Running Head: IMPORTANT EVENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Kelsey Heiple Historical Timeline of Important Events in Higher Education December 9, 2012 Georgia Southern University Dr. Daniel Calhoun

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 3rd Millennium BC Tablet Houses of Ancient Mesopotamia Textual and archaeological evidence points to the emergence of formal schooling, likely due to the development of large-scale agriculture and horticulture operations where a literate class of administrators would be required. Additionally, the rise of a royal court required literate bureaucrats for conducting affairs.

5th Century BC

Appearance of Sophists in Athens

The sophists, or teachers of wisdom, were the first full-time teachers. As scholars, they expected to be paid for their services while travelling throughout the Greek colonies. As a city in the midst of major political, social, and economic growth, Athenians, as well as the rest of the Greek colonies, welcomed their services.

481 411 BC

Protagoras

Advised the importance of studying language grammar, etymology, syntax and its uses in rhetoric because he believed anyone aspiring to power must be an effective speaker.

Late 4th Century BC

Socrates

In reaction to the intellectual challenge posed by the sophists, the goal of Socrates was to uncover transcendent knowledge as opposed to opinion. He had the characteristic strategy of engaging a listener on a topic and then requesting that some critical term of that discussion be defined more carefully, known to most as the Socratic method. Unlike the sophists, he offered his teaching free of charge.

388 306 BC

Philosophical Schools

The philosophical schools of Plato, Aristotle, Antisthenes, and Epicurus were the first to have literal schools devoted to higher learning. As opposed to the sophists who utilized small spaces in open marketplaces or within the colonnades of temples, these philosophers offered instruction in or near a gymnasion, or school.

3rd Century BC

Formal Institutions of Learning appear in Rome

Prior to the 3rd century BC, Romans had schools for teaching basic literacy. However, the customs and usages of Hellenistic Greeks infiltrated Rome when the desire for more formal institutions of learning arose.

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 425 AD Theodosius & Valentinian

Following multiple proclamations of authority to appoint teachers and their salaries, Theodosius and Valentinian issued an edict forbidding the opening of any schools if not by imperial order. The University of Constantinople was created the same year.

8th Century

Educational Instruction shifts to Latin Church

After a period of significant educational decline in the West, many of the early monastic communities began offering instruction in the 6th century. By the eighth century, however, the Latin Church held a monopoly on all learning through local churches and monasteries. By this time, nothing remained of the earlier educational practices from Athens and Rome.

9th 11th Centuries Revival of Learning in Constantinople Following a period of imperial decline in Rome, which made efforts to supervise academic life quite difficult and took a heavy toll on the preservation of Hellenistic learning, new schools of higher learning were revived. Under the leadership of a principal, these institutions had organized, advanced learning.

1179

Third Lateran Council and Trivium/Quadrivium

This edict, along with the 1079 AD proclamation by Pope Gregory VII, was intended to formalize and expand the curriculum taught in Cathedral Church Schools. Prior to these edicts, lessons were specific to devotional manuals, patristic writings, and religious collections. Now, the curriculum would include the full spectrum of the Seven Liberal Arts to include the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, & dialectic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, & astronomy).

12th Century

First Instances of College Housing

Many encouraged the development of student housing as a means for university officials to keep an eye on the students. Although efforts started small in the form of small dormitories or hospicium and existing hotels, the advantages were obvious and students benefited. It was at this point that the independent community student housing created was noted, as well.

1245

Four Teaching Guilds, or Nations, Officially Acknowledged

Originally voluntary associations of scholars with a common identity and vernacular language, the four official nations, French, Normand, English, and Picardian, each had their own designated members, official seal, revenues, patron saints, elected officials, respective sphere of

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jurisdiction, and an elected proctor. These guilds were for masters and professors affiliated with a cathedral to organize themselves.

Early 13th Century Student Nations Made their Appearance Around the same time teaching guilds were being established, the same was happening for student nations. With the same idea in mind, foreign students formed nations for the purposes of collective security and protection and mutual aid against potential hostile local authorities.

Mid 13th Century

Appearance of Academies in Italy

Italian Renaissance humanism found its home in these new alternative institutions of higher learning. Although they were not traditional teaching institutions, they offered a forum for amateurs to discuss common interests with regards to cultural and intellectual matters. They did not offer organized courses or formal academic degrees.

1600s

Rise of Empiricism and Scientific Inquiry

After the Renaissance rejection of medievalism, Protestant Reformation, and Catholic CounterReformation, critical inquiry into the investigation of natural phenomena led to the rise of science and empirical methodology. Although Christianity had long endorsed the Hellenic idea of a rational world, the Renaissance revival of antique texts and philosophies encouraged scholars to further investigate empirical methodology while the Reformation contributed to scientific inquiry.

1636

Harvard College Founded

Chartered in 1636, Harvard College was the first institution of higher learning founded in America. The first of nine Colonial Colleges, its students were expected to have mastered specific classical languages, ancient authors, and mathematics prior to enrolling.

1694

University of Halle Founded

Founded in Germany, it was the first modern university. Its distinction from other universities was its authorization of vernacular instruction in mathematics and some of the sciences.

1776

Phi Beta Kappa at College of William and Mary

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION This was the first instance of an organized, extracurricular, student organization. Its spirit of fraternity and political discussion led to the formation of additional chapters at other colleges.

1800

First Permanent Professors at Most Colleges

While tutors were still preferred by some, most colleges had established a core of full-time professors. Their main responsibility was teaching and they were older with more educational experience than tutors. By the end of the 1800s, professors significantly outnumbered tutors.

1824

First African Americans Granted Access to Higher Education

Although rare and dangerous in the 19th century, Dartmouth College was the first to provide access for African Americans. They were followed by Oberlin College in 1833.

1828

Yale Report

This well-known report confronted the studying of ancient languages and liberal arts. Issued by the Universitys President and a committee of professors, they suggested that young people should be required to study a variety of subjects in order to exercise all areas of their minds. They believed it would contribute to a more well-rounded individual.

1837

The Institute for Colored Youth Founded

The oldest historically black college and university in the nation, it was founded by Richard Humphreys, a Quaker from Philadelphia. Founded as a teacher training institute, it is now known as Cheyney University.

1836

Georgia Female College & Mount Holyoke Female Seminary Chartered

Now known as Wesleyan College and Mount Holyoke College, respectively, they were the first full colleges for women established as such. While most institutions open to females were finishing schools with curriculum for homemakers, these two opened in a period of significant higher education expansion. By the 1850s, over 40 degree-granting colleges for women had been established.

1854

Ashmun Institute Founded

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION Now Lincoln University, it was founded as the first comprehensive institute of higher education for black men.

1860s

Expansion of American Higher Education

Following the treaty ending the revolution in 1783 and the Louisiana Purchase, the number and type of institutions grew significantly. By the 1860s, well over 500 colleges had been established with 241 still functioning. In addition to the expansion of institutions, the curriculum within those institutions was expanded, as well, to include a broader array of subjects.

1860 to 1870

Expansion of Preparatory Schools

Although high schools during this time were not organized specifically for college preparation, their expansion led to increased desire for higher education.

1862

First Morrill Act

Also known as the Land Grant Act, it donated public lands to states, which they were to sell and use the proceeds to fund land grant colleges. The purpose of these colleges was, without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics, to teach branches of learning related to agriculture and mechanical arts. With industrialization triumphant at the beginning of the University Transformation Era, the need for such programs continued to grow. States that failed to develop such programs would not receive funding.

Mid to Late 19th Century

Conversion of Colleges to Universities

After being influenced by higher education in Germany, many colleges began to adhere to new concepts characteristic of universities. Cornell was one of the first American universities in 1869. John Hopkins followed in 1876 as a university dedicated from the outset to research and graduate training.

1890

Second Morrill Act

Publicly supported colleges for African Americans received a major boost with the passing of this act. Similar to the first, the Second Morrill Act would not fund states that denied admission to students on the basis of race unless they also set up separate but equal facilities.

1900

Association of American Universities Formed

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With its formation, research universities had become a special group among American institutions. The founders included five state institutions, five former colonial colleges, and five universities that were founded as such.

1900

Colleges and Universities Admit both Men and Women

By this time, more than two-thirds of all colleges and universities were admitting both men and women. As a result, women began entering higher education in greater numbers.

1902

Joliet Junior College Founded

The first of its kind, Joliet Junior College was founded to offer the first two years of higher education instruction as a foundation. This view was in line with that of university leaders who insisted they would not become true research centers as long as they retained freshman and sophomore classes. By 1930, there would be 450 junior colleges in all but five states with total enrollment of around 70,000.

1920

American Association of Junior Colleges Founded

Now called the American Association of Community Colleges, it provides a national focus and leadership for the nations community colleges.

1934

Indian Reorganization Act

Promoted higher education for Native Americans through federal individual loan funds.

1944

Servicemens Readjustment Act

Known informally as the G.I. Bill, it provided a range of benefits for returning War World II veterans. Some of the benefits included high school or vocational education as well as cash payments of tuition and living expenses to attend college. It was a milestone in federal funding for education of individuals and helped break down the economic and social barriers to education for these veterans.

1947

Trumans Commission on Higher Education

Twenty-eight members appointed to the Commission by President Harry Truman noted the importance of access to higher education and believed that 49% of the nations citizens would be able to complete college level coursework. They also called for the establishment of a network

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION of public community colleges that would charge little or no tuition, serve as cultural centers, be comprehensive in their program offerings, and serve the area in which they were located.

1954/1956

Brown v. Board of Education & Florida ex rel. Hawkins v. Board of Control

With Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in education was unequal and illegal. In doing so, they declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional. Florida ex rel. Hawkins v. Board of Control extended the Brown v. Board of Education ruling to higher education in 1956.

1964

Civil Rights Act

This landmark legislation outlawed discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, national and religious minority, and women. It ended discrimination in facilities that served the general public to include institutions of higher education.

1965

Higher Education Act

Legislation signed into U.S. law intended to strengthen the educational resources of our colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in higher education. It increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans to students, and established a National Teachers Corps. Current amendments to this legislation include the federal Pell Grant program.

1967

Carnegie Commission on Higher Education Established

Under the leadership of Clark Kerr, developed the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. Later to become known as the Carnegie Council on Policy Studies from 1974 to 1979, they published an extensive series of research reports on the condition and character of higher education in the United States that helped define key federal policies and programs in higher education and student financial aid. The classification of institutions of higher education, specifically, separated them into eighteen categories from specialized schools to research universities.

1972

Title IX of the Education Amendments

As a portion of the Education Amendments of 1972, Title IX requires inclusion of both genders in any education program or activity receiving federal funding. It had a significant impact on women in collegiate athletics. Failure to comply would result in funding being cut off.

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1972

Amendment to the 1964 Higher Education Act

Developed need-based student financial aid that was portable and readily available to a large number of students. This aid, the Basic Educational Opportunities Grants (BEOG), now known as the Pell Grants, meant that any applicant who complied with its terms was guaranteed financial aid. This was popular with students as well as institutions and helped promote the appeal of going to college.

1973

Rehabilitation Act, Section 504

Prohibited disability-based discrimination in federally funded programs, including admissions to colleges and universities.

1975

Age Discrimination Act of 1975

Prohibited discrimination on the basis of age in programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance. This meant colleges and universities could not deny admission to any individual based on their age.

1978

Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act

Passed as an attempt to provide resources to Indian tribes for establishing and improving tribal colleges. Although only half of the eligible tribal colleges had received funds four years after its enactment, it was still significant in providing assistance to some of the tribal colleges.

1990

Americans with Disabilities Act

A wide-ranging civil rights act that prohibits discrimination on the based on disability, it affords similar protections against discrimination as the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

1993

Community Colleges Open Admissions Prove Significant

At the end of the Consolidation Era, community colleges enrolled approximately 45% of all firsttime freshman and more than 25% of those who completed at least four courses at a community college transferred to in-state, public universities. Their open admissions policies allowed public university systems to maintain, if not further restrict, selective admissions processes.