp xc nh. K hiu hm phn an hai bin P ( x, y ), x S ; y T . Tng t cho trng hp nhiu bin hn. V d: K hiu S l tp hp nhng ngi n ng; T l tp hp nhng ngi n b. Xt P(x,y) l cu x l chng ca y. P(x,y) l mt hm phn an. Thay x = Lu Quang V, v y = Xun Qunh ta c mt phn an ng. Xt S=T=R (tp hp s thc). Q ( x, y ) = x > y . Ta c Q(4,3) l phn an ng, v Q(3,4) l phn an sai.

25

Nguyen nh Tung

1.8. Cc lai phn an ph bin v phn an tn ti dng m rng. Cho hm phn an hai bin P ( x, y ), x S ; y T .
Phn an Vi mi x thuc S, vi mi y thuc T, P(x,y) l ng c gi l phn an ph bin tan phn. K hiu ca phn an ph bin tan phn l x S y T , P( x, y ) . Phn an Vi mi x thuc S, tn ti y thuc T, P(x,y) l ng c gi l phn an ph bin bn phn trc. K hiu ca phn an ph bin bn phn trc l x S y T , P( x, y ) . Phn an Tn ti x thuc S, vi mi y thuc T, P(x,y) l ng c gi l phn an ph bin bn phn sau. K hiu ca phn an ph bin bn phn sau l x S y T , P( x, y ) . Phn an Tn ti x thuc S, tn ti y thuc T, P(x,y) l ng c gi l phn an tn ti tan phn. K hiu ca phn an tn ti tan phn l x S y T , P( x, y ) .

V d:
Cho S l tp hp cc bn sinh vin lp TH4 ca Khoa CNTT, v T l tp hp tt c cc mn hc ca Khoa CNTT, cn P(x,y) l cu: x s hc mn y. Khi cu: Mi sinh vin ca lp TH4 s hc tt c cc mn hc ca Khoa CNTT c th vit di dng cng thc: x S y T , P( x, y ) . Cng thc x S y T , P( x, y ) l k hiu ca cu: C mt (hoc nhng) sinh vin ca lp TH4 s hc tt c cc mn hc ca Khoa CNTT . S l tp hp mi cha kha, T l tp hp mi ci kha, Q(x,y) l cu Cha kha x m c kha y. Khi cng thc x S y T , P( x, y ) chnh l cu Cha kha vn nng . y l mt phn an sai. Cng thc x S y T , P( x, y ) chnh l cu C mt cha kha m c mt kha no

.
Cho S=T=R, P(x,y) l cu x + y = y + x. Khi cu Php cng hai s thc c tnh cht giao han (cu ny ng) c th din t di dng cng thc: x S y T , P( x, y ) . Cho S=T l tp hp tt c mi ngi trn th gii, P(x,y) l cu x i o cho y. Ta c: P(x,y) = P(y,x) (Cu ca dao: yu nhau i o cho nhau tha ng thc ny).

1.9. Ph nh ca phn an ph bin v phn an tn ti dng m rng.

Tr li phn an Mi sinh vin ca lp TH4 s hc tt c cc mn hc ca Khoa CNTT. Ph nh ca phn an ny l phn an Khng phi mi sinh vin ca lp TH4, s hc tt c cc mn hc ca Khoa CNTT. iu ny cng c ngha l : C t nht mt sinh vin, v mt mn hc m sinh vin khng hc mn ny . Vi k hiu nh trn, cu ny c th din t bng cng thc: x S y T , P( x, y ) . Ta c cc cng thc tng qut sau: ( x S y T , P( x, y ) ) = x y, P( x, y )

( x S y T , P( x, y ) ) = x y, P( x, y ) ( x S y T , P( x, y ) ) = x y, P( x, y )

( x S y T , P( x, y ) ) = x y, P( x, y ) .
26

Giao trnh Logic hoc

1.10. Mt vi v d: (Tham kho phn Logic trong sch Tan ri rc, ca KENNET H. ROSEN) Cho S=T l tp hp nhng ngi trn th gii, v L(x,y) l cu x yu y. Khi cu Mi ngi u yu Lan c th din t bng cng thc: x S L( x, Lan) .
Cu Mi ngi u yu mt ngi no c th din t bng cng thc: x S y S , L( x, y ) . Cu Mi ngi u yu duy nht mt ngi no c th din t bng cng thc: x S y S , ( L( x, y ) ( z y L( x, z ) ) ) .

Cu Khng c ai yu tt c mi ngi c th din t bng cng thc: x S y S , L( x, y ) . Tht vy, cu Khng c ai yu tt c mi ngi c ngha l: Khng th c ngi yu tt c mi ngi. M c ngi yu tt c mi ngi chnh l cng thc x S y S , L( x, y ) . Do Khng th c ngi yu tt c mi ngi chnh l cng thc

( x S y S , L( x, y ) ) hay x S y S , L( x, y ) .

Cu Mi ngi u yu chnh mnh c th din t bng cng thc: x S L( x, x) . Cu C mt ngi no khng yu ai ngai chnh mnh c th din t bng cng thc x S y S , ( L( x, y ) x = y ) . By gi vn dng cc cng thc mc 1.9 v nh ngha gii hn lim f ( x) = a ta chng t:
x x0 x x0

lim f ( x) a > 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < f ( x) f ( x0 ) ) .

x x0

Tht lng

vy, t

nh

ngha logic:

lim f ( x) = a

din

bng
x x0

> 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < f ( x) f ( x0 ) < ) . Khi lim f ( x) a chnh l dng ph nh:

> 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < f ( x) f ( x0 ) < ) . Ta p dng tng bc cc cng thc

mc 1.9.

> 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < f ( x) f ( x0 ) < )

=

= > 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < f ( x) f ( x0 ) < ) (1.9) = > 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < ) f ( x) f ( x0 ) < ( Ch 1 ) = > 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < ) ( f ( x) f ( x0 ) < ) (De Morgan) = > 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < ) ( f ( x) f ( x0 ) ) . > 0, > 0, x ( 0 < x x0 < f ( x) f ( x0 ) < ) (1.4)

1.11. Bng ghi nh phn an ph bin v phn an tn ti dng m rng. Phn an x S y T , P ( x, y ) x S y T , P ( x, y ) x S y T , P ( x, y ) x S y T , P ( x, y ) Khi no ng Khi no sai P(x,y) ng vi mi cp P(x,y) sai vi mt cp (x,y) (x,y) no Vi mi x, c mt y sao cho C mt x sao cho vi mi y P(x,y) ng P(x,y) l sai. C mt x sao cho vi mi Vi mi x, c mt y sao cho y P(x,y) ng P(x,y) l sai. P(x,y) ng vi mt cp P(x,y) sai vi mi cp (x,y) (x,y) 27

Nguyen nh Tung

2. PHN ON KHNG NH CHUNG PHN ON KHNG NH RING PHN ON PH NH CHUNG PHN ON PH NH RING
Cc lai phn an ph bin, tn ti m chng ta trnh by 1, Chng 2 l tng i y cho phn Logic v t. Tuy nhin theo Logic truyn thng ca Aristote cc lai phn an trn cng c trnh by di mt dng khc. Tr li mt v d trn: Vi mi x thuc tp S nhng ngi Vit Nam, x l nh th . Phn an ny c th din t: Mi ngi Vit Nam u l nh th. Ta gi S l tp hp nhng ngi Vit Nam, v M l tp hp nhng nh th (c th hiu tt c nhng nh th trn th gii). Khi phn an Mi ngi Vit Nam u l nh th c th pht biu dng cng thc: Mi S u l M i ch S v M ta c phn an Mi M u l S. V ta c phn an Mi nh th u l ngi Vit Nam 2.1. Phn an khng nh chung. Cho S v M l hai tp hp ty . Phn an Mi S u l M c gi l phn an khng nh chung. K hiu ca phn an Mi S u l M l SaM = S , M hay A. Hoc c th k hiu: x S , x M . iu ny cng c ngha l tp hp S l mt tp con ca tp M.
V d: S l tp hp nhng con s t, M l tp hp nhng con vt c bn chn. Khi A=SaM l phn an: Mi con s t u l con vt c bn chn. Trong khi MaS l phn an: Mi con vt bn chn u l s t(!) .

2.2. Phn an khng nh ring.

Cho S v M l hai tp hp ty . Phn an C S l M c gi l phn an khng nh ring. K hiu ca phn an C S l M l SiM = S , M hay I. C S l M, ngha l c phn t ca S l phn t ca M, iu ny cng c ngha tp S v tp M c giao khc rng. Do SiM = S , M cng c th k hiu theo cch ca tp hp: x S , x M . V d: S l tp hp nhng con s t, M l tp hp nhng con vt c bn chn. Khi I=SiM l phn an: C con s t l con vt c bn chn. Trong khi MiS l phn an: C con vt bn chn l s t. Lc ny c hai phn an u chp nhn c. 28

Giao trnh Logic hoc

2.3. Phn an ph nh chung. Cho S v M l hai tp hp ty . Phn an Mi S u khng l M c gi l phn an ph nh chung. K hiu ca phn an Mi S u khng l M l SeM = S , M hay E.
Mi S khng l M, ngha l mi phn t ca S khng l phn t ca M, iu ny cng c ngha tp S v tp M c giao bng rng. Do SeM = S , M cng c th k hiu theo cch ca tp hp: x S , x M . V d: S l tp hp nhng con s t, M l tp hp nhng con vt c bn chn. Khi E=SeM l phn an: Mi con s t u khng phi l con vt c bn chn. Trong khi MeS l phn an: Mi con vt bn chn u khng phi l s t. Lc ny c hai phn an u sai. S l tp hp nhng con s t, M l tp hp nhng con vt bit bay. Khi E=SeM l phn an: Mi con s t u khng phi l con vt bit bay. Trong khi MeS l phn an: Mi con vt bit bay u khng phi l s t. Lc ny c hai phn an u ng.

2.4. Phn an ph nh ring.

Cho S v M l hai tp hp ty . Phn an C S khng l M c gi l phn an ph nh ring. K hiu ca phn an C S khng l M l SoM = S , M hay O. C S khng l M, ngha l mt s phn t ca S khng l phn t ca M, iu ny cng c ngha tp S v tp M c nhng phn t ring. Do SoM = S , M cng c th k hiu theo cch ca tp hp: x S , x M . V d: S l tp hp nhng con s t, M l tp hp nhng con vt c bn chn. Khi O=SoM l phn an: C con s t khng l con vt c bn chn. Trong khi MoS l phn an: C con vt bn chn khng phi l s t. Ta c mt phn on ng v mt phn on sai.

2.5. Quan h gia cc phn an A, E, I, O.

Theo 1, Chng 2 ta c cc cng thc sau y A=O I=E. Tht vy, A = ( x S , x M ) = x S , x M = O . Chng ta li thy rng nu Mi con s t u l con vt c bn chn th hin nhin Mt s con s t l con vt c bn chn. T phn an Khng c con s t no l con vt c hai chn chng ta cng c th ni Mt s con s t khng l con vt c hai chn. V d ny minh ha cho hai cng thc sau y A I EO.

29

Nguyen nh Tung

By gi ta xt hai phn on Mi ngi u ng (A) v Khng ai ng c (E). Nhn thy rng c hai phn on ny c th cng sai, nhng khng th ng thi cng ng. Ta gi hai phn on A v E l hai phn on i chi trn. Hai phn on Mt s ngi ng (I) v Mt s ngi khng ng (O). Nhn thy rng c hai phn on ny c th cng ng, nhng khng th ng thi cng sai. Ta gi hai phn on I v O l hai phn on i chi di. Ni tm li cc mi quan h gia cc phn on A, I, E, O nu trn c th biu din bng hnh vung sau, gi l hnh vung logic. 2.6. Mt s pht biu thng gp trong ngn ng t nhin ca cc phn an dng A, I, E, O. Phn an khng nh chung thng l: Mi ngi; Ai ai; Ai m chng; Mi khi; mi lc; Mi vt; mi cnh;v.v Trong thnh Tht La, mi tr con u bit n c Pht i Gic v mi nh sn sng cng dng vo bnh bt ca nhng Ngi lng l i kht thc. (Cu chuyn dng sng, tr 60). m m ra ng b ao, Trng c c ln, trng sao sao m (Ca dao) Phn an ph nh chung thng l: Khng ngi no; Khng ai; No ai; Khng khi no; Khng lc no; Khng vt no; Khng cnh no;v.v V trong s nhng bc hin trit m chng quen bit v nghin ngm li dy, cng khng mt ai han tan t n ci y th gii thn tin Khng mt ai gii c nim khao kht ti hu.( Cu chuyn dng sng , tr 39) Khng ai tm hai ln trong mt dng sng (Heraclite) Phn an khng nh ring thng l: Mt ngi; Mt s (hay nhiu) ngi; Mt ai ; Mt khi (lc) no ;v.v Nhiu ngi i qua sng cm thy c ci g ta ra t dng sng v t hai ngi li y. Mt i khi cn c hnh khch nhn mt trong hai ngi v bt u k v cuc i mnh... (Cu chuyn dng sng, tr 168). Khi ta gi, khi cui u, Khi v chn khc, khi chau i my (Truyn Kiu, Nguyn Du) Phn an ph nh ring thng l: Mt ngikhng; Mt s (hay nhiu) ngikhng; Mt ai khng; Mt khi (lc) no khng;v.v Mt s ngi khng cho rng Truyn Kiu mang tnh gio dc, chng hn nh Nguyn Khuyn hay Hynh Thc Khng. BI TP. 2.1. Trong cc phn an sau, phn an no l phn an khng nh chung, khng nh ring, ph nh chung, ph nh ring. a) Mi tr em u mong Tt n. b) C mt s tr em khng bit tt l g. 30

Giao trnh Logic hoc

c) Hu ht mi tr em TP. H Ch Minh u c n Tt Trung thu. d) Khng mt tr em no M c n Tt Trung thu. e) C mt s tr em TP. H Ch Minh khng c n Tt Trung thu. f) Mun sng u v bin. g) Tt c cc dng sng u chy. h) Rt nhiu cy cho hoa m khng cho qa. i) C mt s t cy cho qa m khng cho hoa. (chng hn cy chui tr qa) 2.2. Cho P(m,n) l cu n chia ht cho m, n; m l nhng s nguyn (Z). Xc nh gi tr chn l ca cc mnh sau: a) P(4,5) b) P(2,4) c) m, n, P (m, n) d) m, n, P (m, n) e) n, m, P (m, n) f) n, P (1, n) . 2.3. Cho P(x,y) l cu x+y=3, x; y l nhng s thc R. Xc nh gi tr chn l ca cc mnh sau: b) x, y, ~ P ( x, y ) c) x, y, P ( x, y ) a) x, y, ~ P ( x, y ) d) x, y, P ( x, y ) e) x, y, P ( x, y ) f) x, y, P ( x, y ) . 2.4. (Bi tp Hong Chng) Cho phn on: Trong hi ngh c ngi tn thnh kin y. Hi nu phn on ny ng th trong cc phn on sau phn on no ng, phn on no sai? a) Trong hi ngh rt nhiu ngi tn thnh kin y. b) Trong hi ngh khng phi khng c ngi tn thnh kin y. c) Trong hi ngh khng phi ai cng khng tn thnh kin y. d) Trong hi ngh khng phi c ngi tn thnh kin y. e) Trong hi ngh khng phi c ngi khng tn thnh kin y. f) Trong hi ngh khng phi khng c ngi khng tn thnh kin y. 2.5. Cho P(x) l cu x c mt s tc phm ca nh vn ngi c Hermann Hesse, y x thuc S tp hp nhng ngi Vit nam. Hy din t cc cng thc sau thnh nhng cu thng thng: a) x, P( x) b) x, P ( x) c) x, P ( x) d) x, P ( x) . 2.6. Cho P(x) l cu x c Truyn Kiu; Q(x) l cu x c Truyn Lc Vn Tin y x thuc S tp hp nhng sinh vin trong lp ca bn. Hy din t cc cu sau bng cng thc: a) Mi sinh vin trong lp ca bn u c truyn Kiu v truyn Lc Vn Tin. b) Mi sinh vin trong lp ca bn u cha c truyn Kiu v truyn Lc Vn Tin. c) Mt s sinh vin trong lp ca bn c truyn Kiu hoc truyn Lc Vn Tin. d) Mt s sinh vin trong lp ca bn cha c truyn Kiu hoc truyn Lc Vn Tin. e) Nhiu sinh vin trong lp ca bn c truyn Kiu m cha c truyn Lc Vn Tin. f) Vit cc cu ph nh ca cc cu a); b); c); d); e). 2.7. Cho P(x) l cu x c Truyn Kiu; Q(x) l cu x c Truyn Lc Vn Tin y x thuc S tp hp nhng sinh vin trong lp ca bn. Hy din t cc cng thc sau thnh nhng cu thng thng: a) x, ( P( x) Q( x) ) b) x, ( P( x) Q( x) ) c)

x, ( P( x) Q( x) )

d) x, ( P( x) Q( x) ) .

2.8. Cho P(x,y) l cu x ln hn hay bng y, vi x, y thuc tp hp cc s t nhin N. Cho bit gi tr chn l ca cc phn an cho di dng cng thc sau: b) xy P ( x, y ) c) xy P ( x, y ) a) xy P ( x, y ) d) xy P ( x, y ) e) xy P ( x, y ) P ( y, x) f) x P ( x, x) . g) xy ( P( x, y ) + P( y, x) ) . 2.9. Trong Tan hc ta nh ngha sau: Tp A c gi l con ca tp B nu mi phn t ca A cng 31

Nguyen nh Tung

l phn t ca B. a) T nu trong nh ngha trn c ngha ca php logic g ? b) Vit nh ngha trn di dng k hiu. c) Ph nh nh ngha trn. 2.10. Cho P(x,y) l cu x bit y, vi x, y thuc tp hp S nhng sinh vin ca lp bn. Hy din t cc cu sau bng cng thc: a) Mi sinh vin trong lp bn u bit bn lp trng An. b) C sinh vin trong lp bn khng bit bn lp trng An. c) Bn Lan bit bn Hu m Hu khng bit Lan. d) Hai bn Bnh, An bit nhau. e) Mi sinh vin trong lp u bit nhau. f) Khng phi mi sinh vin trong lp u bit nhau. g) Ph nh cc cu trn. 2.11. Cho bit mi quan h (i chi, mu thun) gia cc phn on sau: a) x R, x 2 3 x + 2 > 0 v x R, x 2 3 x + 2 0 . b) x R, x 2 3 x + 2 > 0 v x R, x 2 3 x + 2 0 . 2.12. (Bi tp - KENNET H. ROSEN) Cho F(x,y) l cu x c th la gt y , vi tp hp tt c mi ngi trn th gii. Hy dng cc lng t din t cc cu sau: a) Mi ngi u c th la gt Fred. b) Evelyn c th la gt c mi ngi. c) Mi ngi u c th la gt c ai . d) Khng ai c th la gt c tt c mi ngi. e) Mi ngi u c th b la gt bi mt ai . f) Khng ai c th la gt c c Fred ln Jerry. g) Nancy c th la gt c chnh xc hai ngi. h) C chnh xc mt ngi m ai cng la gt c. i) Khng ai c th la gt c chnh mnh. j) C mt ngi no c th la gt c chnh xc mt ngi tr bn thn mnh. 2.13. Ph nh cc cu bi 2.12. 2.13. Ph nh cc phn on sau: a) C nhng con mo khng thch m. b) Khng con mo no l khng thch m. c) C ci cht ha thnh bt t. d) t no l t chng cay. e) My i bnh c c xng.

Chng 3

SUY LUN DIN DCH 1. SUY LUN T MT TIN

1.1. i cng v suy lun. C th ni suy lun l mt vic m thc ca chng ta lun lun thc hin mi khi, c ngi thc hin c trong gic m. Nhng suy lun l g? Khi cha hc mn Logic chng ta cng suy lun rt nhiu. Hin nhin nhng suy lun l ng, nhng cng c nhiu suy lun khng ng m nu khng c kin thc v logic hc chng ta khng th nhn ra. 32

Giao trnh Logic hoc

T xa xa lai ngi cng suy lun. Thy nhng con vt n lai tri cy g, con ngi cng n tri m khng s cht. Ngy nay chng ta nhn thy khng mt thnh ph ln no m khng c nhng con sng ln chy qua. iu ny gip ta suy lun l cc thnh ph c pht trin t cc vng t tr ph. Mt ngi con trai khi nghe mt c gi ni rng: Bao gi rau dip lm nh, g lim thi mn th mnh ly ta th anh hiu ngay c y mun ni iu g v anh nn lm g. Sau ny ta s thy suy lun ca anh l khng hp Logic. 1.2. Suy lun l g? Trong logic lung tr chng ta ni rng: Phn an ko theo A B nhn gi tr chn l hng ng c gi l mt suy lun. Trong A c gi l tin ; v A l phn an ng bit, B c gi l kt lun rt ra t tin A. Chng ta k hiu suy lun ny di dng s :
A B

(c: c A, vy c B)
V d:

t A = P Q v B = Q . Khi phn an P Q Q l hng ng, bt k P; Q nhn gi tr chn l g. Vy P Q Q l mt suy lun. Chng hn Ma xun l hoa o v hoa mai n. Vy th, ma xun l hoa o n.
(on vn ny th n gin. Nhng thy r cu trc logic ca n ta c th phn tch nh sau: A=Ma xun l hoa o v hoa mai n. Phn an A c dng P Q R vi P=Ma xun; Q=Hoa o n; R=Hoa mai n (Xem thm 3 Chng 1). Bn c hy kim tra li cng thc P Q R = ( P Q ) ( P R ) . Vy phn an A c dng ( P Q ) ( P R ) , do kt lun c rt ra l P R . Ngha l ma xun l hoa o n)

1.3. Mt s hnh thc suy lun t mt tin . 1.3.1. Trng hp tin A v kt lun B bng nhau. Nu A = B th A B cng nh B A u l hng ng. Do chng ta c hai s suy lun:
A B v . B A

Nhng kt lun rt ra t cc s ny thc cht l nhng phn an tng ng logic vi phn an cho. 1.3.2. T cng thc De Morgan ta c bn s suy lun sau y:

( P Q) P Q

(1);

P Q (2); ( P Q)

( P Q) P Q

(3);

P Q (4). ( P Q)
33

Nguyen nh Tung

V d: Nu khng phi An v Bnh n ng gi th An khng n ng gi hay Bnh khng n ng gi. (Suy lun theo s (1)). Nu lp hc c bn hay th vin c bn u chng phi, th lp hc khng c bn v th vin cng khng c bn. (Suy lun theo s (3)). Ti khng i lt v ti cng khng i Vng tu. Vy ngha l ti i lt hay ti i Vng tu u khng ng. (Suy lun theo s (4)). 1.3.3. T cng thc ca phn an phn o P Q = Q P ta c hai s suy lun:
PQ Q P (5) v (6). Q P PQ V d: Nu Tri ma th ng t. Vy, ng khng t th Tri khng ma. Khng c sch th khng c tri thc. Vy, c tri thc l c sch (Lnin)

1.3.4. T mi quan h ca php ko theo v php tuyn. Chng ta bit cc cng thc sau y trong Chng 1

P Q = P Q = ( P Q ) .
Do ta c mt s s suy lun sau:

PQ PQ (7); (8) PQ ( P Q )
V d:

Trong Truyn Kiu, Thy Kiu khen Kim Trng bng cu:
(Nng rng:) trm lic dung quang Chng sn ngc bi, thi phng Kim Mn

K hiu P = Kim Trng l ngi c c qu nh ngc; Q = Kim Trng l ngi c hc thc (phng Kim Mn). Cu th: Chng sn ngc bi, thi phng Kim Mn l mt phn an dng P Q . Vy kt lun c rt ra s l ( P ) Q hay P Q (Suy lun theo s (7)). Tc l ngi c s hiu: Kim Trng l ngi c o c hoc l ngi c hc, thm ch c hai.

2. SUY LUN T NHIU TIN

2.1. Lut rt gn. Nu tin c dng P Q th c th rt ra kt lun l P hoc Q. Tm li ta c hai s suy lun:
PQ (9) ; P PQ (10). Q

34

Giao trnh Logic hoc

V d: Nu n l s t nhin chia ht cho 6. Vy, n chia ht cho 2. Tht vy, n chia ht cho 6 th n va chia ht cho 2, va chia ht cho 3, do kt lun rt ra l n chia ht cho 2. Hoc chng ta cng rt ra kt lun n chia ht cho 3. Nm trc anh v ti n H ni. Vy, th anh n H ni. 2.2. Lut cng thm. Nu ly P lm tin th chng ta c th rt ra kt lun P Q , vi Q l mt phn an ty . Vy ta c s suy lun:
P (11). PQ V d: Nm trc anh y n H ni. Vy, th anh y n H ni hoc anh y n H Ty. Bt ng thc a a l mt kt lun hp logic ca lut cng thm.

2.3. Lut modus ponens. Xut pht t hai phn an P v P Q lm tin , th kt lun c rt ra l Q. S suy lun l:

P ( P Q) Q

Ngi ta cng thng vit cc s suy lun trn di cc dng sau:

PQ P Q P

hoc

PQ (12). Q

Trc tin chng ta s chng minh s trn ng l mt suy lun, tc l chng minh ( P ( P Q ) ) Q l mt phn an hng ng. Tht vy, kt qa ny c th thy trong bng gi tr chn l sau:
P Q PQ

P ( P Q)
S S S

( P ( P Q )) Q

S S
V d:

S S

Nu 97 l s nguyn t th 97 khng c c s no khc ngai 1 v chnh n. M 97 l s nguyn t. Vy, 97 khng c c s no khc ngai 1 v chnh n.

35

Nguyen nh Tung

an vn lp lun trn c th vit di dng s suy lun: Nu 97 l s nguyn t th 97 khng c c s no khc ngai 1 v chnh n. 97 l s nguyn t. Vy, 97 khng c c s no khc ngai 1 v chnh n. (Dng s suy lun (12)) Nu bn vt n th bn phm lut giao thng. M bn vt n . Vy, bn phm lut giao thng. Trong ngn ng t nhin hng ngy, ngi ta thng khng vit (hay ni) y tt c cc tin v kt lun ca mt lp lun, v nhng l do nh tit kim; t nh; hoc iu ni ra nhiu ngi bit Nu 97 l s nguyn t th 97 khng c c s no khc ngai 1 v chnh n. Vy, 97 khng c c s no khc ngai 1 v chnh n. (Lc bt phn an tin : s 97 l s nguyn t). Nu bn vt n th bn phm lut giao thng. M bn vt n . (Lc bt kt lun: bn phm lut giao thng) V Cha khng mun d nhng b mt ca cc huynh con khi vng mt h, con c th ni cho Cha nghe nhng g con cho l con bit v Cha; Daniel, Cha tu vin trng ca con. (Hermann Hesse, Nh kh hnh v g lang thang,Tr Hi-Vinh Bch-Lan Nh; dch , tr 12) an vn trn nu vit y c th vit nh sau: Khi vng mt ngi no th khng c ni v nhng b mt ca h. By gi, khng c mt cc huynh ca con y, nn Cha khng mun ni v nhng b mt ca cc huynh . Vy, con c th ni cho Cha nghe nhng g con cho l con bit v Cha; Daniel, Cha tu vin trng ca con. Cc dch gi lc bt tin Khi vng mt ngi no th khng c ni v nhng b mt ca h, xem nh ngi c bit. 2.4. Lut modus tollens. Xut pht t hai phn an P Q v Q lm tin , th kt lun c rt ra l P . S suy lun l:

( P Q) Q .
P

Ngi ta cng thng vit s suy lun trn di cc dng sau:

PQ Q P V d: Nu s 1996 chia ht cho 6 th 1996 chia ht cho 3. S 1996 khng chia ht cho 3 (V 1+9+9+6=25 khng chia ht cho 3). Vy, 1996 khng chia ht cho 6. Q

hoc

PQ (13). P

36

Giao trnh Logic hoc

Nu l ma xun th hoa mai n. By gi khng c mt cy mai no c bng c. Vy, by gi khng phi l ma xun. Nhng lp lun trong ngn ng t nhin hng ngy, thng thng ngi ta cng lc bt mt s phn an. Chng hn: Nhng ny anh Tt t, xin li anh, ti trng anh khng ging mt kht s cht no. Anh ang mc o qun ca mt ngi giu c, v mi tc y hng ca anh khng phi l tc ca mt kht s hay Sa mn. (Hermann Hesse Cu chuyn dng sng, tr 146) . an vn trn lc bt phn an lm tin : L kht s hay Sa mn th tc khng c hng hay o qun khng phi ca ngi giu c. 2.5. Lut la chn (hay tam an lun tuyn). Xut pht t hai phn an P Q v P lm tin , th kt lun c rt ra l Q . S suy lun l:
PQ

P (14). Q Q Lut la chn hay tam an lun tuyn c th xem l h qa ca lut modus ponens. Tht vy, ta c P Q = P Q . Do ( ( P Q ) P ) Q = ( ( P Q ) P ) Q l mt phn an

( P Q) P

hoc

hng ng. Tng t ta cng c s suy lun:

PQ

( P Q) Q
P

hoc

Q P

(15).

Hng ha tng gi l do cung khng cu hoc do lm pht. Nhng va qua, hng ha tng gi khng phi do cung khng cu. Vy, hng ha va qua tng gi l do lm pht . a + b > 0 b > 0. a 0 Suy lun ny s dng s la chn. Tht vy, nu a + b > 0 th a > 0 hay b > 0 . M a 0 . Vy, b > 0 . 2.6. Quy tc bc cu ca php ko theo (hay tam on lun gi nh).
Xut pht t hai phn an lm tin l P Q ; Q R , th ta rt ra kt lun l P R . S suy lun l:

( P Q ) (Q R ) .
PR Ngi ta cng thng vit s suy lun trn di cc dng sau: PQ QR (16). PR

37

Nguyen nh Tung

V d: Nu bn khng tham d kha hc iu khin xe hi th bn khng c cp gip php li xe hi. Nu bn khng c cp giy php li xe hi th bn khng c iu khin xe hi. Vy, nu bn khng tham d kha hc iu khin xe hi th bn khng c iu khin xe hi. S (16) cng c mt dng khc nh sau:
PQ QR P R

(17).

Nu bn qua sng th bn phi nh ch. Nu nh ch th bn phi nghe theo s hng dn ca ngi li . M bn li qua sng. Vy, bn phi nghe theo s hng dn ca ngi li .

Trong ngn ng t nhin hng ngy, Tam on lun gi nh cng c lc i mt s phn on. Sau y l mt v d: Bao gi cho ma tr bng Cho ch c chng, em gm gi heo. Gi heo ch trn treo, Ch a gi mo, cng lm ch i! (Ca dao) on th trn nu vit y c th vit: Bao gi ma tr bng, th ch s c chng. Ch m c chng, th em c gi heo em gm. By gi ma tr bng nn ch c chng. Vy, em c gi heo gm. Nhng tht tic, gi heo ch li trn treo (c phi cho chng?), ch thay gi heo bng gi mo, n cng lm ch i! Nh vy on th trn lc i mt s tin ngi c t hiu. 2.7. Kt lun rt ra t phn on ph bin. T phn on ph bin x S , P ( x) ta rt ra kt lun P (a ) vi a S . S suy lun s l: x S , P ( x) . P(a)
Ta nhn thy rng, nu S hu hn th s suy lun trn chnh l lut rt gn 2.1. Trong cc sch logic hc u dn ra v d kinh in sau y:
Mi ngi u phi cht. Vy, ng Socract phi cht.

Dng s suy lun s l:

Mi ngi u phi cht. ng Socract phi cht.

Thm mt v d:
Mun sng u chy ra bin. Sng Cu Long phi chy ra bin.

38

Giao trnh Logic hoc

Trong Ton hc khi p dng mt cng thc, mt nh l chnh l hnh thc suy lun ny. Chng hn bt ng thc

2 1 2

2 1 + 3 > 0 l trng hp ring ca x 2 2 x + 3 > 0, x R .

3. MT S SUY LUN T CC PHN ON A, E, I, O

3.1. T trng hp chung rt ra trng hp ring. Mi sinh vin u l nhng ngi thch c sch. Vy, c mt s sinh vin thch c sch. Mi sinh vin u l nhng ngi khng thch phi thi li. Vy, c mt s sinh vin khng thch phi thi li. Hai v d trn minh ha cho s suy lun sau:
A E v I O

hay
SaM SeM v . SiM SoM

3.2. Kt lun c rt ra t vic i ch hai tp hp. Nhn thy rng t phn on mt s hoa cc l hoa c mu chng ta c th rt ra phn on mt s hoa c mu l hoa cc. Vy chng ta c s suy lun sau y:
SiM . M iS

3.3. Tam on lun. Tam on lun l mt lp lun gm c ba phn on, trong c hai phn on ng lm tin v mt kt lun hp logic c rt ra t hai phn on ny. Nh vy cc lp lun theo s modus ponens hay modus tollens u l cc tam on lun. Tuy nhin theo logic truyn thng ca Aristote ngi ta c bit quan tm n cc tam on lun m cc tin v kt lun l cc phn on dng A, E, I, O. Cho S, P, M l cc tp hp ty . T hai phn on dng A, E, I, O c cha S, M; P, M lm tin v ta rt ra kt lun ch cn c S v P. Lp lun nh vy tm gi l tam on lun dng A, E, I, O. C bn loi hnh ca tam on lun dng ny l.
M _P S_M S_P P_M S_M S_P M _P M _S S_P P_M M _S . S_P

Mi loi hnh c 4 4 4 = 64 cch t cc ch ci a, e, i, o vo cc du gch ni. Vy s c 4 64 = 256 s lp lun. Nhng khng phi s no cng l mt lp lun hp logic, ngi ta chng minh c ch c 19 trng hp l ng mt lp lun. Chng ta ln lt trnh by cc trng hp trong cc loi hnh.

39

Nguyen nh Tung

3.3.1. Cc s hp logic trong loi hnh 1. Trong loi hnh 1 c 4 s hp logic l:

M aP SaM SaP M eP SaM SeP M aP SiM SiP M eP SiM SoP

Ngi ta thng vit tt l AAA, EAE, AII, EIO. V d: Gi M l tp hp cc hnh ch nht, P l tp hp cc hnh bnh hnh, S l tp hp cc hnh vung. M aP SaM SaP Mi hnh ch nht u l hnh bnh hnh. Mi hnh vung u l hnh ch nht. Mi hnh vung u l hnh bnh hnh.

Gi M l tp hp cc nh th, P l tp hp cc sinh vin lp KT2A, S l tp hp nhng ngi Cu lc b Trc xanh. M eP SaM SeP Mi nh th u khng phi l cc sinh vin lp KT2A. Mi ngi Cu lc b Trc xanh u l nh th. Mi ngi Cu lc b Trc xanh khng phi l sinh vin lp KT2A.

Chng ta s chng minh mt vi s tam on lun. Chng hn s lp lun

M aP SiM SiP

Theo cch k hiu chng 2, ta c M a P ngha l x M , x P , v S i M ngha l x S x M . Vy chng t c phn t x S v x P , tc l chng ta c kt lun S i P .
Tng t nh trn bn c c th chng minh cc s cn li.

3.3.2. Cc s hp logic trong loi hnh 2.

Trong loi hnh 2 c 4 s hp logic l:
PeM S aM SeP PaM SeM SeP PeM SiM SoP PaM SoM SoP

Ngi ta thng vit tt l EAE, AEE, EIO, AOO.

V d: Gi M l tp hp cc loi hoa c gai, P l tp hp cc loi hoa cc, S l tp hp cc loi hoa n vo ma thu. PeM SiM SoP Mi loi hoa cc u khng c gai. Mt s hoa n vo ma thu c gai. Mt s hoa n vo ma thu khng phi l hoa cc.

40

Giao trnh Logic hoc

Chng ta s chng minh s lp lun trn.

P e M ngha l x P, x M , iu ny ta cng suy ra c x M , x P . S i M ngha l x S , x M . Vy chng t c phn t x S v x P , tc l chng ta c kt lun S o P .

3.3.3. Cc s hp logic trong loi hnh 3.

Trong loi hnh 3 c 6 s hp logic l:

M aP M aS SiP

M eP M iS SoP

M iP M aS SiP

M oP M aS SoP

M aP M iS SiP

M eP M aS SoP

Ngi ta thng vit tt l AAI, EIO, IAI, OAO, AII, EAO.

V d: Gi M l tp hp nhng ngi vit sch khoa hc ph thng, P l tp hp nhng ngi nghin cu Ton hc, S l tp hp nhng ngi vit sch (c sch xut bn). M oP M aS SoP Mt s ngi vit sch khoa hc ph thng khng nghin cu Ton hc. Mi ngi vit sch khoa hc ph thng u l nhng ngi vit sch. C nhng ngi vit sch khng nghin cu Ton hc.
Chng ta s chng minh s lp lun trn.

M o P ngha l x M , x P , M a S ngha l x M , x S . Vy chng t c phn t x S v x P , tc l chng ta c kt lun S o P . 3.3.4. Cc s hp logic trong loi hnh 4.
Trong loi hnh 4 c 5 s hp logic l:

PaM M eS SeP

PeM M iS SoP

PiM M aS SiP

PaM M aS SiP

PeM M aS SoP

Ngi ta thng vit tt l AEE, EIO, IAI, AAI, EAO.

V d: Gi M l tp hp nhng ngi hc logic hc, P l tp hp nhng ngi nghin cu Ton hc, S l tp hp nhng ngi c th ngy bin. PaM M aS SiP Mi ngi nghin cu Ton hc u hc logic hc. Mi ngi hc logic hc u c th ngy bin. Mt s ngi c th ngy bin l ngi nghin cu Ton hc.

Thm mt v d: Mi ngi giu c u l ngi chuyn cn. Mi ngi chuyn cn u ng khen. Vy, mt s ngi ng khen l ngi giu c.(s lp lun AAI) Chng ta s chng minh s lp lun trn.

P a M ngha l x P, x M , M a S ngha l x M , x S . iu ny chng t mi phn t ca P u l phn t ca S. Vy chng t c phn t x S v x P , tc l chng ta c kt lun S i P. 41

Nguyen nh Tung

3.4. Phng php dng s Ven nh cc s Tam on lun: nh cc s Tam on lun chng ta c th dng cc s Ven nh sau:
P a M (tp P l tp con ca tp M).

P i M (tp P v tp M c giao khc rng).

P e M ( tp P v tp M c giao bng rng).

P o M ( tp P c phn t nm ngoi tp M).

Khi minh ha (chng hn) s suy lun

PaM M aS SiP

l hp logic, chng ta thc hin nh sau: v tp P cha trong tp M, v tp M cha trong tp S. Khi chng ta thy S v tp P c phn chung l M.

4. MT S SUY LUN KHNG HP LOGIC THNG GP

4.1. Suy lun khng hp logic theo s :
PQ Q P

hay

PQ . QP

V d sau y l hai on lp lun khng hp logic: Nu cp in th n khng sng. M hin ti n khng sng. Vy, in b cp. Hai tam gic bng nhau th c din tch bng nhau. Vy, hai tam gic c din tch bng nhau th bng nhau.

42

Giao trnh Logic hoc

4.2. Suy lun khng hp logic theo s : PQ P PQ hay . Q P Q V d: Nu hai gc i nh th bng nhau. Vy, hai gc khng i nh th khng bng nhau. Nu c du chn trn b bin th c ngi i qua y. M sng nay khng c du chn no c. Vy, sng nay khng c ai n b bin ny. Hai on lp lun trn chng ta c th d dng nhn thy l khng hp logic. Nhng lp lun khng hp logic nu chng ta trnh by trong cc vn bn khoa hc l khng th chp nhn, v khi ngi ta p dng s dn n sai lm trong thc t. Tuy nhin nhng vn bn khng c tnh php l, hoc trong ngn ng hng ngy vn hay dng s lp lun 4.2 trn. Theo GS. Hong Ph trong tuyn tp ngn ng hc trang 45 n 47, GS. Hong Ph cho rng hnh thc suy lun PQ P Q hay P Q PQ l suy , v khi ni P Q th ngi c phi hiu P Q . Chng hn trong ngn ng hng ngy khi ni chiu nay nu Tri khng ma th ti i do Cng vin. Lc ngi nghe phi hiu nu chiu nay Tri ma th ti khng i do Cng vin. Sau y l mt s v d v suy trong cc tc phm vn hc.
Bao gi cy chui c cnh, Cy sung c n, cy hnh c hoa, Bao gi chch ngn a, So di nc, th ta ly mnh (Ca dao)

Khi c bi ca dao trn th t xa n gi chng ta vn hiu, cc s kin chui c cnh; sung c n; hnh c hoa; chch ngn a; so di nc l khng bao gi c, nn ta khng th ly c mnh. Mc d l suy lun khng hp logic nhng trong thc t khi nghe mt ngi no ni vy chc cc bn bit nn lm g. Hoc l:
Bao gi rau dip lm nh, G lim thi mn, th mnh ly ta (Ca dao) Hn chi nh nhng ngi say ru ht. Gi hn bit ht th c l hn khng cn chi. Kh cho hn v kh cho ngi, hn li khng bit ht. Th hn chi, cng nh chiu nay hn chi... . (Nam Cao, Ch Pho, dn theo Hong Chng, tr.89).

Suy lun y l: Nu bit ht th hn khng chi. Hn li khng bit ht. Vy, hn chi. 43

Nguyen nh Tung

Chu Mnh Trinh trong mt bi ta cho Truyn Kiu vit: Gi s ngay khi trc, Liu Dng cch tr, duyn chng Kim ng d vic ma chay, quan li cng bng, n vin ngoi t ngay tnh oan ung, th u n ni son phn my nm lu lc, em thn cho thin h mua ci, m chc bin thy mt ci nghnh ngang, ai xui c anh hng ci gip (Dn theo Nguyn Hin L, Luyn vn, NXB Vn ha thng tin, 1993, tr. 182) Bn c bit l Kim Trng d vic ma chay; quan li khng cng bngdn n Thy Kiu phi mi lm nm lu lc v T Hi phi cht oan. Nh vy on vn trn y Chu Mnh Trinh lp lun theo cch suy . Cc hnh thc suy m chng ta va trnh by trn ch c tnh tham kho, chng cng c nhng gi tr nht nh trong vn hc, cn v mt logic hc cc lp lun nh vy l khng hp logic. Cc vn bn nh ni quy; iu lut; cc giy t chng c c tnh php l khng c dng cc lp lun nh trn.

5. LP LUN HP LOGIC V CHNG MINH

5.1. Lp lun nh th no c xem l hp logic? Xut pht t cc tin ng chng ta rt ra mt kt lun ng v hp logic, mt lp lun nh vy c gi l mt lp lun hp logic. V d: Nu hm nay l ngy Quc t lao ng th cc Cng nhn khng phi i lm vic. M hm nay ng l ngy Quc t lao ng. Vy, cc Cng nhn khng phi i lm vic. Nu phn on M hm nay ng l ngy Quc t lao ng l ng th on lp lun trn y l hp logic. V phn on Nu hm nay l ngy Quc t lao ng th cc Cng nhn khng phi i lm vic l mt phn on ng. on lp lun ny hp logic v dng s suy lun modus ponens. Tht l iu k diu, Hong t tr v sau bao nm di bin bic. Tnh yu ha gii tt c. Ngy y, m d gh ng thi l Ph thy c c c li nguyn: Hong t, ngi s lm thn cc x x bit ni, tr phi ngi c mt ngi con gi xinh p yu ngi mt cch chn thnh! on lp lun trn y nu theo logic lng tr th khng hp logic. Khi c on vn trn y chng ta nhn thy rng cu ni ca m ph thy ngha l Nu khng c ngi con gi xinh p yu ngi th ngi s lm cc. Nhng theo cch lp lun trn chng ta hiu l nh mt ngi con gi no yu con cc bit ni m con cc bin li lm Hong t v Hong t v. Mi sinh vin khoa Cng ngh thng tin u hc Ton. Vy m trng i hc A c mt s sinh vin khng hc Ton. Cho nn trng i hc A c mt s sinh vin khng phi l sinh vin khoa Cng ngh thng tin. on lp lun trn y l hp logic v l mt Tam on lun dng PaM
SoM . SoP

5.2. Chng minh l g ? Chng minh mt vn l lm cho vn sng t; r rng m khng ai khng cng nhn c. Chng hn chng minh vn Anh A hm th by c n phng lm vic v vn ny c chng minh vo sng sm th hai. Mt ngi c th lp lun nh sau: Mt, hm th by ch B phng bn cnh c thy anh trong phng lm vic. Hai, sng nay cha ai vo y v trn bn c du vn tay ca anh. Vi hai bng chng ny chng t hm th by anh c ti phng lm vic. 44

Giao trnh Logic hoc

Chng ta nhn thy rng ngi ny xut pht t hai tin v sau kt lun Anh A hm th by c n phng lm vic. Nu c hai tin ny u ng th kt lun nh vy l ng tin. Trong vn hc cc lp ph thng, chng hn chng minh vn Tp th Vit Bc ca nh th T Hu l tp th vit v Ch tch H Ch Minh. Ngi vit c th lp lun bng cch ch r nhng bi th m T Hu vit v Bc H trong tp th Vit Bc, v s lng cc bi th ny l chim hu ht. Nhng chng minh nh trn chng ta khng xt trong gio trnh ny. Trong logic lng tr, chng minh mt vn c GS. Hong Chng nu trong gio trnh logic hc ph thng nh sau: Chng minh mt phn on A l vch r rng A l kt lun logic ca nhng tin ng. Phn on cn chng minh c gi l Lun . Nhng tin ng c gi l Lun c. Kt lun logic hay cc quy tc suy lun c kt lun A c gi l Lun chng. Sau y l mt s v d. Chng minh Cy ci khng c nim vui; ni bun. Chng ta c th lp lun nh sau: Nu c tnh cm th c cm gic (nh con ngi c tnh cm th con ngi u c cm gic; con vt nh ch mo c tnh cm nn c cm gic nh au n). Mi cy ci u khng c cm gic (Mi cy ci khi ta nh n, n khng n trnh, khng ku than ). Vy, mi cy ci u khng c tnh cm. (V d trch t: Ngh thut t duy. Pascal ide, tr. 190 (khng ghi nm v nh xut bn)). Chng minh trn l ng. V Lun c xut pht t hai tin ng Nu c tnh cm th c cm gic; v Mi cy ci u khng c cm gic, kt lun c rt ra theo s Tam on lun (Lun chng): PaM
SeM . SeP

Chng minh Tng ba gc trong ca mt tam gic bng 180 . Chng ta c th lp lun nh
sau:

A y

B C

(1) Ko di BC mt on Cx, ta c gc BCx l gc bt, nn BCx = 180 . (2) K ng thng Cy song song vi cnh AB (k c v theo tin Eulicde). (3) ACy + yCx + C = BCx = 180 . (4) Ta c A = ACy (Hai gc so le trong).

45

Nguyen nh Tung

(5) B = yCx (Hai gc ng v). Ta c hai tin ng l: A = ACy v B = yCx . (6) Vy, A + B + C = ACy + yCx + C . (7) Vy, A + B + C = ACy + yCx + C = BCx = 180 . y chnh l iu phi chng minh. Nhn xt: Cc dng (1); (2); (3) l xy dng tng ACy + yCx + C = 180 . Dng (4); (5) l hai phn on ng, v hai phn on ny nhm a hai gc A; B li gn gc C tc l s dng c kt qu dng (3). Kt qu dng (6) l s thay th. Dng (7) chnh l mt on lp lun chng minh vn , s dng quy lut ng nht. Trong qu trnh chng minh nh l ny cc lun c khng c sn m chng ta phi xy dng nn. Cc lun c va xy dng l ng m khng ai c th khng cng nhn. Lun chng y l quy lut ng nht v hin nhin l mt quy lut suy lun hp logic. Hai v d m chng ta va xt trn l nhng chng minh m chng ta gi l chng minh trc tip. Sau y chng ta ni thm v chng minh gin tip. 5.3. Chng minh gin tip. Bn c chc cn nh bi th t nc ca nh th Nguyn nh Thi c hai cu th: Ngi ra i u khng ngonh li, Sau lng thm nng l ri y Hai cu th ny thng c phn tch l: Nhng ngi con trai H ni ra i chin u mc d c v dng dng (u khng ngonh li), nhng trong lng lun yu qu hng. Chng ta c th chng minh nhn nh ny bng lp lun sau y: Nu mt ngi khng yu qu hng th h ra i khng ngh g n qu hng c. M nhng ngi con trai ny ra i c ngh n qu hng (Sau lng thm nng l ri y). Vy h phi yu qu hng. Lp lun trn s dng s suy lun modus tolent. Lp lun chng minh nh vy c gi l chng minh gin tip. Vi tin P v kt lun Q cn chng minh. Ta gi s khng c Q v i n khng c P. Ni cch khc s chng minh cng l s suy lun modus tolent PQ Q . P
V d: Chng minh nu s n 2 l s chn th n l s chn.

y gi thit P = n 2 l s chn v kt lun cn chng minh Q = n l s chn. Chng ta c th lp lun nh sau: Gi s khng c Q, ngha l n khng l s chn. Khi phi c s nguyn k 2 sao cho n = 2k + 1 . T n 2 = ( 2k + 1) = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 , hay c th vit di dng
n 2 = 2 2k 2 + 2k + 1 = 2m + 1 . iu ny chng t n 2 khng phi l s chn. Vy, iu cn chng minh l ng.

chng minh mt vn Q bng cch chng minh gin tip chng ta c th lp lun nh sau: Gi s khng c Q v t phn on Q ny chng ta lp lun hp logic v i n mt phn on hng sai R R , khi chng ta kt lun Q ng. iu ny l hp logic v qu trnh lp lun c th vit li bng s sau:
Q R R .

46

Giao trnh Logic hoc

Phn on Q R R l ng (nu qu trnh lp lun l hp logic) v R R l lun sai. Vy, theo php ko theo Q phi sai. Tc l Q ng. Bi ton Chng minh ny. Tht vy, gi s

2 l s v t l mt v d kinh in v phng php chng minh 2 c th vit di dng mt phn s ti gin

m . n Khi m 2 = 2n 2 , iu ny chng t m 2 l s chn. Theo v d trn ta c m l s chn, tc l c th m vit m=2.k. T ng thc m 2 = 2n 2 cng suy ra c n l s chn. Do vy, phn s c gin c n cho 2; tc khng phi l phn s ti gin. Tm li, t phn on: 2 khng l s v t ta lp lun m m hp logic v c c c hai phn on phn s ti gin v phn s khng ti gin. y l n n iu phi chng minh.

2 khng l s v t, tc l

5.4. Mt phng php chng minh vn bng cch dng Tam chi tc php ca nhn minh hc.
Nhn minh hc l mt mn hc l lun c t rt sm n do A. Kaspada Gautama; Ngi Trung Quc dch l Tc Mc Tin Nhn, tng kt, vo khong th k 7 hay 6 trc Cng nguyn. Sau ny Pht gio tip thu v pht trin trong h thng Kinh - Lun ca mnh. Mn hc ny cng phn tch vn rt chi tit, bn c c th tm c trong mt s Kinh Lun Pht gio. Ni vn tt th Nhn minh hc c ba phn: Tn: l vn nu ra cn lm sng t. Nhn: l nguyn nhn hay l l do c Tn. D: l t d, mn vt thy, bit lm t d lm bng chng cho Nhn. T sng t phn Tn. V d: Mi ngi u phi cht (Tn). Bi v nu khng c tai nn g th gi cng phi cht (Nhn). Cng nh mi ng vt khc, khi gi cng phi cht (D).

Bi tp. 3.1. Cho bit cc lp lun sau y dng quy tc suy lun no? Lp lun c hp logic khng? a) Nu 0 x 1 th x 0 . b) Hin nhin 2 > 1 , vy 2 1 . c) Nu l s nguyn t th khng c c tht s. M 2010 c c tht s, vy 2010 khng phi l s nguyn t. d) Bn An hc gii mn Ton. Do bn An hc gii mn Ton hoc mn L. e) Bn An hc gii tt c cc mn hc. Vy bn y hc gii Ton. f) Nu Tri ma th ti khng i do Cng vin. M Tri ma, vy ti khng i do Cng vin. g) Nu chiu th by m Tri ma th chng ta khng i cm tri. Nu chiu th by chng ta khng i cm tri th sng Cha nht chng ta i sm. Vy th, nu chiu th by Tri ma th sng Cha nht chng ta i cm tri sm. 3.2. Cho bit cc phn on c lc i trong cc lp lun sau, v xt xem lp lun c hp logic khng? a) Nu bn di 18 tui th bn khng c ng k kt hn. M bn di 18 tui. b) Ti suy ngh, vy ti tn ti. (Rene Descarter). c) Hc k va ri An khng c xp loi gii. V nu c loi gii th im mn Ton hoc mn Vn ca An phi trn 8 im. d) Nu B H mun hng, xin hy chm u thn i . (Trn Quang Khi). 47

Nguyen nh Tung

3.3. Chng minh quy tc suy lun sau l hp logic: P+Q ~P Q p dng: Tm phn on c lc i trong lp lun sau: Hoc con ci c Ba hoc con i tu, nhng hin ti con nhn thy rng con khng th i tu c. 3.4. Chng minh quy tc la chn c th xem l h qu ca quy tc modus ponens. 3.5. (Dn theo Nguyn c Dn, Logich v Ting Vit) Trong bui tic ngi ch mi nhiu khch n d. Tic sp khai m mt s ngi cha n . Lc ch v tnh li ni ln: Ngi cn n th khng n. Va ni xong cu ny mt s ngi b v m khng cho ch. ng ch tic hong qu li ni: Ngi khng nn i th li i. Va ni xong cu ny s ngi cn li i ht, ch tr bn thn nht ca ng li. ng bn thy vy n ni: Khch kha th m anh n ni khng cn thn ngi ta v ht. ng ch li ni tip: Nhng li ti ni lc ny l u c ni nhng ngi va ri u!. Sau cng ngi bn ng bn ng cng b i. a) Theo bn nhng ngi ra i sau cu ni th nht l suy lun theo s no? b) Theo bn nhng ngi ra i sau cu ni th hai l suy lun theo s no? c) Theo bn ngi bn thn ra i sau cu ni th ba l suy lun theo s no? 3.6. (Bi tp - Hong Chng) Tm cc phn on c lc i trong cc lp lun sau, v xt xem lp lun c hp logic khng? a) Anh y l ngi trung thc, c th tin anh y. b) Bnh ny khng th cha khi, tr phi c thuc tin. c) Anh m lm c vic y th ti i ng u. d) Ngi gi th kh tnh, m ch gi u. e) Mun xy dng ch ngha x hi phi lm g? Nht nh phi tng gia sn xut cho nhiu. Mun sn xut nhiu th phi c nhiu sc lao ng. Mun c nhiu sc lao ng th phi gii phng sc lao ng ca ph n (H Ch Minh). 3.7. (Bi tp - Hong Chng) Tm quy tc suy lun trong on vn sau y ca K. Marx Do c nhng lc lng sn xut mi, loi ngi thay i phng thc sn xut ca mnh, v do thay i phng thc sn xut, cch lm n ca mnh, loi ngi thay i tt c nhng quan h x hi ca mnh. Ci ci xay quay bng tay a li x hi c lnh cha, ci ci xay chy bng hi nc a li x hi c t bn cng nghip. 3.8. Tm kt lun hp logic rt ra c t hai phn on lm tin (suy lun bng cch dng Tam on lun) a) Mi ng vt n tht u hung d v Mt s loi ch n tht. b) Mi ng vt sng di nc u bit bi v Mt s lai gu khng bit bi. c) Mi ngi giu c u l nhng ngi chuyn cn v Mi ngi chuyn cn u l ngi ng khen. d) Mt s sinh vin thch hc mn logic v Mi sinh vin u l ngi nghin cu khoa hc. e) Khng mt sinh vin no thch li lp v Nhiu ngi quanh chng ta l sinh vin. 3.9. (Bi tp - Hong Chng) Hai anh chng, mt anh l hc tr, mt anh l nng dn, c hai cng i chi vi b v. ang i trn ng, nghe ting ngng ku, ng b hi: Ti sao ting ca n to th nh? Anh hc tr p: C n di th n ku to. Anh nng dn b li: Th con nh ng, c c di u m cng ku to?. 48

Giao trnh Logic hoc

i mt qung ng na, thy con vt ang bi di ao, b v hi: Ti sao n li ni th nh? Anh hc tr p: Nhiu lng t tht th ni. Anh nng dn b tip: Th chic thuyn c lng c tht u m vn ni?. Hy gip anh hc tr ci li anh nng dn. 3.10. Xt xem lp lun sau c hp logic khng. Bo rng cch tr ngang, Khng sang th cng ng sang nh. Nhng y cch mt u nh, C xa xi my m tnh xa xi. (L bc sang ngang, Nguyn Bnh)

TI LIU THAM KHO TRCH DN 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hong Chng: Logic hc ph thng, NXB Gio dc, nm 1994 Nguyn c Dn: Logich v Ting vit, NXB Gio dc, nm 1998. Hong Ph: Tuyn tp Ngn ng hc, NXB Nng, nm 2007. L T Thnh: Tm hiu Logich hc, NXB Tr, nm 1993. Kenneth H. Rosen: Ton hc ri rc ng dng trong Tin hc, NXB Khoa hc v K thut, H ni, nm 2000. 6. Hermann Hesse: Cu chuyn dng sng, NXB Hi nh vn, khng ghi dch gi, Nht Chiu vit li gii thiu, nm 1999. Cu chuyn dng sng, NXB Vn ha Si gn, Phng Khnh; Phng Thng dch, Thi Kim Lan gii thiu, nm 2008. (Nguyn tc Siddhartha) 7. Hermann Hesse: Nh kh hnh v G lang thang, Tr Hi; Vinh Bch; Lan Nh dch, khng ghi nm v nh xut bn. (Nguyn tc Narziss and Goldmund. C mt bn dch Ting Vit vi tn i bn chn tnh) 8. Ernest Hemingway: ng gi v bin c, Huy Phng dch v gii thiu, NXB Vn ngh Tp. H Ch Minh, nm 2000. 9. Thch ng Qun: Nhn Minh lun, Thnh hi Pht gio Tp. H Ch Minh xut bn, nm 1997. 10. Thch Trung Hu, Thch Hi n: su tm v gii thiu tc phm ca Tm Minh L nh Thm, (tham kho phn: lc gii Nhn minh nhp chnh l lun v Nhn minh tng lun) 11. Mt s tc phm Vn hc trong nh trng: Truyn Kiu; Lc Vn Tin; Chinh Ph ngm; Quan m Th Knh; v.v. 12. Nguyn Hu Anh: Ton Ri Rc, NXB Gio Dc, nm 1999.

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