MA6641 Flight Performance & Dynamics

Asst. Prof. Yongki Go

Takeoff and Landing Performance

Takeoff Segments

We will consider only conventional takeoff The total takeoff distance consists of three parts:

the ground-roll distance the transition distance Takeoff flare the climbout distance over an obstacle

The height of the obstacle is 50 ft for military aircraft and 35 ft for commercial aircraft

Critical Engine

Critical engine in a multi-engine aircraft: engine whose failure results in the most adverse effect

Exists e.g. in propeller-driven aircraft with the propellers turning in the same direction In the example below, the left-hand engine is the critical engine of the aircraft

Important Speeds during Ground Roll (1)

Vmcg : minimum control speed on the ground

Minimum speed at which the rudder has become effective to counteract moment due to critical engine failure on the ground At this speed the aircraft must be able to continue a straight path down the runway with a failed engine Minimum speed at which the rudder has become effective to counteract moment due to critical engine failure in the air At this speed the aircraft must be able to continue a straight flight with a failed engine Minimum speed to continue the takeoff in the presence of engine failure Takeoff must be aborted if engine failure occurs below V1

Vmca : minimum control speed in the air (Vmca > Vmcg )

V1 : decision speed (V1 > Vmcg )

Important Speeds during Ground Roll (2)

VR : rotation speed (VR > V1 )

The speed to initiate rotation to increase angle of attack The minimum speed at which the aircraft can become airborne This speed is determined based on the assumption of maximum angle of attack before stall or allowable by tail clearance The speed at which the aircraft can safely lift off ground and continue take-off This speed is usually achieved at angle of attack lower than the maximum before stall or maximum allowable by tail clearance Usually VLO 1.1Vstall

Vmu : minimum unstick speed (Vmu > VR )

VLO: liftoff speed (VLO > Vmu )

Important Speeds during Ground Roll (3)

Accelerating ground run Rotation

Vstall

Vmca
Vmcg

V1 V R

Vmu

V2
VLO

sg

sg : ground roll distance

Total distance covered along the ground from zero speed to VLO Minimum speed at 35 ft above the ground to continue safe climb with one engine failure Usually V2 1.2Vstall

V2 : takeoff safety speed

Balanced Field Length

Balanced Field Length (BFL) is determined by the condition that the distance to continue a takeoff following failure of an engine at some critical speed ( V1 ) be equal to the distance required to abort it

(35 ft above ground)

EOM Ground Roll

Forces on the aircraft during takeoff:

L T D R N
Normal force: N = W Rolling friction: R = Parallel to the ground:

L r N = r (W L )
m

dV = T D r (W L ) dt For detailed analysis, this equation must be integrated numerically to obtain the takeoff ground distance

Some Notes on Ground Effects

During takeoff ground roll, CD is not the same as in the air Two primary reasons: Higher C due to the extended landing gear D0 Lower induced drag (C ) due to ground effect Di

Proximity to the ground inhibits the downwash effect

(16h b )2 Approximation: G = CDi (out - of - ground effect) 1 + (16h b )2

h: altitude above ground b: wing span

CDi (in - ground effect)

Approximate Ground Roll Analysis (1)

Distance traveled during ground roll:

2 V dV dV = ds = V dt = dV dt 2 dV dt

Using m

dV = T D r (W L ) dt
2 m dV ds = 2 T D r (W L )

Since

W m= g

W sg = 2g

VLO

Note: T D r (W L ) net force in the horizontal direction sg consists of ground accelerating distance (sga ) and rotation distance ( sgr )

2 dV T D r (W L )

Approximate Ground Roll Analysis (2)

Ground accelerating distance:

T D r (W L ) does not vary much Usually assumed constant at its value at V = 0.7VLO

sga

2 WVLO 1 = 2g [T D r (W L )]0.7VLO

Setting VLO = 1.1Vstall and recalling Vstall =

2 W 1 : S CLmax

sga

1.21(W S ) = g CLmax [T W D W r (1 L W )]0.7VLO

Approximate Ground Roll Analysis (3)

If T >> [D r (W L )

at 0.7VLO , further simplification:

sga

1.21(W S ) g CLmax (T W )

sga sga sga

increases with an increase in W S decreases with an increase in CL max decreases with an increase in T W

Note:

Ground roll is very sensitive to weight of aircraft Ground roll is dependent on ambient density

Approximate Ground Roll Analysis (4)

Rotation distance:

Reasonable to assume speed is constant at VLO during rotation Hence, rotation distance is just rotation time ( t R ) multiplied by VLO

t R = 1 for small aircraft, 3 for large aircraft

sgr = t R VLO

Setting VLO = 1.1Vstall :

sgr = 1.1t R

2 W 1 S CLmax

Total ground roll distance:

sg = sga + sgr
sgr << sga

Note that in normal takeoff situation:

Rotation Angle Limitation

Rotation is usually done at small angle to avoid tail strike

Maximum rotation angle depends on the geometrical configuration of the aircraft, mainly determined by:

Landing gear height Distance between rear wheels and strike point
Rough approximation:
ht

max = sin

ht lt

Approximate Takeoff Flare Analysis (1)

Takeoff flare can be approximated as pull-up maneuver V is between V Vstall and V2 = 1.2Vstall LO = 1.1 Assume V = 1.15Vstall

For safety, CL is kept slightly less than CLmax Assume CL = 0.9 CLmax
From pull-up maneuver theory:
2 V R= g (n 1)

tf

Expressing W in terms of Vstall :

Vstall =

2 W 1 S CLmax

2 1 W =2 Vstall SCLmax

Approximate Takeoff Flare Analysis (2)

tf

L = n= W = 1.19

1 2

(1.15Vstall )2 S(0.9CL ) 2 1 V 2 stallSCL

max max

2 6.96Vstall R= g

From the geometry:

Takeoff flare distance: Total takeoff distance:

hOB tf = cos (1 ) R
1

stf = R sin tf

sTO = sg + stf

Example: Takeoff Distance Calculation (1)

Estimate the total takeoff distance at sea level for the Gulfstream airplane. Assume that during ground roll, the thrust equation can be approximated by: 2 T = (27,700 21.28V + 0.01117V ) lb
2 and the drag polar is given by CD = 0.033 + 0.055CL . Also assume that the runway is dry concrete with r = 0.04 . Use CL = 0.1 in the ground-roll calculation and CLmax = 1.86 for the takeoff configuration. Note: W=73,000 lb, S=950 ft2

Vstall =

2 W 1 = 186.4 ft/s S CLmax

VLO = 1.1Vstall = 205.1 ft/s

Airspeed to use in ground-roll calculation: At this airspeed:

V = 0.7VLO = 143.6 ft/s

2 T = 27,700 21.28V + 0.01117V = 24,875 lb

Example: Takeoff Distance Calculation (2)

During ground roll: CL

= 0 .1

2 CD = 0.033 + 0.055CL = 0.034

Lift and drag at 0.7 VLO:

2 1 1 L=2 V SCL = 2 (0.002377 )(143.6)2 (950 )(0.1) = 2,328.3 lb

2 1 1 D=2 V SCD = 2 (0.002377 )(143.6)2 (950 )(0.034 ) = 791.61 lb

Ground accelerating distance:

T W = 24,875 73,000 = 0.341 D W = 791.61 73,000 = 0.011 L W = 2,328.3 73,000 = 0.032 1.21(W S ) sga = g CLmax [T W D W r (1 L W )]0.7VLO 1.21(76.48 ) = 32.2(0.002377 )(1.86 )[0.341 0.011 0.04(1 0.032)] = 2,232.4 ft

Example: Takeoff Distance Calculation (3)

Rotation distance (use t R = 3 ): sgr = t R VLO = 615.3 ft Takeoff flare:

2 6.96Vstall R= = 7,510 ft g

(hOB = 35 ft)

hOB tf = cos (1 ) = 5.534 R stf = R sin tf = 724.2 ft Total takeoff distance: sTO = sg + stf = 3,571.9 ft
1

If we use the more approximate ground-accelerating distance formula: Ground roll distance: sga Total takeoff distance:

1.21(W S ) = 1,915.2 ft g CLmax (T W )

sTO = sg + stf = 3,254.7 ft

Landing Segments (1)

Again we will only consider conventional landing here The total landing distance consists of three parts:

the approach distance, started from clearance of 50 ft obstacle Straight path with speed V at the obstacle clearance a

Va = 1.3Vstall for commercial aircraft,1.2Vstall for military aircraft

the landing flare distance: transition (round-out) from approach until touchdown at VTD

VTD = 1.15Vstall for commercial aircraft, 1.1Vstall for military aircraft

the ground roll distance: free roll + braking distance

Landing Segments (2)

V = Va

f
V = VTD

V = 0

Approximate Approach Distance Analysis

Assume equilibrium flight condition during approach:

L = W cos a

D = T + W sin a

D T sin a = W W For transport aircraft, a 3 : T 1 sin a = L W LD W

Assuming circular flare: a

a a

= f

Flare height:

hf = R(1 cos a )

Approach distance:

50 hf sa = tan a

Approximate Landing Flare Distance Analysis

Consider circular flare:

V varies from Va to VTD

For commercial aircraft: from 1.3Vstall to 1.15Vstall For military aircraft: from 1.2Vstall to 1.1Vstall

Assume:

Vf = 1.23Vstall for commercial aircraft,1.15Vstall for military aircraft

n = 1.2
From pull-up maneuver theory:

f
a

Vf 2 R= 0.2g
Flare distance:

sf = R sin f = R sin a

Landing Ground Roll Analysis

EOM similar to takeoff ground roll withT = 0 or T = Trev

Trev: reverse thrust, for aircraft equipped with thrust reversers

dV m = Trev D r (W L ) dt
This equation can be integrated numerically to find landing ground roll distance (sd ) sd consists of free roll distance (sfr ) and braking ground run sdb) distance (

Free roll depends on pilot technique and the time for free roll ( t fr ) is usually of the order 1 to 3 s

Reasonable to assume speed is constant at V during free TD roll s =t V

fr fr TD

Bank Angle Limitation

During roll and after touchdown, the aircraft must be prevented from having too much bank to avoid wing strike On some aircraft, the limitation could be due to possible engine strike

Rough approximation for max before wing strike:

max = tan
where

2hw b bt

hw = hG +

b tan 2

Approximate Landing Ground Roll Analysis (1)

As in the takeoff accelerating ground run, the distance traveled during braking ground run distance from the end of the free roll until fully stop:

sdb
or

2 W dV = 2g V Trev D r (W L ) TD

sdb

W = 2g

VTD

T
0

rev

2 dV + D + r (W L )

Typically: D + r (W L ) is reasonably constant If Trev is constant, can assume Trev + D + r (W L ) constant Value taken is usually at V = 0.7VTD

Approximate Landing Ground Roll Analysis (2)

sdb
2 WVTD 1 = 2g [Trev + D + r (W L )]0.7VTD

Also we can write:

j = 1.15 for commercial aircraft = 1.1 for military aircraft

VTD = j Vstall

By recalling Vstall =

2 W 1 , slb can be expressed as: S CLmax

sdb =

g CLmax [Trev

j 2 (W S ) W + D W + r (1 L W )]0.7VTD

Approximate Landing Ground Roll Analysis (3)

sdb =

g CLmax [Trev

j 2 (W S ) W + D W + r (1 L W )]0.7VTD

Total landing ground roll distance: sd = sfr + sdb Effects of aircraft parameters: sd increases with an increase in W S

As in takeoff, landing ground roll is also sensitive to weight of the aircraft and dependent on the ambient air density W S and CLmax have same effect to both takeoff and landing ground rolls Total landing distance: sLD = sa + sf + sd

sd decreases with an increase in CL sd decreases with an increase in Trev W

max

Example: Landing Distance Calculation (1)

Estimate the total landing distance at sea level for the Gulfstream airplane. Assume that no reverse thrust is used. Assume the drag polar during landing ground roll is given by 2 CD = 0.027 + 0.055CL and the rolling friction coefficient of runway with brakes-on is r = 0.4 . Use CL = 0.1 during ground roll and CL = 2.39 for landing configuration. The max approach angle is 3o. Note: W=73,000 lb, S=950 ft2
Vstall = 2 W 1 = 164.5 ft/s S CLmax

Vf = 1.23Vstall = 202.3 ft/s

VTD = 1.15Vstall189.2 ft/s

Airspeed to use in ground-roll calculation: V = 0.7VTD = 132.4 ft/s

Example: Landing Distance Calculation (2)

Approach distance

Vf 2 R= = 6,354.9 ft 0.2g

a = 3 :

hf = R(1 cos a ) = 8.71 ft

sa = 50 hf = 787.9 ft tan a

Flare distance:

sf = R sin f = R sin a = 332.6 ft

Ground roll distance: Free roll t fr = 3 s : sfr Braking ground run:

= t fr VTD = 3 189.2 = 567.6 ft

j = 1.15 2 CL = 0 . 1 CD = 0.027 + 0.055CL = 0.028

Example: Landing Distance Calculation (3)

Lift and drag at 0.7 VTD:

2 1 1 L=2 V SCL = 2 (0.002377 )(132.4)2 (950 )(0.1) = 1,979.2 lb 2 1 1 D=2 V SCD = 2 (0.002377 )(132.4)2 (950 )(0.028 ) = 554.2 lb

Trev W = 0 (no reverse thrust is used) D W = 554.2 73,000 = 0.008 L W = 1,979.2 73,000 = 0.027 j 2 (W S ) sdb = g CLmax [Trev W + D W + r (1 L W )]0.7VTD

(1.15)2 (76.84) = 32.2(0.002377 )(2.39)[0.008 + 0.4(1 0.027 )] = 1392 ft Total landing distance: sLD = sa + sf + sd = 3080 .1 ft