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2014
T. A. mYCTAHOBA
Auvypuenv
,

oprotoza l3 a lKA
Teopeta+era pr
TertozMe :apaaaa taaa A, ,
3taaoaM otzetoz
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
V]K 373.167.1.57
BBK 28.0a72
KTK 445
B97
Ho0 pe0akuue 0okmopa 6uo:oeuueckux nayk,
npoeccopa 5ypukoea A.A.
Hycvanona T.A.
Pene+n+op no nooinn a c+apmexaccnnxon n noc+y-
nammnx n nysi / T. A. Byc+anona. . 9, .
Poc+on n/] . dennxc, 2013. 537, [1] c. . n. (An+y-
pnen+).
ISBN 978-5-222-22025-2
B nac+oamex noconn nsoeni +eope+nnecxne ocnoni conpexen-
no nooinn n pasnnnie napnan+i +ec+onix s aann EI3 no noo-
inn c nocennxn xe+onnecxnxn yxasannaxn n npanninixn o+ne+a-
xn. Pene+n+op coc+anen na ase iocyapc+nennoio opasona+einoio
c+anap+a no nooinn n npoipaxxe a noc+ynammnx n nysi.
B +eope+nnecxo n ac+n oc+a+onno nopono paccxa+pnnam+ca non-
poci nooinn n coo+ne+c+nnn c yponnaxn opiannsannn nno npnpoi
o+ xe+onno-xoexyapnoio o nocqepnoio. Ma+epna cnc+exa+nsn-
ponan, nmc+pnponan naianixn cxexaxn, +annaxn, pncynxaxn,
nsoen npoc+o n oc+ynno, n+o ae+ nosxonoc+i nononenno nsynn+i
xypc nooinn caxoc+oa+eino.
B npax+nnecxo n ac+n ocooe nnnxanne yeeno +ec+onix s aannax
EI3 no nooinn co cnoonix pasnepny+ix o+ne+ox n ac+n C nico-
xoio yponna conoc+n. Hpnneennie n xnnie xe+onnecxne pexoxen-
annn n cxexi pemenna x i+nx s aannax nosnoa+ naynn+ica n e+xo,
xpa+xo, oinnno n no cymec+ny o+nena+i na nce conie nonpoci.
Knnia npenasnanena a ic+po n xanec+nenno noio+onxn yna-
mnxca omeopasona+einix ynpeenn x EI3 n IHA-9 a noc+yn-
enna n ccysi n nysi na nooinnecxne, xennnncxne, neaioinne-
cxne, ncnxooinnecxne, ceicxoxosac+nennie, ne+epnnapno-cann+ap-
nie, qnsxyi+ypnie, cnop+nnnie cnennainoc+n, npoqnn n nanpan-
enna oynenna.
Bye+ noesna an+ypnen+ax nyson, ynamnxca c+apmnx xaccon mxo,
ynn+eax omeopasona+einix ynpeenn, npenoana+eax nyson n
xe+onc+ax.
V]K 373.167.1.57
BBK 28.0a72
ISBN 978-5-222-22025-2
H97
Byc+anona T. A., 2012
Oqopxenne. OOO dennxc, 2014
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
RPEHChOBHE
Pene+n+op no nooinn npenasnanen a caxonoio+onxn an-
+ypnen+on n ninycxnnxon c+apmnx xaccon mxo, a +axe xoe+
cyn+i noconex a npenoana+ee nooinn n xe+onc+on.
Knnia coepn+ na pasea. Teope+nnecxne ocnoni conpexen-
no nooinn n Ma+epnai a caxoc+oa+eino pao+i no no-
io+onxe x EI3. B coepanne nepnoio pasea pene+n+opa nxmne-
ni iani, nocnamennie xapax+epnc+nxe pasnix yponne opiannsa-
nnn nno npnpoi. Bnooina nayxa o nno npnpoe, Ke+xa
xax nooinnecxaa cnc+exa, Opiannsx xax nooinnecxaa cnc+e-
xa, Mnoioopasne opiannsxon, Opiannsx neonexa n eio sopo-
nie, Haopiannsxennie cnc+exi. 3nomnna opiannnecxoio xnpa,
3xocnc+exi. Ma+epna nsoen n oc+ynno, cnc+exa+nsnponan-
no qopxe c nxmnennex cpannn+einix +ann, cxex, pncynxon.
Iyoxaa +eope+nnecxaa noio+onxa cnococ+nye+ ynmexy ycnoe-
nnm snann n ninonennm +ec+onix saann. Ocooe nnnxanne
yeeno xon+pom nooinnecxnx nona+n, nponeccon, anenn,
yc+anonennm nsanxocnase n cnc+exe pasnoyponneno opiannsa-
nnn npnpoi. B noconn npnneeni xon+poinie nonpoci x ianax
n +ec+onie saanna xo ncex paseax nooinn. B+opo pase xnn-
in nxmnae+ anans nanoee +pynix saann EI3, xe+onnecxne
pexoxenannn, +ec+i n saanna a noio+onxn ynamnxca x ixsaxe-
ny n qopxe EI3.
Enni iocyapc+nenni ixsaxen (EI3) no nooinn n mxoax
Poccnn anae+ca onnx ns nanemnx conpexennix nanpanenn n
xonnennnn xoepnnsannn poccncxoio opasonanna. Hpeoennaa
qopxa ixsaxena no nooinn conxemae+ qynxnnn nianenna ypon-
na snann ninycxnnxon n nx nqqepennnannn a o+opa n nys, nexy
cya+ cnennainie xon+poinie nsxepn+einie xa+epnai
(KHM), coepamne +ec+onie saanna pasno c+enenn conoc+n.
He+pannnonnaa qopxa nponeenna ixsaxena, a iannoe, ocoenno-
c+n coepanna KHM a EI3 no nooinn +peym+ cnennaino
noio+onxn x nexy ynamnxca. Pene+n+op nxmnae+ xapax+epnc+nxy
n coepanne KHM a EI3 no nooinn n coo+ne+c+nnn co cnenn-
qnxanne n xonqnxa+opox +ex, xe+onnecxne pexoxenannn, o-
pasni n anans ninonenna +ec+onix saann EI3 no nooinn
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
4
+pex yponne. nac+n A n cnennqnnecxnx saann nac+n B n C,
npec+anammnx nanoimym conoc+i a ynamnxca, c npno-
ennex pasnoopasnix napnan+on +ec+onix saann ncex +nnon n
nepnix o+ne+on x nnx, a caxonponepxn snann. Taxe n nocone
nxmneni opasni ixsaxenannonnix napnan+on EI3 no nooinn c
npanninixn o+ne+axn. Hexo+opie nanie ninoi n pexoxena-
nnn nosnoa+ nsea+i omepacnpoc+panennix omnox n ca+i EI3
na 100 aon.
Kax nonnsonavnca xnnro
Coepanne Pene+n+opa noc+poeno n coo+ne+c+nnn c +peona-
nnaxn x yponnm noio+onxn ninycxnnxon, npeycxo+pennixn qe-
epainix xoxnonen+ox iocyapc+nennoio opasona+einoio c+an-
ap+a ocnonnoio omeio n cpeneio (nonoio) omeio opasonanna
no nooinn (npnxas Mnnopasonanna N 1089 o+ 05.03.2004). 3xsa-
xenannonnie napnan+i EI3 +axe coc+anam+ca na ocnone npe-
c+anennoio xa+epnaa.
Bo-nepnix, neoxonxo non+opn+i yneni xa+epna no ncex
+exax nn nsynn+i noni.
Bo-n+opix, pexoxenye+ca o+ne+n+i na xon+poinie nonpoci
noce xao iani. ]a ynmeio ycnoenna +eopnn noesno npono-
n+i anans cxex, +ann, pncynxon no xao +exe, caxoc+oa+ei-
no coc+ana+i cxexi-xoncnex+i, conapn ocnonnix +epxnnon n no-
na+n.
B-+pe+inx, a saxpenenna noynennix snann n nanixon ce-
ye+ ninona+i +ec+i n saanna, npnneennie n pasee II.
Pene+n+op coepn+ ncm neoxonxym nnqopxannm n xoe+
i+i noesen a caxoc+oa+eino, ic+po n xanec+nenno noio-
+onxn ynamnxca x IHA-9 n EI3 no nooinn npn noc+ynennn n ccys
nn nys.
2eaex Bax yann!!!
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Pa:pea |
T0PTK9KK 0h0M
0PMhh0h 6K0h0lKK
- www.phoenixbooks.ru

BHOhOlHR HAYKA O XHBOH
RPHPOE
1.1. BHOhOlHR KAK HAYKA, EE OCTHXEHHR
H METOM HCChEOBAHHR
Bnonorna (o+ no. n oioc) nayxa o nsnn. Bnooina
nsynae+ npoanenna nsneea+einoc+n. c+poenne n qynxnnn, cpey
on+anna ncex nnix opiannsxon ax+epn, ipnon, pac+enn n
nno+nix, a +axe nx npnponix coomec+n, pacnpoc+panenne,
nponcxoenne n pasnn+ne, cnasn pyi c pyiox n nenno npnpo-
o. Tepxnn nooina npeoen n 1802 i. (nesanncnxo pyi o+
pyia) 2.B. axapxox n I.P. Tpennpanycox.
2nnoe na 3exe npec+aneno neoinanix pasnoopasnex
qopx, xnoec+nox nnon nnix cymec+n. B nac+oamee npexa ye
nsnec+no oxoo 500 +ic. nnon pac+enn, oee 1,5 xn nnon n-
no+nix, oimoe xonnec+no nnon ipnon n npoxapno+, naceam-
mnx namy nane+y. Vnenie noc+oanno onapynnam+ n onncina-
m+ nonie nni. Pacxpi+ne omnx cnoc+n nnix opiannsxon n
oacnenne npnnnn nx xnoioopasna, nianenne cnase xey
c+poennex n yconnaxn oxpyamme cpei o+noca+ca x ocnon-
nix saanax nooinn.
Onnxn ns nepnix n nooinn connci xoxnexcnie nayxn
no oex+ax ncceonanna. Bo+annxa ncceye+ c+poenne n ns-
neea+einoc+i pac+enn, soooina nno+nix, ana+oxna n qn-
snooina xax ocnona xennnni neonexa. Hose n npeeax so-
ooinn cqopxnponanci oee ysxne ncnnnnni npo+osooo-
ina (ynenne o npoc+emnx), in+oxooina (ynenne o nacexoxix),
opnn+ooina (ynenne o n+nnax) n pyine, n o+annxe aiiooina
(ynenne o noopocax), pnooina (ynenne o xxax), enpooina
(ynenne o penecnix pac+ennax) n pyine. B caxoc+oa+einie na-
yxn niennci xnxponooina (nayxa o xnxpoopiannsxax), xnxo-
oina (nayxa o ipnax), nxenooina (nayxa o nmannxax), nnpy-
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
7
cooina (nayxa o nnpycax). Mnoioopasne opiannsxon n pacnpee-
enne nx no ipynnax nsynae+ cnc+exa+nxa. Hcceonannex npo-
mo nc+opnn opiannnecxoio xnpa sannxae+ca naeon+ooina.
Bxec+e c +ex, niennci n pasnnnam+ca oac+n nooinn,
nsynammne omne cnoc+na nnix opiannsxon. dopxy n c+poenne
opiannsxon ncceym+ xopqooinnecxne ncnnnnni nn+ooina
(ynenne o xe+xe), inc+ooina (ynenne o +xanax), ana+oxna (ynenne o
c+poennn cnc+ex opianon n opiannsxa n neox). dynxnnn nnix
opiannsxon nsynae+ qnsnooina. Coc+an n yi+pac+pyx+ypy xe+ox
n +xane, ny+n npenpamenna opiannnecxnx xoexy noxnxna,
noqnsnxa, xoexyapnaa nooina, saxonoxepnoc+n nacec+nen-
noc+n n nsxennnnoc+n iene+nxa, saxonoxepnoc+n nnnnnyai-
noio pasnn+na ixpnooina (nn nooina pasnn+na), nonpoci nos-
nnxnonenna n saxoni nc+opnnecxoio pasnn+na nsnn na 3exe
inomnnonnoe ynenne. Opas nsnn nonyann opiannsxon n nx
nsanxoo+nomenna c oxpyamme cpeo nsynae+ ixooina n cnenn-
ainie ee pasei inponooina, noieoipaqna, noieonenoo-
ina n pyine, saxonoxepnoc+n noneenna nno+nix i+ooina.
Bnooina ncnoisye+ pasnnnie uevopm nccneponanna. nc+o-
pnnecxn, onnca+eini, cpannn+eini, ixcnepnxen+aini, xo-
enponanne. Bnpoxo ncnoisym+ca nnc+pyxen+ainie xe+oi,
+axne xax xnxpocxonna (cne+oon+nnecxaa n iex+ponnaa), iex+po-
ipaqna, panooxanna, nen+pnqyinponanne, cnex+poqo+oxe+pna,
cnex+poqyopnxe+pna, iex+poinneqaoipaqna n +..
B caxix pasnix oac+ax nooinn nce oime nospac+ae+ sna-
nenne noipannnnix ncnnnnn, cnasinammnx nooinm c pyinxn
nayxaxn qnsnxo, xnxne, xa+exa+nxo, xnepne+nxo n +..
Tax nosnnxn noqnsnxa, noxnxna, noxe+pna, nonnxa. B cnasn
c npax+nnecxnxn no+penoc+axn neonexa nosnnxn panonooina,
xocxnnecxaa nooina, qnsnooina +pya, connonooina.
3nanenne nooinn a neonexa oipoxno. Tax, npaxvnuecxoe
npnuenenne pocvnenn conpeuenno nonornn n nac+oamee npe-
xa nosnoae+ conepmenc+nona+i aipo- n soo+exnnxy, ninon+i o-
ee npoyx+nnnie cop+a pac+enn n nopoi nno+nix. Vponeni
snann n oac+n noieoipaqnn n ixooinn onpeeae+ nosxo-
noc+i n iqqex+nnnoc+i nn+poyxnnn n axxnxa+nsannn. Pasnn+ne
n nocenne ioi ienno nnenepnn o+xpinae+ mnpoxne nepcnex-
+nni a no+exnooinn nooinnecxn ax+nnnix n exapc+nennix
nemec+n. Bnoxnxnnecxne ncceonanna nosnoam+ nonee ncnoi-
sona+i noynaexie opiannnecxne nemec+na pac+n+einoio n n-
no+noio nponcxoenna, a +axe nx aopa+opnoio n npoximen-
noio cnn+esa.
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
8
Hcxmnn+eino nanoe snanenne nxee+ nooina xax +eope-
+nnecxaa ocnona neenna ceicxoio, ecnoio n npoxiconoio xo-
sac+na. Hosnanne saxonoxepnoc+e pasxnoenna n pacnpoc+pa-
nenna oesne+nopnix nnpycon n ax+epn, a +axe napasn+nne-
cxnx opiannsxon neoxonxo a ycnemno opii c nnqexnnon-
nixn n napasn+apnixn saoenannaxn neonexa, nno+nix, pac-
+enn. Ha ocnone nsynenna nsanxoo+nomenn xey opiannsxa-
xn cosani nooinnecxne xe+oi opii c npen+eaxn cei-
cxoxosac+nennix xyi+yp, xnoine npncnocoenna nnix opia-
nnsxon nocynn xoeaxn a xonc+pynponanna iqqex+nnnix
ncxycc+nennix coopyenn n xexannsxon (nonnxa).
Hpoipecc nooinn n XXXXI nn. onpeeae+ ee nospocmym
poi cpen pyinx nayx n a cymec+nonanna neonenec+na. Toi-
xo na ocnone nooinnecxnx ncceonann nosxono ynpanenne
inomnne nocqepi c neim coxpanenna n noepanna yconn
cymec+nonanna n pasnn+na neonenec+na. Hpn i+ox nca xosac+nen-
naa ea+einoc+i neonexa ona c+pon+ica c yne+ox npnnnnnon
opiannsannn nocqepi.
1.2. OCHOBHME YPOBHH OPlAHH3AHH
XHBOH RPHPOM
2nnaa npnpoa npec+anae+ coo neoc+nym cono opiann-
sonannym, nepapxnnecxym cnc+exy. Bieam+ ceymmne nsan-
xocnasannie xey coo yponnn opiannsannn nno xa+epnn.
1. Monexynapnm. 3+o caxi nnsxn yponeni opiannsannn
nnoio, npec+anenni o+einixn xoexyaxn opiannnecxnx
n neopiannnecxnx nemec+n, nxoamnx n coc+an xe+ox opiannsxa.
maa nnaa cnc+exa npoanae+ca na yponne qynxnnonnponanna
nooinnecxnx xaxpoxoexy. nyxennonix xnco+, exon, non-
caxapnon, nnnon n pyinx opiannnecxnx nemec+n. C i+oio ypon-
na nannnam+ca nanemne nponecci nsneea+einoc+n opianns-
xa. oxen nemec+n n npenpamenne inepinn, nepeana nacec+nen-
no nnqopxannn n pyioe.
2. Knevounm. O+einaa xe+xa c+pyx+ypno-qynxnnonai-
naa ennnna n ennnna pasxnoenna n pasnn+na ncex nnix opia-
nnsxon, on+ammnx na 3exe.
3. Txaneno. Txani npec+anae+ coo conoxynnoc+i cxonix
no c+poennm n nponcxoennm xe+ox, oennennix ninone-
nnex ome qynxnnn.
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
9
4. Oprannm. Opian c+pyx+ypno-qynxnnonainoe oen-
nenne necxoixnx +nnon +xane (nanpnxep, xoa neonexa xax opian
nxmnae+ inn+en n coennn+einym +xani).
5. Oprannsuennm. Mnoioxe+onni opiannsx npec+anae+
coo neoc+nym cnc+exy opianon, cnennansnponannix a ni-
nonenna pasnnnix qynxnn. 3+o o+einaa ocoi onpeeenno-
io nna, cnoconaa x pasnn+nm xax nnaa cnc+exa o+ xoxen+a
sapoenna o npexpamenna cymec+nonanna.
6. Honynannonno-nnpono. Conoxynnoc+i opiannsxon onoio n
+oio e nna, oennennaa omnx xec+ox on+anna, cosae+ no-
nyannm xax cnc+exy naopiannsxennoio nopaxa. Bn cono-
xynnoc+i ocoe, oaammnx nacec+nennix cxoc+nox xop-
qooinnecxnx, qnsnooinnecxnx n nooinnecxnx ocoennoc+e,
cnoono cxpemnnammnxca n ammnx noonn+oe no+oxc+no, npn-
cnocoennix x onpeeennix yconnax nsnn, sannxammnx n
npnpoe onpeeenni apea. B i+o cnc+exe ocymec+nam+ca npo-
c+emne, iexen+apnie inomnnonnie npeopasonanna.
7. Bnoreonenovnuecxn. Bnoieonenos conoxynnoc+i opianns-
xon pasnix nnon n pasnnno opiannsannn co ncexn qax+opaxn
cpei nx on+anna.
8. Bnocgepnm. Bnocqepa caxi nicoxn yponeni opiann-
sannn na name nane+e conoxynnoc+i ncex noieonenoson, nxm-
nammaa nce anenna nsnn na 3exe. Ha i+ox yponne nponcxon+
xpyionopo+ nemec+n n npenpamenne inepinn, cnasannie c nsne-
ea+einoc+im ncex nnix opiannsxon, naceammnx a+xo-, in-
po- n n+ocqepy 3exn.
1.3. RPH3HAKH H CBOHCTBA XHBOlO
2nnie opiannsxi pesxo o+nnam+ca o+ nennix cnc+ex nc-
xmnn+eino conoc+im n nicoxo c+pyx+ypno n qynxnnonai-
no ynopaonennoc+im. 3+n o+nnna npnam+ nsnn xanec+nenno
nonie cnoc+na. 2nnoe npec+anae+ coo ocoym, nicmym c+y-
neni pasnn+na xa+epnn. Coc+annie nac+n opiannsxa xe+xn,
+xann n opiani n cyxxe eme ne npec+anam+ coo neoc+ni
opiannsx. nmi coennenne nx n nopaxe, nc+opnnecxn conn-
mexca n nponecce inomnnn, n nsanxoec+nne opasym+ neoc+-
nym cnc+exy opiannsx, xo+opoxy npncymn onpeeennie cno-
c+na, o+nnammne nnoe o+ nenno npnpoi. Bieam+ cey-
mmne npnsnaxn n cnoc+na nnoio.
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
10
1. Epnncvno xnunuecxoro cocvana. B nnix opiannsxax 98% xn-
xnnecxoio coc+ana npnxon+ca na ne+ipe noiennix iexen+a. yi-
epo (C), xncopo (O), aso+ (N) n noopo (H). B ocnonnox ns
i+nx iexen+on noc+poeni conie opiannnecxne xoexyi no-
oinnecxne nonxepi. nyxennonie xnco+i, exn, noncaxapn-
i, npi n coc+ane xe+ox ncex nnix opiannsxon.
2. Ouen nemecvn n :neprnn (uevaonnsu). Bce nnie opia-
nnsxi cnoconi x oxeny nemec+n c oxpyamme cpeo, noio-
maa ns nee neoxonxie nemec+na n nieaa npoyx+i nsnee-
a+einoc+n. Oxen nemec+n oecnennnae+ noc+oanc+no xnxnne-
cxoio coc+ana n c+poenna ncex nac+e opiannsxa n, xax cec+nne,
nx qynxnnonnponanna n nenpepinno xenammnxca yconnax oxpy-
amme cpei, +.e. roueocvas.
3. 0neprosanncnuocvn. 2nnie +ea npec+anam+ coo o+-
xpi+ie a noc+ynenna inepinn cnc+exi, yc+onnnie nmi npn
yconnn nenpepinnoio oc+yna x nnx inepinn n xa+epnn nsnne.
2nnie opiannsxi cymec+nym+ o +ex nop, noxa n nnx noc+ynae+
inepina n xa+epna ns oxpyamme cpei.
4. Cauoperynanna cnoconoc+i nnix opiannsxon, on+a-
mmnx n nenpepinno xenammnxca yconnax oxpyamme cpei,
noepnna+i noc+oanc+no cnoeio xnxnnecxoio coc+ana n nn+en-
cnnnoc+i qnsnooinnecxnx nponeccon.
5. Cauonocnponsnepenne, nnn penpopyxnna. Pasxnoenne
cnoc+no opiannsxon nocnponsnon+i cee noonix. B ocnone ca-
xonocnponsneenna en+ opasonanne nonix xoexy n c+pyx+yp
na ocnone nnqopxannn, saoenno n ]HK. Caxonocnponsneenne
+ecno cnasano c anennex nacec+nennoc+n.
6. Hacnepcvnennocvn cnoc+no opiannsxon oecnennna+i
nepeany npnsnaxon n ocoennoc+e pasnn+na ns noxoenna n
noxoenne.
7. Hsuenunnocvn cnoconoc+i opiannsxon npnope+a+i no-
nie npnsnaxn n cnoc+na, n ocnone xo+opo en+ nsxenenne xo-
exy ]HK. Hsxennnnoc+i cosae+ pasnoopasni xa+epna a
ec+ec+nennoio o+opa.
8. Pasnnvne n pocv. Pasnn+ne nno qopxi cymec+nonanna
xa+epnn npec+aneno nnnnnyainix pasnn+nex opiannsxon,
+.e. nx on+oienesox, n nc+opnnecxnx pasnn+nex nnon, nn qno-
ienesox. Pasnn+ne conponoae+ca poc+ox. B nponecce pasnn+na
noc+enenno n noceona+eino nosnnxae+ cnennqnnecxaa c+pyx-
+ypnaa opiannsanna nnnnna, a ynennenne eio xacci oycone-
no penpoyxnne xaxpoxoexy, iexen+apnix c+pyx+yp xe+ox n
caxnx xe+ox. dnoienes, nn inomnna n neox, neopa+nxoe
n nanpanennoe pasnn+ne nno npnpoi, conponoammeeca
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
11
opasonannex nonix nnon n npoipeccnnnix yconennex ns-
nn. Pesyi+a+ox inomnnn anae+ca nce xnoioopasne nnix opia-
nnsxon na 3exe.
9. Pasppanuocvn cnoc+no opiannsxa nsnpa+eino pea-
inpona+i na nnemnne nosec+nna, en+ n ocnone ncnxnnecxnx
qynxnn nnix cymec+n.
10. Pnvununocvn nepnonnecxne nsxenenna nn+encnnnoc+n
qnsnooinnecxnx qynxnn c pasnnnixn nepnoaxn xoeann
(cy+onnie, cesonnie pn+xi). Pn+xnnnoc+i oecnennnae+ coiaco-
nanne qynxnn opiannsxa c oxpyamme cpeo, +.e. npncnoco-
enne x nepnonnecxn nsxenammnxca yconnax cymec+nonanna.
11. ,ncxpevnocvn. Kaaa nooinnecxaa cnc+exa (xe+xa, opia-
nnsx, nonyanna, noieonenos n pyioe) coc+on+ ns oocoennix
nn o+ipannnennix n npoc+panc+ne, no, +ex ne xenee, +ecno cna-
sannix n nsanxoec+nymmnx xey coo nac+e, opasymmnx
c+pyx+ypno-qynxnnonainoe ennc+no.
Konvponunme uonpocm
1. Oxapakmepu:yme 6uo:oeum kak nayky, nepeuuc:ume ee ue:u, :a-
0auu, npe0+em u:yuenun.
2. Ha:oeume u oxapakmepu:yme ocnoenme pa:0e:m u nanpae:enun
ucc:e0oeanu coepe+enno 6uo:oeuu.
3. Hepeuuc:ume u oxapakmepu:yme ocnoenme +emo0m 6uo:oeuue-
ckux nayk. Hpuee0ume npu+epm ux ucno:t:oeanun.
4. `kaume cen:t 6uo:oeuu c 0pyeu+u nayka+u. Hpuee0ume npu+e-
pm makux c+enmx nayk u noncnume o6:acmt ux ucc:e0oeanu u
npakmuueckoeo npu+enenun e unmepecax ue:oeeka.
5. `kaume pa::uunme nanpae:enun npakmuueckoeo ucno:t:oeanun
0ocmuenu coepe+enno 6uo:oeuu.
6. Hepeuuc:ume u oxapakmepu:yme ypoenu opeanu:auuu ueo npu-
po0m. Hpuee0ume npu+epm.
7. Ha:oeume u noncnume e:aenme ceocmea uemx opeanu:+oe, om-
:uuammue ux om me: neueo npupo0m.
- www.phoenixbooks.ru

KhETKA KAK BHOhOlHECKAR
CHCTEMA
2.1. KhETKA CTPYKTYPHO-OYHKHOHAhbHAR
EHHHA XHBOlO
dopxnponannm conpexennix npec+anenn o xe+xe npe-
mec+nonaa n+einaa nc+opna pasnn+na nn+ooinn, cnasannaa c
cosannex n yconepmenc+nonannex on+nnecxnx yc+poc+n, nosno-
ammnx paccxa+pnna+i n nsyna+i xe+xn (+a. 1).
T a 6 : u u a 1
Hcvopun nevouno uonoruu
1590 O+en n cin 2ncen nsopen unxpocxon, n xo+opox oi-
moe ynennenne oecnennnaoci coennennex nyx nns
1609 I. Iane cxonc+pynpona nepni xnxpocxon
1665 P. Iyx, noisyaci yconepmenc+nonannix xnxpocxonox, nsy-
na c+poenne npoxn n nnepnie yno+pen +epxnn xnevxa
16501700 A. eneniyx yconepmenc+nona xnxpocxon, nama n
nnepnie onnca ax+epnn, npoc+emnx (nnqysopn), cnep-
xa+osoni, ipn+ponn+i, nac+ni, xpoxa+oqopi
17001800 Onynxonano xnoec+no nonix onncann n pncynxon pas-
nnnix (npenxymec+nenno pac+n+einix) +xane

Vynmeno xanec+no nns n yconepmenc+nonan xnxpocxon

(B. ]oan, X.I. Iep+ei, 3. Ae n pyine)
18311833 P. Bpayn onnca apo n pac+n+einix xe+xax.
18381839 Bo+annx M. Been n soooi T. Bnann cqopxynpona-
n xnevounym veopnm, noc+ynponanmym, n+o ocnon-
no epnnnne cvpyxvypm n gynxnnn n nnmx opranns-
uax annaevca xnevxa
,avm 3nauenavennnme comvna n ncvopnn nonornn xnevxn
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
13
Ke+onnaa +eopna c+poenna opiannsxon ia cqopxynpona-
na n 1838 i. T. Bnannox n M. Beenox. B nac+oamee npexa
ocnonnme nonoenna xnevouno veopnn qopxynpym+ca +ax.
xe+xa c+pyx+ypno-qynxnnonainaa ennnna, a +axe en-
nnna pasnn+na ncex nnix opiannsxon,
xe+xax npncyme xexpannoe c+poenne,
apo iannaa coc+annaa nac+i iyxapno+nnecxo xe+xn,
xe+xn pasxnoam+ca +oixo eennex xa+epnncxo xe+xn,
xe+onnoe c+poenne opiannsxon cnne+eic+no ennoio npo-
ncxoenna nnix opiannsxon.
n no nac+o-
amee npexa
1840 2. Hypxnnie npeon nasnanne npovonnasua a oo-
snanenna xe+onnoio coepnxoio. Hosnee i nneen +ep-
xnn nnvonnasua (nn+onasxa apo = npo+onasxa)
1855 P. Bnpxon noxasa, n+o nce xe+xn opasym+ca ns pyinx
xe+ox ny+ex xe+onnoio eenna
1865 Onynxonani saxoni nacec+nennoc+n I. Menea
1866 3. Iexxei yc+anonn, n+o xpanenne n nepeany nace-
c+nennix npnsnaxon ocymec+nae+ apo
18661888 Hopono nsyneno xe+onnoe eenne n onncani xpoxo-
coxi
18801883 O+xpi+i nac+ni, n nac+noc+n, xoponac+i
1890 O+xpi+i xn+oxonpnn
1898 O+xpi+ annapa+ Ioin
18871900 Vconepmenc+nonani xnxpocxon, a +axe xe+oi qnxca-
nnn, oxpamnnanna npenapa+on n npnio+onenna cpeson. Hn-
+ooina npnope+ae+ ixcnepnxen+aini xapax+ep. Bey+-
ca ixpnooinnecxne ncceonanna. Ono ns o+pace nn-
+ooinn c+anonn+ca nnvorenevnxa, sannxammaaca nsyne-
nnex pon apa n nepeane nacec+nennix npnsnaxon
1900 Hepeo+xpi+i saxoni I. Menea
1930-e ii. Hoannca iex+ponni xnxpocxon, oecnennnammn o-
ee nicoxoe paspemenne
C 1946 i. 3ex+ponni xnxpocxon noynn mnpoxoe pacnpoc+pane-
nne n nooinn, an nosxonoc+i ncceona+i ynnvpacvpyx-
vypy xe+xn
O k o n u a n u e m a 6 : . 1
,avm 3nauenavennnme comvna n ncvopnn nonornn xnevxn
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
14
Hnvonorna nayxa, nsynammaa coc+an, c+poenne n qynxnnn
xe+xn. Cosanne cne+onoio, a sa+ex n iex+ponnoio xnxpocxona,
ncnoisonanne xe+oon yi+panen+pnqyinponanna, noxnxnn n xo-
exyapno nooinn nosnonn iyoxo nponnxny+i n nsynenne
xe+xn, nosna+i ee conym c+pyx+ypy n xnoioopasne npo+exam-
mnx n ne noxnxnnecxnx nponeccon.
Hpoc+emne n xnxpoopiannsxi npec+anam+ coo o+ei-
nie xe+xn. Teo ncex xnoioxe+onnix coc+on+ ns oimeio nn
xenimeio nnca xe+ox, xo+opie anam+ca cnoeio poa oxaxn,
opasymmnxn coni opiannsx. Hesanncnxo o+ +oio, npec+an-
ae+ coo xe+xa neoc+nym nnym cnc+exy nn ee nac+i, ona
nxee+ naop npnsnaxon n cnoc+n, omnx a ncex xe+ox.
2.2. XHMHECKAR OPlAHH3AHR KhETKH
B coc+an xe+xn nxon+ oimnnc+no xnxnnecxnx iexen+on
nepnonnecxo cnc+exi ].H. Meneeena. Ho coepannm n xe+xe
xnxnnecxne iexen+i nopaseam+ na 3 ipynni.
1) uaxpo:neuenvm iannie xoxnonen+i ncex opiannnecxnx
coennenn, na om xo+opix npnxon+ca oxoo 98% xacci xe+-
xn noopo, xncopo, yiepo n aso+. 3+o ocnonnme norennme
:neuenvm.
K ipynne xaxpoiexen+on o+noca+ +axe xan, na+pn, xai-
nn, eeso, xainn, cepy, qocqop, xop, coepanne xo+opix n
xe+xe coc+anae+ eca+ie n co+ie on nponen+a,
2) unxpo:neuenvm iexen+i, coepamneca n xe+xe n
oneni xaix xonnec+nax, xenee 0,001% (op, xoai+, xei, xo-
nen, nnnx, nanan, o, pox n +..). 3+n iexen+i nxoa+ n
coc+an iopxonon, nn+axnnon, qepxen+on, nooinnecxn ax+nnnix
nemec+n, oyconnnaa nx ax+nnnoc+i,
3) ynnvpaunxpo:neuenvm iexen+i, xonnen+panna xo+opix
n xe+xe coc+anae+ nopaxa 0,000001% (ceen, ypan, pan, soo-
+o, p+y+i, epnn, nesn n +..), +axe oaammne onpeeen-
no nooinnecxo ax+nnnoc+im n nponeccax nsneea+einoc+n
opiannsxa.
Kai ns xnxnnecxnx iexen+on ninonae+ nanym qynx-
nnm n xe+xe. Tax, nanpnxep, xncopo n noopo nxoa+ n coc+an
noi, a nxec+e c yiepoox n aso+ox n coc+an pasnnnix no-
oinnecxnx coennenn exon, nnnon, nyxennonix xnco+,
noncaxapnon n +.. Kan, xainn, na+pn n xop ynac+nym+ n
qopxnponannn nepnnoio nxnyica. Mainn, xapianen, nnnx n xei
anam+ca ax+nna+opaxn qepxen+on, nnam+ na nponecci +xaneno-
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
15
io ixanna. Kainn ocnonno xoxnonen+ xoc+e n syon, on
+axe neoxonx a ximennoio coxpamenna, nponeccon cnep+i-
nanna xponn, anae+ca nocpennxox n xexannsxe ec+nna iopxo-
non. Mei nxon+ n coc+an oxncn+einix qepxen+on, eeso
n coc+an iexoionna, xnoionna, xainn c+pyx+ypni xox-
nonen+ xopoqna. Cepa nxon+ n coc+an cepocoepamnx axn-
noxnco+ exon, qocqop n coc+an nyxennonix xnco+, xoc+-
no +xann. Bop neoxonx nexo+opix pac+ennax, xoai+ nxon+
n coc+an nn+axnna B
12
, q+op n coc+an ixan syon, o n co-
c+an iopxona mn+onnno eesi +npoxcnna n +..
Bimenepenncennie xnxnnecxne iexen+i opasym+ xoe-
xyi neopiannnecxnx n opiannnecxnx nemec+n.
2.2.1. Heopranuuecue uemecvua:
uopa u munepanunme conu
Bopa nanemee neopiannnecxoe coennenne nnix xe-
+ox n opiannsxon, coc+anae+ oxoo 80% xacci +ea. Moexya
noi npec+anae+ coo nnoi, +.e. noapna (n neox iex+po-
ne+paina), n+o oyconnnae+ ee cnoconoc+i ax+nnno nc+yna+i
no nsanxoec+nne c pasnnnixn coennennaxn.
O

H
+
H
+
4yukuuu oom n xe+xe n opiannsxe ceymmne.
1) noa ynnnepcaini pac+nopn+ei a opiannnecxnx n
neopiannnecxnx nemec+n. Bce xnxnnecxne peaxnnn npo+exam+ n
noe. Hoapnoc+i xoexy noi n cnoconoc+i opasonina+i noo-
ponie cnasn (xaaa xoexya noi xoe+ opasonina+i 4 noo-
ponie cnasn c pyinxn xoexyaxn noi n noapnixn xoexy-
axn pyinx nemec+n) eam+ noy xopomnx pac+nopn+eex a
oipoxnoio xonnec+na neopiannnecxnx n opiannnecxnx nemec+n.
Ho pac+nopnxoc+n n noe nemec+na nopaseam+ na inpoqni-
nie (noopac+nopnxie, nanpnxep, con, npoc+ie caxapa) n inpo-
qonie (nepac+nopnxie n noe, nanpnxep, npi, conie yie-
noi). Moexyi noi nisinam+ pacmenenne paa noopac+no-
pnxix nemec+n na xa+noni n annoni,
2) noa oecnennnae+ qopxnponanne npoc+panc+nenno c+pyx-
+ypi exon, nyxennonix xnco+, noxexpan no npnnnnny ax-
qnna+nnnoc+n (noopac+nopnxoc+n),
3) noa oyconnnae+ pH cpei (xnco+noc+i), n+o onpeea-
e+ca xonnen+panne npoyx+on nonnsannn noi (H

, OH

) n nnae+
na cnoc+na exon, qepxen+on, nyxennonix xnco+, nnnon,
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
16
4) noa nc+ynae+ n peaxnnn inponsa, oecnennnaa oxncenne
nicoxoxoexyapnix opiannnecxnx coennenn (exon, yieno-
on, npon),
5) noa i+o cpea a +pancnop+a nemec+n (oxena nemec+n),
nqqysnn, oecnennnae+ xax npn+ox nemec+n n xe+xy, +ax n ya-
enne ns nee npoyx+on nsneea+einoc+n,
6) noa oaae+ xopome +enonpononoc+im n oimo +en-
oexxoc+im, ninonae+ qynxnnm +epxopeiyannn n nnix opia-
nnsxax,
7) noa anae+ca ocxopeiya+opox, nnae+ na qnsnnecxne cno-
c+na xe+xn. ynpyioc+i, +ypiop, nsxenenne oexa.
Mnnepannnme conn. Boimaa nac+i neopiannnecxnx nemec+n
xe+xn naxon+ca n nne coe no ncconnnponannix na noni
(K

, Na

, Ca
2
), no n +nepox coc+oannn. O+ xonnen+pannn co-
e nny+pn xe+xn sannca+ yqepnie cnoc+na cnoconoc+i no-
epnna+i caomeonnym peaxnnm (pH 7,2) nny+pnxe+onnoio co-
epnxoio na noc+oannox yponne. Bnecenne nn opasonanne n
nponecce oxena nemec+n neoimnx xonnec+n xnco+i nn me-
onn ne nnae+ na snanenne pH ncec+nne opasonanna coenne-
nn c xapona+axn, qocqa+axn nn opiannnecxnxn xnco+axn.
Ka+noni (K

, Na

, Mg
2
, Fe
2
, Ca
2
n pyine) nxem+ pas-
nnnym xonnen+pannm n xe+xe n nnexe+onno cpee. Tax, n n-
no xe+xe xana iopaso oime, nex na+pna, a no nnexe+onno
cpee, naoopo+, ncec+nne nsnpa+eino nponnnaexoc+n xex-
pan. Ka+noni cosam+ ocxo+nnecxoe anenne n oecnennnam+ no-
c+ynenne noi n xe+xy. Annoni (HPO
4
2
, H
2
PO
4

, HCO
3

, Cl

)
nxoa+ n coc+an yqepnix cnc+ex xponn n onpeeam+ noc+oan-
c+no pH nny+penne cpei. Taxnx opasox, qynxnnn xnnepai-
nix coe n xe+xe coc+oa+ n oecnenennn noc+oanc+na pH nny+pn-
xe+onno cpei, ax+nnannn qepxen+on, cosannn xexpannix
no+ennnaon, ocxo+nnecxoio anenna n xe+xe n +..
2.2.2. Opranuuecue uemecvua: yrneuopm, nunupm,
enu, nyneunoume ucnovm, ATO
Opiannnecxne coennenna coc+anam+ n cpenex 2030% xacci
xe+xn nnoio opiannsxa. K nnx o+noca+ca nooinnecxne non-
xepi. yienoi, nnni, exn, nyxennonie xnco+i, a +axe
nn+axnni, iopxoni, nnixen+i, peiya+opnie nen+ni, nyxeo-
+ni, n nac+noc+n, ATd, n pyine.
IHEBO,L, nn caxapni, noopac+nopnxie (xpoxe ni-
coxoxoexyapnix) opiannnecxne coennenna ns yiepoa, noo-
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
17
poa n xncopoa c ome qopxyo C
n
(H
2
O)
m
. Coepanne yie-
noon n nno xe+xe coc+anae+ oxoo 15%. Imxosa coepn+-
ca n xponn (0,10,12%). Hanoee oia+i yienoaxn pac+n+ei-
nie xe+xn, ie nx coepanne n nexo+opix cynaax oc+niae+
90% cyxo xacci (xynn xap+oqea, cexena). Vienoi nopas-
eam+ca na npoc+ie n conie.
1. Hpocmme ye:eeo0m +onocaxapu0m, c ome qopxyo
(C
n
H
2n
O
n
), ie n = 27 a+oxon yiepoa. B sanncnxoc+n o+ nnca
a+oxon yiepoa n xoexye xonocaxapni nasinam+. 3 mpuo-
:a+u, nanpnxep, innepnn, xoonnaa, nnponnnoipanaa xnco+i,
4 mempo:a+u, nanpnxep, ipn+posa, 5 nenmo:a+u, nanpnxep,
pnosa n esoxcnpnosa, nxoamne n coc+an nyxennonix xnco+ n
ATd, 6 eekco:a+u, nanpnxep, imxosa, qpyx+osa n iaax+osa.
HEHTO3L IEKCO3L
2. C:onme ye:eeo0m nonxepi ns xonocaxapnon, coen-
nennix inxosnno cnasim. Pasnnam+ onio- n noncaxapni.
O:ueocaxapu0m yienoi, noc+poennie ns neoimoio nnca
(210) xonocaxapnnix oc+a+xon. Ecn n ono xoexye oen-
nam+ca na xonocaxapna, +axoe coennenne nasinae+ca 0ucaxa-
pu0. Hanpnxep, nnmeno caxap (caxaposa), noynaexi ns +poc+-
nnxa nn caxapno cnexi, coc+on+ ns ono xoexyi imxosi n
qpyx+osi, xoonni caxap (ax+osa) ns imxosi n iaax+osi.
Ho:ucaxapu0m conie nicoxoxoexyapnie yienoi, opa-
sonannie co+naxn n +icanaxn xoexy xonocaxapnon. 3+o n-
nenie nn pasne+nennie nonxepi, xonoxepi xo+opix coen-
neni inxosnno cnasim.
Pasnnam+ ioxononcaxapni n ie+epononcaxapni. Io+o-
no:ucaxapu0m noc+poeni ns xnoec+na onnaxonix xonocaxapn-
nix oc+a+xon (nanpnxep, xpaxxa, inxoien, nemosa coc+oa+
ns imxosi). Iemepono:ucaxapu0m coc+oa+ ns xonocaxapnon pas-
nix nnon (nanpnxep, ienapnn, inaypononaa xnco+a).
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
18
Vienoi ninonam+ ceymmne qynxnnn.
1. 0neprevnuecxaa. Vienoi nipam+ poi ocnonnoio nc+on-
nnxa inepinn a nponeccon nocnn+esa, +pancnop+a nemec+n, nn-
enna n xe+xe n opiannsxe. B nponecce oxncenna 1 i imxosi
ocnooae+ca 17,6 x] inepinn.
2. 3anacammaa. Kpaxxa y pac+enn n inxoien y nno+nix,
o+xainaaci n xe+xax, cya+ inepie+nnecxnx pesepnox.
3. Cvpyxvypnaa. Hanpnxep, nemosa opasye+ c+enxn pac-
+n+einix xe+ox, coni noncaxapn xn+nn ianni c+pyx-
+ypni xoxnonen+ napynoio cxee+a nennc+onoinx. C+pon+ei-
nym qynxnnm xn+nn ninonae+ n y ipnon. Vienoi qopxnpym+
+axe inxoxanxc na nonepxnoc+n noxexpan.
4. Penenvopnaa. Vienonie xoxnonen+i noxexpan oec-
nennnam+ ysnananne xe+ox, penennnm iopxonon n xena+opon,
oyconnnam+ +xanecnennqnnnoc+i n ipynni xponn.
5. 3amnvnaa. Hxxynnie peaxnnn opiannsxa oecnennnam+ca
xoexyaxn inxonpo+enon, cexpe+i pasnnnix ees neonexa
n nno+nix coepa+ yienoi.
HHHH,L opiannnecxne coennenna, nepac+nopnxie n
noe, no pac+nopnxie n opiannnecxnx pac+nopn+eax. iqnpe, en-
snne, xopoqopxe. B xe+xax +axe ec+i n nponoonie neme-
c+na nnoni. Coepanne npa n xe+xe coc+anae+ 515%
xacci cyxoio nemec+na. B xe+xax npono +xann xonnec+no npa
nospac+ae+ o 90%. Pasnnam+ npoc+ie n conie nnni.
1. Hpocmme :unu0m +pninnepni (ne+painie npi)
conie iqnpi +pexa+oxnoio cnnp+a innepnna n nicoxoxoexy-
apnix npnix xnco+.
H
2
C

H
2
C
HC
R
1
R
2
R
3
O C
O C
O C
O
O
O
2. C:onme :unu0m n sanncnxoc+n o+ ocoennoc+e c+poenna
nopaseam+ na oco:unu0m (nanpnxep, innepoqocqonnni n
cqnnioqocqonnni, xoexyi xo+opix noc+poeni na ocnone in-
nepnna, no axnnocnnp+a cqnniosnna, a +axe coepa+ npnie
xnco+i n oc+a+ox qocqopno xnco+i), e:uko:unu0m (nanpnxep,
nepeposni, ianinosni, xoexyi xo+opix noc+poeni na ocnone
cqnniosnna, a +axe coepa+ yienoi) n cmepou0m (nanpnxep,
- www.phoenixbooks.ru
19
xoec+epnn, xoexya xo+opoio noc+poena n nne +e+pannxnnecxo
ipynnnponxn nocxa, coennenno c yienoopono nenim).
B coc+an nnnon nxoa+ nacimennie n nenacimennie (+.e. co-
epamne nonie cnasn C=C) npnie xnco+i. Hanoee pac-
npoc+paneni xacanaa, naixn+nnonaa, c+eapnnonaa nacimennie
npnie xnco+i, coepamne coo+ne+c+nenno 4, 16, 18 a+oxon
yiepoa n nenn. Cpen nenacimennix npnix xnco+ pacnpoc+-
paneni oennonaa, nnoenaa, nnoenonaa c 18 a+oxaxn yiepo-
a n nenn n 13 nonixn cnasaxn coo+ne+c+nenno, n apaxnono-
naa c 20 a+oxaxn yiepoa n nenn n 4 nonixn cnasaxn.
T a 6 : u u a 2
Heovopme npupopnme mupnme ucnovm
Hncuo
a1ouon
yrue-
po(a
Hasnanne
xnpnon kncnort
Crpoenne
16 Hantmnrnnonax CH
3
(CH
2
)
14
COOH
18 Creapnnonax CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
COOH
20 Apaxnnonax CH
3
(CH
2
)
18
COOH
16 Hantmnronennonax CH
3
(CH
2
)
5
CHCH(CH
2
)
7
COOH
18 Onennonax CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CHCH(CH
2
)
7
COOH
18 hnnonenax CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
CHCHCH
2
CHCH(CH
2
)
7
COOH
18 hnnonenonax CH
3
CH
2
(CHCHCH
2
)
2
CHCH(CH
2
)
7
COOH
20 Apaxnononax CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
(CHCHCH
2
)
3
CHCH(CH
2
)
3
COOH
Koxnexcnie coennenna npon c exaxn nasinam+ca :uno-
npomeu0a+u (+pancnop+naa qopxa nnnon n opiannsxe). Bnoo-
innecxaa poi nnnon onpeeae+ca ceymmnxn qynxnnaxn.
1. Cvpyxvypnaa. docqonnni n inxonnni nxoa+ n coc+an
xe+onnix xexpan, oecnennnaa nx nsnpa+einym nponnnaexoc+i.
2. 0neprevnuecxaa. Hpn nonox pacmenennn 1 i npon o
yiexncoio iasa n noi ocnooae+ca oimoe xonnec+no inep-
inn 38,9 x]. nnni oecnennnam+ 2530% nce inepinn, ne-
oxonxo opiannsxy.
3. 3anacammaa. Haxannnaaci n xe+xax npono +xann nno+-
nix, cexenax n noax pac+enn, np cyn+ sanacnix pesepn-
nix nc+onnnxox inepinn.
4. 3amnvnaa n vepuoperynavopnaa. Bcec+nne noxo +eno-
npononoc+n np cnocoen ninona+i qynxnnm +enonsoa+opa.
V nexo+opix nno+nix (+menn, xn+i) on o+xainae+ca n no-
xono npono xe+na+xe. V xnoinx xexonn+ammnx qynxnnm
nooinnecxoio ooipena+ea ninonae+ ypaa nponaa +xani.
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20
2nponaa npocoxa +axe cxainae+ xexannnecxne yapi n ni-
nonae+ qynxnnm inponsoannn.
5. Hcvounnx :nporenno nopm. B xoe xe+aonsxa nnnon
opasye+ca inoiennaa noa, nosnoammaa nyc+innix nno+nix,
nanpnxep nepmax, n+einoe npexa oxon+ica es yno+pee-
nna noi n ncnoisona+i o+oenna npa n iopax.
6. Perynavopnaa. Mnoine nnni anam+ca npemec+nennnxa-
xn cnn+esa paa c+eponnix iopxonon. xnnepao-, imxoxop+nxon-
on, noonix iopxonon, ixosanonon, npopac+nopnxix nn+axn-
non (A, D, E, K), pac+n+einix nnixen+on, xoec+epnna (c+pyx+yp-
noio xoxnonen+a noxexpan, npemec+nennnxa ennix xnco+),
c+eponnix iopxonon, nn+axnna D. Tax, nemec+nax nnnno npn-
poi npncyma n qynxnna peiyannn oxennix nponeccon.
BEHKH nonxepnie xoexyi, coc+oamne ns eca+xon n
co+en axnnoxnco+, coennennix nen+nno cnasim. Bexn cpen
opiannnecxnx nemec+n xe+xn sannxam+ nepnoe xec+o xax no xon-
nec+ny, +ax n no snanennm (50% cyxo xacci xe+xn). Coennenne,
coc+oamee ns oee 10 axnnoxnco+nix oc+a+xon, nasinae+ca no:u-
nenmu0. Bexn pasnnam+ca no coc+any, xonnec+ny n noceona+ei-
noc+n pacnooenna axnnoxnco+. Hecxo+pa na oipoxnoe pasnoo-
pasne n conoc+i c+poenna, exn noc+poeni nceio ns 20 nnon pas-
nnnix axnnoxnco+ c ome qopxyo
NH
2
HC
R
COOH,
ie R panxa, c+poenne xo+opoio y ncex axnnoxnco+ pasnn-
no, NH
2
axnnnaa ipynna oaae+ cnoc+naxn ocnonanna,
COOH xapoxcninaa ipynna (xnco+naa), xapax+epnaa a ncex
opiannnecxnx xnco+.
Ceona+eino, axnnoxnco+i axqo+epnie coennenna.
Ho c+poennm panxaa nieam+ ceymmne ipynni axnno-
xnco+.
1) neno:npnme, eu0poo6nme (aannn, nann, ennn, nsoe-
nnn, nponn, xe+nonnn, qennaannn, +pnn+oqan),
2) no:npnme ne:apnennme (innnn, cepnn, +peonnn, nnc+e-
nn, +nposnn, acnapainn, iy+axnn),
3) no:npnme ompuuame:tno :apnennme (acnapainnonaa n iy-
+axnnonaa xnco+i),
4) no:npnme no:oume:tno :apnennme (nsnn, apinnnn, in-
c+nnn).
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21
-a+unokuc:omm, exo0nmue e cocmae 6e:ka
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531
COEPXAHHE
HPE]HCOBHE ........................................................... 3
PA3]E I
TEOPETHHECKHE OCHOBB
COBPEMEHHOH BHOOIHH
I:aea 1. BHOOIH2 HAVKA O 2HBOH HPHPO]E ........ 6
1.1. Bnooina xax nayxa, ee oc+nenna
n xe+oi ncceonanna ............................................ 6
1.2. Ocnonnie yponnn opiannsannn nno npnpoi................ 8
1.3. Hpnsnaxn n cnoc+na nnoio ...................................... 9
Fonmpo:tnme eonpocm .................................................. 11
I:aea 2. KETKA KAK BHOOIHHECKA2 CHCTEMA .... 12
2.1. Ke+xa c+pyx+ypno-qynxnnonainaa ennnna nnoio .. 12
2.2. Xnxnnecxaa opiannsanna xe+xn ................................ 14
2.2.1. Heopiannnecxne nemec+na.
noa n xnnepainie con ..................................... 15
2.2.2. Opiannnecxne nemec+na. yienoi, nnni,
exn, nyxennonie xnco+i, ATd ......................... 16
2.3. Ke+onnoe c+poenne ................................................ 33
2.3.1. C+poenne n qynxnnn nn+onasxa+nnecxo
xexpani ......................................................... 33
2.3.2. C+poenne n poi nn+onasxi
n opianonon n nsneea+einoc+n xe+xn................ 37
2.3.3. C+pyx+ypi, cnoc+nennie
pac+n+einix xe+xax ......................................... 43
2.3.4. C+poenne n qynxnnn apa. Xpoxocoxi, ieni..... 48
2.4. Mnoioopasne xe+ox. npoxapno+nnecxne
n iyxapno+nnecxne, coxa+nnecxne n noonie.
Ocoennoc+n c+poenna npoxapno+nnecxo xe+xn ........... 53
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532
2.5. Me+aonsx. nac+nnecxn n inepie+nnecxn oxeni .... 56
2.5.1. Peaxnnn xa+pnnnoio cnn+esa. Bnocnn+es exa ... 57
2.5.2. Tnni nn+anna opiannsxon. do+ocnn+es ............ 63
2.5.3. Xexocnn+es ............................................... 67
2.5.4. 3+ani inepie+nnecxoio oxena. Ke+onnoe
ixanne ............................................................ 69
2.6. 2nsnenni nnx xe+xn. Mn+os ............................... 74
2.7. Pasnn+ne noonix xe+ox. Meos ............................... 79
Fonmpo:tnme eonpocm .................................................. 88
I:aea 3. OPIAHH3M KAK BHOOIHHECKA2
CHCTEMA ................................................................ 90
3.1. Mnoioopasne opiannsxon. Opiannsx xax neoc+naa
nooinnecxaa cnc+exa ........................................... 90
3.2. Txann, opiani n cnc+exi opianon .............................. 91
3.2.1. Txann n opiani pac+enn .............................. 93
Opiani nicmnx pac+enn ................................. 97
Kopeni ......................................................... 97
C+eei ....................................................... 100
nc+ ........................................................... 104
Hne+ox ........................................................ 109
3.2.2. Txann n opiani nno+nix ............................ 115
3nn+enainaa +xani...................................... 115
Txann nny+penne cpei ................................. 118
Mimennaa +xani ........................................... 120
Hepnnaa +xani ............................................... 121
3.3. Pasxnoenne n nnnnnyainoe pasnn+ne opiannsxon ... 125
3.3.1. Becnooe pasxnoenne ................................ 125
3.3.2. Hoonoe pasxnoenne ................................. 127
Pasnn+ne noonix xe+ox n onoo+nopenne
y nne+xonix pac+enn ..................................... 129
Onoo+nopenne y nno+nix ............................ 131
3.3.3. On+oienes. 3xpnonainoe
n noc+ixpnonainoe pasnn+ne opiannsxon .............. 132
3.4. Iene+nxa nayxa o nacec+nennoc+n n nsxennnnoc+n,
ee xe+oi n saann ............................................... 138
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533
3.4.1. Xpoxocoxnaa +eopna nacec+nennoc+n ........... 140
3.4.2. 3axoni nacec+nennoc+n ............................. 141
Monoinpnnoe cxpemnnanne ........................... 141
Hpoxey+onnoe naceonanne .......................... 142
Anansnpymmee cxpemnnanne .......................... 142
]ninpnnoe cxpemnnanne ............................... 143
3axon cnenenna ienon .................................... 145
Hapymenne cnenenna .................................... 147
Bsanxoec+nne ienon .................................... 149
3.4.3. Iene+nxa noa ........................................... 152
Haceonanne npnsnaxon, cnenennix c noox ..... 153
3.4.4. 3axonoxepnoc+n nsxennnnoc+n....................... 155
Henacec+nennaa (xonqnxannonnaa)
nsxennnnoc+i................................................ 155
My+annonnaa nsxennnnoc+i ............................. 157
3.5. Ceexnna, ee xe+oi n saann ................................. 161
3+ani ceexnnonno pao+i ............................ 162
3.5.1. Bno+exnooina, xe+onnaa n iennaa nnenepna .......... 166
Fonmpo:tnme eonpocm ................................................. 168
I:aea 4. MHOIOOBPA3HE OPIAHH3MOB,
OCOBEHHOCTH HX CTPOEHH2
H 2H3HE]E2TEBHOCTH ........................................ 170
4.1. Cnc+exa+nxa, ee npexe+ n saann ............................ 170
4.2. Opiannsxi pasnix napc+n nno npnpoi.................. 171
4.2.1. Bnpyci nexe+onnie qopxi nsnn............. 171
4.2.2. Hapc+no ]poanxn ...................................... 176
Honapc+no Bax+epnn...................................... 176
Honapc+no Cnne-seenie noopocn ................. 179
4.2.3. Hapc+no Ipni .......................................... 180
4.2.4. Hapc+no Pac+enna ....................................... 183
Iaxe+oienes n pasnn+ne pac+enn ...................... 185
Ipynna o+eon Boopocn ............................... 188
O+e nmannxn ......................................... 191
Bicmne pac+enna cnoponie .......................... 193
O+e Moxonnnie ........................................ 193
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534
O+e Haynonnnie ..................................... 195
O+e Xnomennnie ...................................... 196
O+e Hanopo+nnxonnnie .............................. 198
Bicmne pac+enna cexennie ......................... 200
O+e Ioocexennie...................................... 200
O+e Hoxpi+ocexennie (Hne+xonie) ................ 203
Kacci Hne+xonix pac+enn ........................ 203
F:acc ,ey0o:tnme pacmenun ........................ 207
F:acc O0no0o:tnme pacmenun ...................... 209
4.2.5. Hapc+no 2nno+nie ..................................... 210
Becnosnononnie nno+nie............................... 214
Honapc+no onoxe+onnie (npoc+emne) ............ 214
Honapc+no xnoioxe+onnie ............................ 216
Tnn Knmennonooc+nie .................................. 216
Tnn Hocxne nepnn......................................... 218
Tnn Kpyiie, nn Hepnnnnonooc+nie, nepnn ...... 220
Tnn Koina+ie nepnn ..................................... 222
Tnn Momcxn.............................................. 224
Tnn Hennc+onoine ........................................ 226
F:acc Pakoo6pa:nme ................................... 227
F:acc Haykoo6pa:nme ................................. 228
F:acc Haceko+me ...................................... 230
Hosnononnie nno+nie .................................. 238
Tnn Xoponie ............................................... 238
Ho+nn Becnepennie ...................................... 239
F:acc Hanuemnuku ..................................... 239
Ho+nn Hosnononnie, nn Hepennie ................. 240
F:accm Xpnmeeme u Focmnme pm6m.............. 240
F:acc 3e+noeo0nme.................................... 244
F:acc Hpec+mkammuecn ............................. 248
F:acc Hmuum ........................................... 251
F:acc M:ekonumammue, u:u 3eepu ................. 256
Fonmpo:tnme eonpocm ................................................. 264
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535
I:aea 5. OPIAHH3M HEOBEKA H EIO 3]OPOBBE ........ 266
5.1. Onopno-nnia+einaa cnc+exa .................................. 266
5.2. Bny+pennaa cpea opiannsxa. Kponi .......................... 274
5.2.1. Hxxynn+e+ ............................................... 281
5.2.2. Cnc+exa opianon xponoopamenna .................. 284
5.3. ]ixa+einaa cnc+exa............................................. 292
5.4. Hnmenapn+einaa cnc+exa ...................................... 298
5.4.1. Oxen nemec+n n inepinn n opiannsxe neonexa.
Poi nn+axnnon n qepxen+on ................................ 306
5.5. Bien+einaa cnc+exa ......................................... 310
5.6. Cnc+exa opianon xon ........................................... 314
5.7. Hoonaa cnc+exa ................................................... 317
5.8. 3noxpnnnaa cnc+exa............................................. 320
5.8.1. Bnopn+xi. Hepoiyxopainaa peiyanna
nponeccon nsneea+einoc+n n opiannsxe neonexa ... 326
5.9. Hepnnaa cnc+exa ................................................... 329
5.9.1. Cnnnno n ioonno xosi ............................ 335
5.9.2. Ocoennoc+n nicme nepnno ea+einoc+n ..... 345
5.9.3. Beie+a+nnnaa nepnnaa cnc+exa ...................... 349
5.9.4. Opiani nync+n. Anansa+opi ........................ 351
Fonmpo:tnme eonpocm ................................................. 359
I:aea 6. HA]OPIAHH3MEHHBE CHCTEMB.
3BOKHH2 OPIAHHHECKOIO MHPA........................ 360
6.1. Pasnn+ne nooinn n oapnnnoncxn nepno ............... 360
6.2. Teopna inomnnn H. ]apnnna. ]nnymne cni
inomnnn ........................................................... 363
6.3. O+nocn+einaa npncnocoennoc+i (neecoopasnoc+i)
opiannsxon ......................................................... 369
6.4. Honyannonno-nnono yponeni opiannsannn nno
npnpoi ............................................................. 370
6.5. Cnn+e+nnecxaa +eopna inomnnn. Bnoopasonanne ....... 371
6.5.1. Mnxpoinomnna ......................................... 374
6.5.2. Maxpoinomnna ......................................... 379
6.6. ]oxasa+eic+na n pesyi+a+i inomnnn
opiannnecxoio xnpa ............................................... 382
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#!$
6.7. Inno+esi nosnnxnonenna nsnn na 3exe.
3nomnna opiannnecxoio xnpa ................................. 386
6.7.1. Pasnn+ne opiannnecxoio xnpa ........................ 391
6.8. Hponcxoenne neonexa. An+ponoienes ..................... 395
Fonmpo:tnme eonpocm ................................................. 400
I:aea 7. 3KOCHCTEMB H 3AKOHOMEPHOCTH
HX dVHKHHOHHPOBAHH2 ...................................... 402
7.1. 3xooina xax nayxa ................................................ 402
7.2. Cpea on+anna opiannsxon. dax+opi cpei ............... 402
Aan+anna opiannsxon x qax+opax cpei ....... 404
Omne saxonoxepnoc+n ec+nna qax+opon
cpei na opiannsxi .................................. 404
7.2.1. Ano+nnecxne qax+opi ................................ 406
7.2.2. Cpei nsnn n aan+anna opiannsxon ............ 413
7.2.3. Bno+nnecxne qax+opi .................................. 415
7.3. Honyannn. Hncennoc+i nonyann n nx peiyanna ..... 419
7.4. 3xocnc+exi. Hpoynen+i, xoncyxen+i, peynen+i ...... 426
7.5. Henn n ce+n nn+anna. Hpanna ixooinnecxo
nnpaxni............................................................ 429
7.6. Pasnn+ne n cxena ixocnc+ex .................................... 434
7.7. Aipoixocnc+exi (aiponenosi) .................................. 436
7.8. Bnocqepa ioainaa ixocnc+exa .......................... 437
Kpyionopo+ nemec+n n npenpamenne inepinn
n ixocnc+exax n nocqepe ............................ 441
Hoocqepa................................................. 442
7.9. Ioainie nsxenenna n nocqepe. Oxpana npnpoi..... 442
Fonmpo:tnme eonpocm ................................................. 445
PA3]E II
MATEPHAB ]2 CAMOCTO2TEBHOH PABOTB
HO HO]IOTOBKE K EI3
I:aea 1. CTPVKTVPA 3K3AMEHAHHOHHOH
PABOTB EI3 HO BHOOIHH..................................... 448
1.1. Omaa xapax+epnc+nxa n coepanne xon+poinix
nsxepn+einix xa+epnaon EI3 no nooinn ............. 448
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TECTOBBE 3A]AHH2 EI3 HO BHOOIHH ...... 454
2.1. Anans +pynix saann EI3. Me+onnecxne
pexoxenannn no noio+onxe ynamnxca x EI3 ............... 454
Tnnnnnie omnxn npn ninonennn saann EI3
pasnix oxon ............................................... 457
Me+onnecxne pexoxenannn no noio+onxe ynamnxca
x EI3 ......................................................... 459
2.2. Bapnan+i +ec+onix saann EI3 no nooinn ............. 461
Bapnan+ 1..................................................... 461
Bapnan+ 2..................................................... 469
Bapnan+ 3..................................................... 477
O+ne+i na saanna nac+n A............................ 485
O+ne+i na saanna nac+n B ............................ 485
2.3. Opasni ninonenna saann nac+n C c o+ne+axn
(a caxonponepxn snann) ..................................... 486
2.3.1. Ke+xa..................................................... 486
2.3.2. 3aann no nn+ooinn n xoexyapno nooinn . 492
2.3.3. 3aann no iene+nxe ..................................... 497
2.3.4. Pac+enna .................................................. 504
2.3.5. 2nno+nie ................................................ 509
2.3.6. Heonex ................................................... 514
2.3.7. 3nomnna ................................................. 519
2.3.8. 3xooina .................................................. 525
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H ROCTYRAKHX B BY3M
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Texnnnecxn peax+op. I. Hoeeunoea
Honncano n nena+i09.10.2013.
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Hena+i oqce+naa. Vc. n. . 28,56.
Tnpa 5000ixs. 3ax. N
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