Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Solar Energy Field Trip PDF
Solar Energy Field Trip PDF
Solar Energy Field Trip PDF
Solar Energy
A Visit to a Solar Power Plant with a Special Guest A Lesson on Energy Transfers from the Energy Module Student Reference Book Pages
www.sciencecompanion.com
Come on a virtual field trip matching module sample lessons with current events!
A special guest was invited for the opening, to celebrate how solar energy can change America...
Can you see all of the solar panels behind the podium?
Not this guy! (But he came with the special guest...) Well give you a hint!
Rita, Science Companions director, was there to greet him, waiting in front of this sign...
Its an honor to be here on a very big day not just for Arcadia but for the cause of clean energy in America, President Obama told the crowd... With the flip of a switch, Florida Power and Light has moved the solar panels behind me into a position where they can catch the suns rays. And now, for the very first time, a large-scale solar power plant...will deliver electricity produced by the sun to the citizens of the Sunshine State. http://www.sun-sentinel.com/business/sfl-obama-fpl-102809,0,81543.story
Solar power works through the transfer of energy -turn the page and find out how!
Levels 4-6
Science Companion
Developers
Belinda Basca, Diane Bell, and Martha Sullivan
Editors
Rachel Burke and Wanda Gayle
Book Production
Happenstance Type-O-Rama; Picas & Points, Plus (Carolyn Loxton)
www.sciencecompanion.com
2009 Edition Copyright 2005 Chicago Science Group. All Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publisher. SCIENCE COMPANION, EXPLORAGEAR, the CROSSHATCH Design and the WHEEL Design are trademarks of Chicago Science Group and Chicago Educational Publishing. ISBN 1-59192-284-4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-P001-17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08
Table of Contents
Suggested Full Year Schedule .. . . . . . . . . Welcome to Science Companion
Philosophy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Finding What You Need in ScienceCompanion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Cross-Curricular Integration and Flexible Scheduling .. . . . . . . . . . . 10 Differentiating Instruction for Diverse Learners.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Inside Front Cover
Unit Overview
Introduction to theEnergy Unit.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Unit Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Lessons at a Glance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Integrating the Student Reference Book.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Lessons
1 Energy Is All Around Us*.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2 Energys Many Forms* .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3 Energy Transfers: How Energy Makes Things Happen* .. . . . . . 80 Teacher Directions: Setting Up the Energy Stations .. . . . . . . . . 95 Teacher Directions: Making a Solar Pulley.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4 Energy Transfers: Making Boats Go.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5 Hot Water, Cold Water: Transferring Heat Energy*.. . . . . . . . . . 116 6 Conductors: Testing the Transfer of Heat Energy*.. . . . . . . . . . 132 7 Building a Better Water Bottle: .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Slowing the Transfer of Heat Energy* 8 Getting More for Less: Energy Efficiency.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 9 Inventions: Getting Energy to Work for Us*.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
* Indicates a core lesson
ENERGY
Table of Contents
ENERGY
Table of Contents
Philosophy
Almost anyone who has spent time with children is struck by the tremendous energy they expend exploring their world. They ask why and how. They want to see and touch. They use their minds and senses to explore the things they encounter and wonder about. In other words, children are already equipped with the basic qualities that make a good scientist. The goal of the Science Companion curriculum is to respond to and nourish students scientific dispositions by actively engaging their interests and enhancing their powers of inquiry, observation, and reflection. Learning by doing is central to this program. Each Science Companion lesson incorporates interesting and relevant scientific content, as well as science values, attitudes, and skills that children in the elementary grades should begin to develop. These habits of mind, along with science content knowledge, are crucial for building science literacy and they are an integral part of the Science Companion program. Be aware of them and reinforce them as you work with students. With experience, students will develop the ways they demonstrate and use the following scientific habits of mind.
Habits of Mind
Wondering and thinking about the natural and physical world Students curiosity is valued, respected, and nurtured. Their questions and theories about the world around them are important in setting direction and pace for the curriculum. Children are encouraged to revise and refine their questions and ideas as they gain additional information through a variety of sources and experiences. Seeking answers through exploration and investigation Students actively seek information and answers to their questions by trying things out and making observations. They continually revise their understanding based on their experiences. Through these investigations, children learn firsthand about the scientific method. They also see that taking risks and making mistakes are an important part of science and of learning in general. Pursuing ideas in depth Students have the opportunity to pursue ideas and topics fully, revisiting them and making connections to other subjects and other areas in their lives.
ENERGY
Philosophy
Observing carefully Students are encouraged to attend to details. They are taught to observe with multiple senses and from a variety of perspectives. They use tools, such as magnifying lenses, balance scales, rulers, and clocks, to enhance their observations. Students use their developing mathematics and literacy skills to describe, communicate, and record their observations in age-appropriate ways. Communicating clearly Students are asked to describe their observations and articulate their thinking and ideas using a variety of communication tools, including speaking, writing, and drawing. They learn that record keeping is a valuable form of communication for oneself and others. Children experience how working carefully improves ones ability to use ones work as a tool for communication. Collaborating and sharing Students come to know that their ideas, questions, observations, and work have value. At the same time, they learn that listening is vitally important, and that exchanging ideas with one another builds knowledge and enhances understanding. Children discover that they can gain more knowledge as a group than as individuals, and that detailed observations and good ideas emerge from collaboration. Developing critical response skills Students ask, How do you know? when appropriate, and are encouraged to attempt to answer when this question is asked of them. This habit helps develop the critical response skills needed by every scientist.
ENERGY
Philosophy
E n ergy
C luster 2 ENeRGY TRANSFeRS
Lesson
32
A Quick Look
Big Idea
Energy can move, or transfer, from place to place. Sometimes it changes form as it transfers.
Overview
Students operate a variety of toys to figure out the type of energy transfers that occur in each one. They work in small groups, rotating through a series of energy stations.
Process Skills
Reasoning Explaining Communicating
Key Notes
Schedule three sessions for this lesson. For the exploration, set up nine stations with enough space
for small groups of students to gather around and operate each toy. See the Teacher Directions Setting up the Energy Stations on pages 9598 for details.
80
Energy
Lesson 3
Lesson
Standards and Benchmarks
As they move through the energy stations, students deepen their understanding of Atlas of Scientific Literacy Benchmark 4E/E4: Many events involve transfer of energy from one object to another, and Atlas of Scientific Literacy Benchmark 4E/M2: Most processes involve the transfer of energy from one system toanother. Energy can be transferred in different ways. When the children identify the various energy forms being transferred as the toys are operated, they also expand their awareness of Physical Science Standard B (Transfer of Energy): Energy is a property of many substances and is associated with heat, light, electricity, mechanical motion, sound, nuclei, and the nature of a chemical, and Atlas of Scientific Literacy Benchmark 4E/ M4: Energy appears in different forms. Motion energy is associated with the speed of an object. Heat energy is associated with the temperature of an object. Gravitational energy is associated with the height of an object above a reference point. Elastic energy is associated with the stretching of an elastic object. Chemical energy is associated with the chemical composition of a substance.
32
Notes
Lesson Goal
Recognize that energy moves from place to place and changes forms to make things happen.
Assessment Options
Prior to the lesson, have students use their science notebook
journal section to respond to this question: Can energy move from one object to another? If so, give some examples.
Energy
Lesson 3
81
Materials
Item
ExploraGear Clamp lamp (optional) 1 Use with a compact fluorescent light bulb to activate the solar propeller if sunlight is not available. Also used for magic bracelet beads. Use with clamp lamp to energize the solar propeller. To make solar propeller. 1 9 1 1 1 To prop up solar propeller. For Session 2 exploration. To demonstrate that the solar panel is not activated by heat. To map energy transfers on an overhead transparency. To show overhead transparency.
Quantity
Notes
Compact fluorescent light bulb (CFL), 26W Solar kit Classroom Supplies Box or block, small Energy stations Hair dryer (optional) Overhead marker Overhead projector Curriculum Items
Overhead Transparency Mapping Energy Transfers Energy Science Notebook, pages 413 Energy Student Reference Book, pages 1324 and 129-146 Teacher Directions Setting up the Energy Stations Teacher Master Energy Station Directions Energy Assessment 1 Energy Forms and Transfers (optional) Family Link Homework Toy Box Science
Notes
82
Energy
Lesson 3
Preparation
Schedule three sessions for this lesson. Conduct the introductory demonstration in Session 1, rotate groups through the nine energy stations in Session 2, and follow up with the reflective discussion in Session 3. Session 1 q Locate the ExploraGear solar kit and make the solar-powered propeller: a. Attach the propeller to the shaft projecting from the motor. b. Connect the wires of the solar panel to the wires of the motor.
Notes
q Since light energy activates the solar propeller, position the solar
panel towards a source of light energy. If enough sunlight is not available in your classroom, use the compact florescent light bulb and clamp lamp provided in the ExploraGear instead. Allow several minutes for the light bulb to warm up before doing the demonstration.
Energy
Lesson 3
83
Notes
Session 2 q Set up the nine energy stations as described in the Teacher Directions Setting up the Energy Stations on pages 9598. Follow these steps before setting up the stations: a. Make a copy of the Teacher Master Energy Station Directions. Cut along the dotted lines to create separate toy operation directions for each station. b. Bright, direct sunlight is needed to activate the magic bracelet at Energy Station 9. They will not activate using an incandescent bulb or out of direct sunlight. If sunlight is not available, use the compact fluorescent light bulb and clamp lamp provided in the ExploraGear. Allow time for the light bulb to warm up before sending students to the station. c. Allow ample time to run through each station after set-up to troubleshoot any problems and ensure that the toys are working properly.
Vocabulary
energy transfer. . . . . . When energy moves from one object or place to another or changes from one form to another. solar energy . . . . . . . . . Energy transferred from the sun. Solar energy travels to Earth through space and provides warmth, light, and energy for plant growth.
84
Energy
Lesson 3
Notes
Have the students reflect on the I Wonder circle as they observe the solar propeller responding to sunlight. Help them see how observations (the propeller spins when sunlight hits the panel, but stops when sunlight is absent) lead to discovery (light energy is being transferred from the sun to activate the solar panel).
Teacher Note: If it is a sunny day with patchy clouds, simply set the
unit in a window and allow students to figure out on their own that the propeller spins rapidly when the sun shines and slows down or even stops when passing clouds block the sun.
2. Discuss where the propeller gets the energy to spin. (Students should recognize that when light shines on the panel the propeller has the energy to spin and when the light is blocked the propeller no longer has the energy to spin.)
Teacher Note: If some students believe that the suns or the lamps heat
rather than its light powers the propeller, you can direct hot air from a hair dryer onto the solar panel to show that heat energy alone does not cause the propeller to spin.
3. Introduce the term energy transfer to describe instances where energy moves from one place or object to another (such as from the sun to the solar panel), or changes from one form to another (such as in the solar panel itself, where light energy is changed to electrical energy). Tell the class that they have three fun science sessions to look forward tothey get to explore energy transfers using toys.
Energy
Lesson 3
85
Notes
3. Using the Overhead Transparency Mapping Energy Transfers and an erasable overhead marker, show students how to map the energy transfers that made the solar propeller spin. As you connect the different energy forms on the overhead transparency, have students mirror your mapping on page 4 of their science notebooks. Use the following steps and sample energy map to help with this task. a. Label shapes with the type of energy involved. b. Draw arrows to map how energy transfers from one form to another as the solar propeller operates. c. Write a brief description next to your arrows to add details about the forms of energy involved and how they transfer.
86
Energy
Lesson 3
Notes
4. Wipe off the overhead transparency and ask for volunteers to map some additional examples of energy transfers. Let students use their own ideas of examples of energy transfers or choose from a list you provide.
variety of ways, such as a hammer raised to drive in a nail. Encourage alternative interpretations. (Some students might see gravitational energy as the energy source that transfers to motion energy which drives the nail in. Others may cite muscle powerchemical energytransferring to motion energy to drive the nail in. A few students may suggest that sound energy should be included on the map because of the sound the hammer makes as it hits the nail.) that there isnt one correct answer. The objective is for students to notice how energy changes as things happen.
5. Assign Chapter 2 of the student reference book to reinforce the concept of energy transfers.
Energy
Lesson 3
87
Notes
Session 2
Explore
Mapping Energy Transfers in Toys Teacher Note: Familiarize yourself with the explanations on
pages 9798 of how the more complex toys work.
1. Explain the energy mapping activity and answer any questions. Outline these steps: a. Take turns with other groups visiting nine energy stations, each set up with a different toy and instructions for operating the toy. b. At each station, operate the toy, figure out what kinds of energy transfers make the toy work, and create a map of those transfers with the group. (Emphasize the importance of observing the toys in action, taking the time needed to think carefully about what the toys do, and considering the opinions of other group members before mapping the energy transfers.) c. Complete the energy maps on science notebook pages 513. Point out that the students need to fill in the name of the toy being operated at the top of each science notebook page. d. Use the glossary in the science notebook as needed to review descriptions of any of the energy forms.
Science Notebook pages 513
2. Divide the class into nine groups and direct them to the appropriate stations.
Teacher Note: Rotate through the stations as groups visit them. Listen
for particularly interesting debates regarding the energy transfers that occur. You may wish to revisit these debates during the reflective discussion.
3. Send home the Family Link Toy Box Science to provide students with an opportunity to independently trace the flow of energy through a toy of their choice.
88
Energy
Lesson 3
Session 3
Reflect and Discuss
Teacher Note: Students understanding of energy transfers, as evidenced
by their energy maps, may vary greatly. Some students may simply map the first and last forms of energy noted rather than any intermediary forms. Others may extend their thinking far beyond the basics, including things like the transfer of the chemical energy in the food they eat to the motion energy of their muscles, which in turn was transferred to the toy during operation. Accept all reasonable explanations and focus on each students rationale rather than highlighting a single correct energy map for each toy.
Sharing
Initiate reflections on the energy mapping activity and encourage groups to share their findings.
What was their favorite toy? Which toy was most difficult to figure out? Why was it hard to
figure out what kinds of energy transfers made this toy run?
Could they still tell that energy was transferred even when the
parts were hidden from view or too hard to understand? How? (Students should recognize that the new forms of energy they observed while operating the toys must mean that energy was transferredeven if the mechanism was unclear.)
Energy
Lesson 3
89
Synthesizing
Notes
1. Have the class reflect on the exploration and answer the following questions to reach the conclusion that every time something happens, energy is being transferred:
3. (Optional) Build on students curiosity and questions about the appearance of energy loss to create a foundation for understanding the conservation of energy in more advanced science classes:
stations? (The spinning top, bouncing ball, and dominoes may seem to run out of energy.) happened? Where did the energy go? (Some students may be able to describe what friction doesthe air slowed down the spinning top. Reinforce this awareness, pointing out other instances where friction occurswhen they rub their hands back and forth, for example. Help them see that, instead of running out, the energy is transferred to heat energy.)
90
Energy
Lesson 3
Ongoing Learning
Science Center
Place additional toys that run as a result of energy transfers in the
Science Center. Possibilities include a pinwheel, a rubber bandpowered airplane, a pull-back car, eye poppers (flexible, vinyl half balls that pop up when you flip them inside-out), a Jack-in-thebox, a hand-powered flashlight (with a tiny electrical generator inside instead of batteries) that is activated when the flashlight handle is squeezed, a toddlers wooden pounding-bench, windup toys, and a lava lamp. Provide extra copies of energy maps for students to fill in as they operate the toys. (Use the Overhead Transparency Mapping Energy Transfers with a blank piece of paper placed behind it to make extra copies.) Encourage the class to bring in energized toys from home to add to the collection.
Notes
Materials: Additional toys that run as a result of energy transfers, living organism setups that demonstrate the transfer of energy, and copies of the overhead transparency Mapping Energy Transfers
Family Link
In the Family Link Homework Toy Box Science students are asked to describe the energy transfers that occur when they operate one of their own toys. This Family Link can be used as a formative assessment. A bonus activity is also described, which encourages interested students to chew a wintergreen-flavored Lifesaver in a dark room. They observe the light emitted as the candy breaks apart and consider the energy transfer involved, which is motion energy (of the teeth) to light energy.
Teacher Note: The actual process is really much more complex and
involves molecules and the electric charges within them. As you chew, the chemical bonds of the sugar molecules in the lifesavers are torn apart, producing electrical energy among the pieces. This energy is transferred to other molecules which then give it off as light. This happens with most sugars, but the molecule that supplies the wintergreen flavor causes the process to produce more visible light than usual. Producing light energy by rubbing or crushing certain molecules is known as triboluminescence.
Maintenance
Collect and review the Family Link Homework Toy Box Science to see whether students were able to trace the flow of energy in one of their own toys independently.
Energy
Lesson 3
91
Notes
Chemical Energy Fun Demonstrate the chemical-to-heat energy transfer that occurs
when baking yeast and hydrogen peroxide are mixed:
Safety Note: The chemical component (hydrogen peroxide) used in this extension is a common household item and is not hazardous if used with care. Please check with your supervisor about OSHA or state regulations regarding laboratory practice and chemical storage. Use caution and have the children wear goggles and protective gloves when working with hydrogen peroxide.
a. Pour two ounces of hydrogen peroxide in a medium-sized jar. b. Place a thermometer into the jar to take an initial temperature reading. c. Add a teaspoon of granular baking yeast to the jar and provide a continuous report to the class of the change (rapid increase) in temperature. d. Discuss the increase in temperature. Has the energy in the jar changed forms? How can they tell? (Students should recognize that some of the chemical energy of the yeast and hydrogen peroxide has been transferred to heat energy; this accounts for the increase in temperature.) e. Talk about anything else the children may notice. What other signs indicate that changes have occurred in the jar? (The mixture will immediately begin to bubble and rise up in the jar.)
Safety Note: Make sure that students wear safety goggles during this pop rocket activity.
92
Energy
Lesson 3
Notes
Why does a roller coaster start at the highest hill? Why do the hills of a roller coaster get smaller and smaller? What causes the roller coaster to slow down? Do the cars rub against the air? Do the wheels rub against the track? Based on the earlier hand-rubbing and sandpaper rubbing
activities, what should happen to the air and tracks as they rub against the cars? getting hotter? Could this explain why many things seem to run out of energy? energy up, or has its energy just been transferred to less useful forms?
Would anyone be able to see if the air and the tracks were
Energy
Lesson 3
93
Art Extensions
Have students create flip-books depicting an energy transfer
such as a sailboat propelled by the wind, a chain of dominoes falling, or a baseball bat hitting a ball.
Planning Ahead
For Lesson 4
Give yourself enough time in advance of Lesson 4 to collect the materials youll need, particularly the large, shallow basin for class demonstrations of the boats and the nine smaller basins individual groups will be using to test their boats. Consider sending home the Teacher Master Request for Materials to help you get everything you need to conduct this lesson.
For Lesson 5
Collect empty 2-liter soda bottles. You will need one per group during Session 1.
94
Energy
Lesson 3
Teacher Directions
Setting Up the Energy Stations
Materials
Item
ExploraGear Ball Chenille wire Clamp lamp and bulb (optional) Dominoes Energy ball Hand-held electrical generator Pop-up toy Radiometer Solar energy beads Sparking-wheel toy Spinning tops with lights Toy car, pull-back type (optional) Classroom Supplies Gift box top, large Light source (flashlight, lamp, or sunlight) Paper bag, opaque, medium Screwdriver, small, Phillips head Tape 1 1 1 1 1 roll To contain spinning top. To power radiometer. To shield energy-bead bracelet from light. A lunch bag or gift bag works well. To dismantle one of the spinning tops. To tape shut the energy ball. 1 (3 extra) 1 2 1 set 1 1 4 1 1 package 1 (3 extra) 2 1 (2 extra) To demonstrate the transfer of energy. To make magic bracelet. To light magic bracelet or radiometer. To demonstrate the transfer of energy. To demonstrate the transfer of energy. To demonstrate the transfer of energy. To demonstrate the transfer of energy. To demonstrate the transfer of energy. To make magic bracelet. To demonstrate the transfer of energy. To demonstrate the transfer of energy. To demonstrate the transfer of energy.
Quantity
Notes
Energy
Lesson 3
95
Stagger stations throughout the room, using student desk tops, available counter space, and even open
floor space. Any space will do as long as there is enough room for small groups to gather around each toy and operate it.
Place each toy, along with its directions and any of the additional supplies described in the table below,
at the appropriate station.
After the stations are set up, conduct a trial run through each to make sure that the toys are operating
properly. Troubleshoot problems as necessary and feel free to make replacements to ensure student success. (For example, you can trade the pull-back car for a problematic toy.)
Teacher Note: The basic energy transfers the children are likely to notice at each station are listed in the following
table. While these transfers may be the most obvious, students may notice and include others in their energy maps as well, such as the background noise produced by several of the toys (sound energy).
Station Number 1
Type of Toy
Pop-up toy
Additional Supplies/Notes
Four pop-up toys are provided. Test these out and select one that pops up consistently and in a reasonable amount of time.
2 3
Dominoes Sparkingwheel Four sparking wheels are provided. Only put out one at a time that consistently generates sparks when operated. Make sure the students follow the directions for the sparking wheel. If used improperly, the wheel will quickly break. Tape the energy ball shut before use. Make sure light bulb is inserted and working. Place the intact spinning top in a large gift box lid and the disassembled top off to the side. Set up this station in sunlight or under the clamp lamp. Mark the station with a Fragile, Handle with Care sign. Set up this station on an open area of the floor so that students can bounce the ball.
4 5
Energy ball Hand-held electrical generator Spinning tops with light (one intact, one taken apart) Radiometer
Chemical (battery) to electrical to light and sound Motion to electrical to light; also motion to sound Motion to elastic to motion and light
Ball
96
Energy
Lesson 3
Station Number 9
Type of Toy
Magic bracelet
Additional Supplies/Notes
Set up this station in an area with ample sunlight. If sunlight is inadequate on the day you conduct this portion of the lesson, set up this station with a clamp lamp fitted with a compact fluorescent bulb. Make sure to turn the lamp on at least five minutes before students visit this station so that the bulb will be adequately warmed up. Place the pre-assembled bracelet in an opaque paper bag.
Optional replacement
Notes
Energy
Lesson 3
97
Notes
acts as a switch. When the top spins, the ball is forced outward, completing the electrical circuit that turns the light on.
light connection
Build on students understanding of sunlight from the Science Companion Level 3 Light Unit by giving them the opportunity to test and discover that solar beads do not change color when exposed to visible light alone (indoor lighting) but do change when exposed to sunlight, suggesting that sunlight contains forms of radiation beyond just visible light.
vacuum, to reduce air friction. When light hits the metal vanes it reflects off the white sides, but is absorbed as heat energy on the black sides. Air molecules flow around the edges of each vane, from the cooler white side toward the warmer black side, causing the top to spin.
98
Energy
Lesson 3
Energy
Lesson 3
99
Introduction
Energy: A Unifying Concept
Energy is integral to our understanding of the world around us. It is at the root of all change. Every time something happens, energy is involved. It is the energy in gasoline that makes an automobile run; the energy added to water that makes it boil; the energy in food that allows us to move and grow; the energy of an exploding stick of dynamite that blasts through solid rock; the energy in the suns rays that drives weather and life itself; andthe energy of moving water, air, sand, and ice that reshapes the surface of the earth.
What Is Energy?
Energy is something we understand through experience. We can feel, see, and hear the energy of a thunderstorm. We know what foods to eat when we need a boost of energy. We are amused by the boundless energy of a puppy. We realize that our garden needs the suns energy to grow. Intuitively, we understand that energy makes things happen. Doing work is one way to make things happen so it is not surprising that the word energy is derived from the Greek word energeia, meaning at work. Scientific definitions for energy also incorporate the idea of work. One common definition for energy is the ability to perform
234
Energy
work. While this definition is meaningful to scientists, it can be problematic for students. For scientists, the concept of work has a special meaningforce applied over a distance. For students, however, many of the things that energy makes happen, such as the soaring of a soccer ball, the flash of a bolt of lightning, or the bounce of a trampoline, are not likely to be considered work. A common misconception held by students is that energy is a thing rather than a property of something. Properties, such as energy, are inherently harder to explain and grasp. Energy has no mass, shape, taste, or odor but it can be measured. It can be felt but not touched. Nonetheless, we can recognize, appreciate, explore, and understand energy without a formal definition. In this unit, children will develop their own working definition of energy as they explore the role that energy plays in the world around them.
Forms of Energy
Energy is best described to children in terms of how they experience it in everyday life. While physicists employ a much stricter and more complex standard for distinguishing energy forms, this unit introduces energy in terms of forms that are accessible to students. Dont be concerned by the variations you encounter in how energy forms are defined and presented in resource books and videos. In this unit, designed specifically for 5th graders, keeping the categories of energy forms simple and recognizable will help students focus on energys importance in the world around them.
Energy
235
As discussed, these two major forms of energyenergy in action and stored energycan each be broken down into several representative energy forms. The table below shows the two major categories and their representative energy forms.
Energy in Action Motion energy Heat energy Light energy Electrical energy Sound energy Stored Energy Chemical (potential) energy Elastic (potential) energy Gravitational (potential) energy Nuclear energy
While energy in action and stored energy are used in the introductory and final lessons as umbrellas for students to group examples of energy under, the children are not expected to accurately specify each form as energy in action or stored energy. At this level, the children do not have the background necessary to understand why certain forms (particularly electrical, heat, sound, and light energy) are representative of one category or another. However, in this teachers introduction, we have categorized each form of energy in this way so you can relate the material to other sources, and have this broader understanding as you teach. The frequently used terms kinetic energy and potential energy are not used in the lessons though you are likely to encounter them in other books and resources about energy. Kinetic energy, however, should technically not be applied to all forms of energy associated with motion. It is exclusively the energy of motion of matter (objects with mass or weight). Several of the energy forms presented under Energy in Action involve the movement of mass-less entities, such as waves and fields, and cannot be accurately categorized as kinetic energy. Furthermore, chemical energy and nuclear energy involve behavior of things at the atomic level and cannot be described by the usual concepts of kinetic and potential energy.
Energy in Action
Motion Energy
common misconceptions
Students usually understand how moving things are energized and how their own bodies have energy. They have a more difficult time recognizing more abstract forms of energy, such as light, electricity, and elastic energy.
Motion energy, often referred to as kinetic energy, is the energy present in moving objects or materials, such as the wind or falling water. Motion energy is the most easily recognizable form of energy. When you see a speeding car, a soaring baseball, a rushing river, or a towering twister, the energy they possess is unmistakable. These examples embody changeenergy is clearly at work. We depend on motion energy to get us from place to place, chew our food, drive nails into walls, and power windmills and water turbines.
236
Energy
Heat Energy
The terms heat, heat energy, and thermal energy are synonymous. As you teach, whenever possible, reinforce that heat is energy to help dispel the common misconception that heat is a thing rather than a property of a substance. Using the term heat energy may help make this distinction but students should be aware that the term heat, so widely used in everyday life, also refers to heat energy.
For the students we define heat energy as the energy which an object has as a result of its temperature. At a more sophisticated level, heat, also known as thermal energy, is a consequence of motion. In this case, the particles moving are the minute atoms and molecules found within all substances. The faster these particles move the more heat energy a substance possesses.
Since the students may not know about atoms and molecules or the connection between their motion and heat, they are unlikely to associate heat energy with motion. For them, heat energy will be just a form of energy associated with an objects temperature.
We depend on heat energy to cook our food, warm our homes and dry our clothes. In engines (gas, diesel, or steam) heat energy produced by burning fuels is transferred into energy of motion. Heat energy is also used in many power plants to generate electricity.
Students may confuse the terms heat energy and temperature. Whenever possible, reinforce to children that the heat energy of an object is not the same thing as its temperature. The amount of heat energy an object possesses depends not only on temperaturea measure of how hot or cold something isbut also on the mass of the object and on the type of matter from which it is formed. It is clear, for example, that a bathtub of water at 35oC (95oF) holds more heat energy than a glass of water at the same temperature. Comparing, or asking children to compare, how much heat energy would have to be added to a cold glass of water and a bathtub full of cold water to allow each to reach a temperature of 35oC may help to clarify this point.
One common source of heat energy is frictionthe resistance that occurs whenever two substances rub against each other. While the heat energy resulting from friction is desirable when you are rubbing your hands together to stay warm, it is less desirable when the moving parts of your cars engine heat up.
Energy
237
Light Energy
For the students we define light energy as the energy carried by light rays. On a more sophisticated level, light energy, also known as radiant energy, is the energy carried by electromagnetic waveswaves of energy traveling through matter or empty space.
While there are many types of electromagnetic wavessuch as radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet light, and x-raysin this unit, light energy will primarily be equated with visible light, since that is the type most likely to be recognized by students. For example, the energy from the sun is referred to simply as light, even though it is actually a more complex combination of visible light, ultraviolet light, and infrared waves. If students in your class studied the Science Companion Level 3 Light Unit, you can refer back to what they learned about visible light in that unit and pursue discussions about other types of electromagnetic waves if the children bring them up.
All life ultimately depends on light energy. Plants harness the energy in sunlight to produce the food that supports all other living things, and sunlight warms the earth, maintaining surface temperatures that sustain life. The energy in light also makes photography possible and, when concentrated into special beams of light called lasers, is powerful enough to drill through metals and cut through tissue during surgery.
Electrical Energy
All matter consists of minute building blocks called atoms. Atoms are composed of even smaller particles: a central nucleus consisting of protons (each with a positive electric charge) and neutrons (with a neutral chargeno electric charge), that is surrounded by a cloud of electrons (with negative electric charges). Electrically charged particles operate under an opposites attract principle. Since (negatively charged) electrons are attracted to substances or regions with a net positive electric charge (which just means there are more protons than electrons in the region), they will naturally flow toward these regions when free to do so. In conductors most metals, for examplesome electrons are free to flow through the material because they are held loosely by their atoms. These flowing electrons possess electrical energythey are capable of performing work and bringing about change.
Since the children have not yet learned that an electric current is a stream of moving particles, they are not likely to associate electrical energy with motion. At this stage, its sufficient for them to know that electrical energy is a type of energy associated with electric current.
238
Energy
The electricity (electrons flowing through a wire or another conductor) that powers household appliancestoasters, lights, refrigerators, computers, dishwashers, televisions, etc. demonstrates the work that can be performed by electrical energy. A tree felled by a bolt of lightning is another familiar reminder of the power of electrical energy. In this case, there is so much electrical energy in the lightning bolt that it overcomes woods natural resistance to the flow of electrons (wood is usually an insulator, or non-conductor).
Children merely need to recognize examples of electrical energy in this unit. They should not be expected to know what is happening on a molecular level.
Sound Energy
Sound is carried through substances in waves of vibrating (back and forth moving) molecules. Where there is movement there is energythe vibrating molecules that make up sound waves therefore possess energy. When sound waves hit the ear drum, they energize the eardrum which causes it to vibrate. The vibrating eardrum ultimately triggers messages to the brain (as vibrations pass from the eardrum to the bones of the middle ear to the fluid and tiny sensory hairs of the inner ear) that are the basis for hearing.
If students in your class studied the Science Companion Level 2 Sound Unit, you can refer back to what they learned about sound and vibrations in that unit.
Stored Energy
Chemical (Potential) Energy
Chemical energy is the energy stored in chemical substances, such as fuel or food. All substances are made up of atoms and molecules. These atoms and molecules are connected to one another (held together) by attractive forces known as chemical bonds.
The attraction between positively and negatively charged particles is the glue that holds all matter together, allowing atoms to bind together to form molecules ranging from relatively simple molecules (such as pure metals) to very complex structures (such as proteins and DNA).
When the bonds between atoms and molecules rearrange, as they do during chemical reactions (such as burning), there is frequently a net release of energy. This potential for bond rearrangement and net energy release via chemical reactions is the basis for chemical energy. Even though it takes energy to break chemical bonds,
Energy
239
if new, more stable (less energetic) bonds form, more energy is released than is used. Substances, such as dynamite, made up of atoms and molecules bound together by high-energy, less stable bonds, are a rich source of chemical energy. As their high-energy bonds are broken and more stable, lower-energy bonds form, significant amounts of energy are freed up and released. Burning (combustion) is a familiar chemical reaction that results in the release of chemical energy. When the chemicals in materials such as wood burn. their chemical bonds rearrangehigh-energy bonds (in the wood) are broken and more stable, lower-energy bonds (in the products of burning such as CO2 and H2O) form. The difference in energy between these low and high energy bonds accounts for the release of energy you feel when wood is burned.
common misconception
Students may find it strange to consider food a chemical, sincein general usagea chemical may be something they are warned never to eat.
Petroleum, natural gas, coal, and propane are burned to release the stored chemical energy that powers our cars, planes, and trains, heats and cools our homes, and generates the electricity that keeps our lives humming. We depend on the chemical energy in food to allow our bodies to grow and function. We blast through mountains using the chemical energy in dynamite and harness the chemical energy in gunpowder to light up the skies on holidays.
240
Energy
each other. However, because the Earth is so massive relative to these objects, their gravitational pull is negligible.) Energy is required to move an object against Earths gravitational pull. When you push a large boulder up a hill or throw a ball in the air, you use energy to move against Earths gravitational attraction. The energy expended to move the ball and boulder away from Earths center of gravity is now stored by virtue of the objects new position relative to Earths gravitational field. Give the boulder a slight nudge and you will see its stored gravitational energy put to work clearing a path as it thunders down the hill. The heavier an object is and the higher it is raised, the more gravitational energy it possesses (and the more energy it took to get it there). A massive boulder teetering at the top of a hill has much more gravitational energy than a pebble poised at the same spot, and a ball raised to a height of 100 meters (109.4 yards) has more gravitational energy than it would have if it was raised to a height of only10 meters (10.94 yards). Water behind a dam represents a huge reservoir of gravitational energy. Hydroelectric power plants capitalize on this potential energy, releasing the water behind a dam in controlled flows to spin huge turbines that produce electricity. Gravitational energy also gives raised hammers their extra punch and provides the thrill that people seek when they board a roller coaster.
Nuclear Energy
Students are not explicitly introduced to nuclear energy in this unit. If you live in an area supplied by a nuclear power plant or have students who are interested in nuclear energy, you may want to introduce the following information, in a simple form, to the class.
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the dense central region of atoms known as the nucleus. It is released whenever heavy unstable nuclei (the plural form of nucleus) break down (fission) or whenever light nuclei combine (fusion). During fission and fusion a minute quantity of the atoms mass is actually changed into a very large amount of energy. Einsteins famous equation E = mc2, in which E stands for energy, m for mass, and c for the speed of light (about 300,000 kilometers per second or 186,000 miles per second) describes this phenomenon. The energy from the sun that sustains life on Earth is based on the fusion of nuclei in the suns core and the subsequent release of nuclear energy. The controlled fission of uranium nuclei provides electricity at nuclear power plants and the uncontrolled chainreaction fission of uranium and plutonium nuclei gives atomic bombs their destructive power.
Energy
241
Transfer of Energy
Energy is constantly moving from place to place and changing forms to make things happen.
Transformation of Energy
Some of the energy transfers students explore will demonstrate energy changing from one form to anotherenergy transformationswhile others will simply show energy moving from one object to another without changing form. Children are not asked to distinguish between these different types of transfers, so the term transformation is not presented as a unit student vocabulary word.
Transfers of energy involving change of form are referred to as energy transformations. (In this unit, they are simply called energy transfers.) Energy transformations are a constant in the world around us. Discussing some of the following examples will help children see that energy transfers and transformations are fundamental to almost everything that happens.
Energy Transformation
Light to Heat
Example(s)
Children know that a blazing sun makes their popsicles melt, the asphalt burn, and the inside of their cars stifling. They intuitively understand that the light energy in the suns rays is transformed to heat energy at Earths surface. The glow that results when the metal coils of stovetops, ovens, toasters, and incandescent light bulbs are heated is a familiar example of the transformation of heat energy to light energy. The warmth provided by the sun is the driving force behind Earths winds demonstrating a familiar example of the transformation of heat energy to the motion energy of air. Likewise, heat energy from deep within the Earths core is the driving force between such violent events as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. When heat energy moves from a burner to a pan to the water in the pan, the water eventually boils. The movement apparent in the boiling water again demonstrates the transformation of heat energy to motion energy.
Heat to Light
Heat to Motion
242
Energy
Energy Transformation
Motion to Heat
Example(s)
The moving parts of your cars engine heat up as they slide past each other. This phenomenon results from friction, the force that resists movement. It demonstrates how motion energy can be transformed to heat energy. Glowsticks, fireworks, and matches demonstrate the transformation of chemical energy to light energy. The energy in sunlight is transformed into chemical energy by plants through the process of photosynthesis. Special pigments in plant leaves absorb the suns energy and use it to create the sugars the plants need to grow and function. (Plants, in turn, provide food [chemical] energy for humans and other organisms.) Light energy also makes photography possible. Light, entering the camera as a picture is shot, strikes the film causing the silver salts coating the film to turn black (a chemical change) and produce a negative image.
Chemical to Light
Light to Chemical
Light to Electrical
Solar panels are devices that harness lights energy to produce electricity. Solar panels function like batteries, providing the electrons necessary to create an electric current. Solar panels are essentially collections of solar cells (referred to as photovoltaics, meaning light-electricity) that function by giving up electrons when struck by light. The free electrons provide the electrical current that powers an everexpanding array of solar devices including calculators, parking meters, refrigerators, home heating and cooling systems, and satellites in space. Fluorescent lamps and LED lights are familiar examples of the transformation of electrical energy into light energy.
Electrical to Light
Energy
243
Energy Transformation
Sound to Electrical/ Electrical to Sound
Example(s)
A microphone converts sound energy to electrical energy. When you speak into a microphone the energy possessed by the sound waves carrying your voice causes a membrane within the microphone to move. The moving membrane causes an attached magnet to move within a coil, resulting in the generation of an electric current. The reverse process occurs to translate this electric current to the amplified sound of your voice emanating from a loudspeaker. Sound waves of high frequencies, known as ultrasound, allow us to peer inside the human body or find hairline cracks in the metal of an airplanes wing. Ultrasound machines direct high-frequency sound waves towards a tissue, organ, or object under analysis. The sound waves, bouncing back from the structure like an echo, are converted into electrical energy by a computer and then translated into a detailed image for study.
A baseball hit high into left field, a football kicked over a field goal, and a child pushed to the high point of a swing all show the gravitational energy that can be gained through motion. A sled descending a hill, a kayak riding the rapids, and a tree falling in the forest are examples of gravitational energy being converted to motion. Swings and pendulums demonstrate the cyclic transformation of energy from motion energy to gravitational energy and from gravitational energy back to motion energy, over and over again.
244
Energy
Energy Transformation
Motion to Elastic/ Elastic to Motion (plus Gravitational)
Example(s)
Children have abundant firsthand experience with the transformation of motion energy to elastic energy and elastic energy back to motion energy. Rubber bands and rubber band gliders, slingshots, catapults, and popup toys are some of the ways that children discover how stretching or compressing elastic objects stores elastic energy that produces motion when released. (With bouncing toys and equipment such as trampolines and pogo sticks, gravitational energy also plays a role. A cycle of energy transformations repeats with each bounce: elastic energy is transformed to motion energy [the bounce]; motion energy is transformed to gravitational [potential] energy [the child rising]; gravitational energy is transformed to motion energy [the child falling]; motion energy is transformed to elastic energy [the child landing and compressing the pogo stick spring or stretching the trampoline]. This process repeats itself again and again.)
Electrical to Heat
Toasters, electric ranges, and ovens demonstrate how the energy in electricity can be converted to the heat energy that cooks our food. The moving parts of household appliances, such as the blades of a fan, the beaters of a mixer, or the agitator in a washing machine, demonstrate how the energy in electricity can be converted into the energy of motion. Plucking a guitar string, tapping a drum, vibrating our vocal chords, and playing the piano are some of the ways that motion is transformed into sound. The batteries in our cars, cell phones, flashlights, and portable MP3 players demonstrate how chemical energy can be converted to electrical energy. Within batteries, a chemical reaction supplies free electrons. The electrons collect on the negative end or terminal of the battery. If a connection is made between the negative and positive terminalsin many devices, this occurs when a switch is flippedthe electrons will flow from the negative to the positive terminal, creating the electrical current that makes cell phones and other battery-operated devices run.
Electrical to Motion
Motion to Sound
Chemical to Electrical
Energy
245
Energy Transformation
Chemical to Motion
Example(s)
The transformation of chemical energy to the energy of motion gets us from place to place. From the fuels that power our cars, buses, trucks, planes, and trains, to the fuel that powers our muscle cells, chemical energy is being harnessed to get us where we want to go. In most engines the chemical energy is first turned to heat; the heat energy is then transformed into motion energy. The burning of wood or fuel (coal and oil, for example) demonstrates how energy stored in chemical bonds can be converted to heat. (Many power plants use the heat energy produced when fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are burned to boil water and create steam. In turn, the steam is used to turn huge turbines. These turbines are used to generate electricity.)
common misconception
Students often think that one form of energy can only be changed to one other form rather than to multiple forms.
246
Energy
Heat Transfer
Energy does not always change form as it moves from object to object or place to place. This is particularly evident with heat energy. To bring about the chemical changes we associate with cooked food, heat flows from the burner on your stove to the pan resting upon it, and then to the food it contains. Heat flows from campfires to campers marshmallows. It flows from the sand warmed by the sun to the air above it, creating onshore sea breezes.
Energy
247
common misconception
Students often think that cool objects such as ice transfer their coolness to warmer objects, instead of realizing what actually happensthat warmer objects transfer some of their heat energy to cooler ones.
Heat energy spontaneously flows from hot items to cold ones. If two objects are at different temperatures, heat will naturally flow from the warmer object to the cooler one until both objects are at the same temperature. The transfer of heat from a warmer object to a cooler one occurs in one (or more) of three different ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.
common misconception
Some children may think that heat rises. It is hot air that rises, not heat. While students are not expected to understand that it is the energized particles (molecules) of heated air or a liquid that are rising and not heat itself, try to avoid using terms and phrasesthat might reinforce this misconception.
248
Energy
of convection currents on Earth is far-reaching, with wind, ocean currents, and the movement of Earths tectonic plates ultimately resulting from this kind of cycle.
249
Incandescent bulbs contain a filament that glows, producing light when heated. Electricity is used to heat the filament. Compact fluorescent bulbs contain a gas that becomes energized as electricity passes through it. The energized gas reacts with a coating on the inside of the bulb to produce light.
In Lesson 8, students will investigate energy efficiency as they compare compact fluorescent bulbs and incandescent bulbs. They will discover that incandescent bulbs release more heat energy than comparable compact fluorescent bulbs using the same amount of electrical energy.
0w 10
27
Compact fluorescent bulbs transform electrical energy into light more efficiently. If the same amount of energy input is supplied to both bulbs, a compact fluorescent bulb will produce more light output, or lumens, and less heat than an incandescent light bulb. In fact, about 90% of the electricity used by incandescent bulbs is lost as heat. Comparing the relative wattagea measure of the electrical energy a light bulb uses per secondand lumens shows that compact fluorescent bulbs use about one-fourth the energy of incandescent bulbs while delivering the same amount of light. An 18-Watt compact fluorescent, for example, produces the same amount of light as a 75-Watt incandescent light bulbmeaning 57fewer watts are used. Not only are compact fluorescent bulbs more efficient, they also last about ten times longer than incandescent bulbs. While compact fluorescent bulbs may cost more than incandescent light bulbs to purchase, their overall savingsin terms of operating expenses and energy conservationshould be weighed.
While CFLs are presented as the energy-efficient light bulb alternative in Lesson 8, they are not the only alternative. LEDs, for example, are also becoming widespread. LED stands for Light Emitting Diode. LEDs last a very long time (tens of thousands of hours). They are also extremely energyefficient and durable. While LEDs are still too expensive for everyday use, they are often used in locations where its hard to change a light bulb, such as traffic signal lights, tail lights of automobiles, and business signs.
250
Energy
New technologies, such as compact fluorescent light bulbs, limit the dissipation of heat, saving consumers money, decreasing the demand for electricity, and resulting in less environmental damage.
While CFLs use less electricity, they are not totally environment friendly. They contain the heavy metal mercury which can pose an environmental threat if not disposed of properly. Students are presented with the pros and cons of many energy alternatives in their student reference books.
The relative heat conductivity of the materials used to make various items is also a key factor in limiting heat dissipation. Students discover this in Lesson 7 as they test a variety of materials to see which material or combination of materials is most effective at keeping heat energy from escaping a bottle of warm water.
Energy
251
by blowing air into plastic (an insulator) to create a solid substance filled with air pockets.
Conservation of Energy
common misconception
Students often think that energy is a fuel-like quantity which is used up, and see machines as one of the ways that energy gets used up. The awareness that energy changes from one form to another and that heat energy dissipates is the key to understanding one of the most basic principles of energy: energy can neither be created nor destroyed. This principle, known as the Conservation of Energy or First Law of Thermodynamics, dispels the notion of energy loss. Many items seem to run out of energya kicked ball eventually stops, spinning tops eventually fall over, and bikes screech to a halt when we slam on
252
Energy
the brakes. Encouraging students to trace the flow of energy will help them realize that energy was not lost, but transferred to other places and forms. This realization will provide the foundation for exploring the conservation of energy in later years.
Energy Conservation
If energy is never lost, why do we need to conserve energy? The need to conserve energy is a consequence of the forms of energy available at a given time rather than the total amount of energy present. The current energy crisis is due to the fact that energy is being transformed from easy-to-use forms, such as coal and petroleum, into harder-to-use forms, such as heat (which dissipates). At the current rate of consumption, most of the easy-to-use fossil fuels that we depend on will be depleted some time in this century. (While coal reserves are larger and not expected to run out for 200 years at the current rate of extraction, once the other fossil fuels are depleted, the rate of coal extraction is expected to increase significantly, thereby accelerating the depletion of coal as well.) Fossil fuels are not considered renewable. They take too longmillions of year!to re-form. It will ultimately be necessary to shift our dependence from non-renewable forms of energy to renewable forms such as solar (light energy), wind (motion energy), hydropower (gravitational and motion energy), and geothermal (heat and motion energy). The shift to renewable forms of energy is also seen as a means to protect the environment. The air pollutants produced by fossil-fuel burning power plants and automobiles (including carbon dioxide, methane, sulfuric, and nitrous oxides) contribute to acid rain, global warming, and smog.
Global warming is considered a consequence of the greenhouse effect. When sunlight (light energy) travels through the glass of a greenhouse (or the windows of a car), it is transferred to heat energywarming up the air and surfaces inside. Unlike light energy, heat energy does not move through glass easily. The glass traps heat energy inside, keeping plants warm enough to live in the winter. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor, form a layer in the atmosphere that acts in a similar wayallowing sunlight to pass through, but trapping heat energy inside. This is good to a degreeEarths average temperature would be much colder without these gases. But problems arise if this layer is allowed to get thicker and thicker, trapping more and more heat, and causing Earths temperature to gradually rise. Even a slight rise in Earths temperature can have huge consequences. Acid rain forms when oxides of nitrogen and sulfiteproduced primarily by burning fossil fuelscombine with moisture in the atmosphere to make nitric and sulfuric acids. The result is precipitation with a pH level less than 5.6 that adversely affects the regions receiving it. The associated environmental damage over time can be great, including the destruction Energy
253
of lake, stream, and forest habitats. Acid rain also damages man-made materials and structures, dissolving marble, limestone, and sandstone and corroding metals, paints, textiles, and ceramics. Smogthe dark, hazy atmosphere that covers many major cities (particularly in the summer time)is a combination of the words smoke and fog. Smog consists of over 100 chemicals, but the two most harmful components are ground-level ozone and fine airborne particles. Coal-fired power plant and automobile emissions account for much of the smog produced. Smog is a serious health concern, especially to children and the elderlycausing respiratory infections and chronic lung diseases such as asthma.
The methods used to extract fossil fuels are also problematic disrupting native habitats and contaminating local waters with harmful run-off. Energy sources that can be used instead of fossil fuels to generate electricity are called alternative energy sources. While many are considered less harmful to the environment, each nonetheless has a cost, environmental and otherwise. In the student reference book, the children are presented with the following table outlining the pros and cons of various energy sources. Developing a sense of the tradeoffs involved in using these energy sources should help foster critical thinking as todays students prepare to address the energy needs of the future.
Energy SourcesPros and Cons
Source of Energy Fossil Fuels Pros Abundant (though a non-renewable source); somewhat inexpensive; used to produce many products; technologies are already in place that rely on them (e.g., gasoline- powered cars, coal- burning power plants) Cons Produce air pollution associated with smog, acid rain, and global warming; require storage and transportation; drilling, mining, and exploration is expensive, destructive to local habitats, and often dangerous; can raise the temperature of local waters when water used to cool power plants is released into them
254
Energy
Wind Energy
No air or water pollution; no fuel is needed; not very expensive to build; land around wind farms can be used for other purposes
Geothermal Energy
No pollution; power stations do not take up much roomless impact on the environment; no fuel is needed; once youve built a geothermal power station, the energy is almost free
Hydropower
Nuclear Energy
No air pollution; fuel (uranium) is abundant and somewhat inexpensive; reactors need to be refueled only about once a year; the energy obtained from one pound of uranium is equal to the amount of energy in approximately three million pounds of coal
Energy
255
Measuring Energy
As stated in the beginning of this review, energy is a measurable property, not a substance. So how is energy measured? It turns out that energy is measured in many different ways using many different units. It helps to remember that each unit is simply a measure of energy and, as such, can be converted from one unit to another, just as energy itself is converted from one form to another. Closely related to the measurement of energy is the measurement of temperature. Temperature is a measure of the average energy of motion of the atoms or molecules that make up a substance. It is important, however, to distinguish between average energy and total energy. Two objects could have the same temperature (meaning the average energy of their atoms and molecules is the same) but their total energy could be quite different. Total energy depends on the number of atoms and molecules present (the more atoms or molecules, the higher the total energy), as well as the type of atoms and molecules themselves. If, for example, you have two glasses of water in front of you, both registering the same temperature, and one has twice the volume as the other, the larger glass of water will have twice the total energy as the smaller one. This is why we are careful to say that temperature is connected to the amount of heat energy in an object but do not say that it is a measure of the amount of heat energy in an object. There are three commonly used systems or scales for measuring temperature: Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin. Temperatures can be converted from one scale to another using the following equations:
o o
K = oC + 273
In the United States, a common unit of measure for comparing fuels is the British thermal unit (Btu). A Btu is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit at sea level. One Btu is roughly equivalent to the amount of heat given off when one match head is burned. The following are the Btu equivalents of some familiar fuels:
1 gallon of gasoline = 124,000 Btu 1 gallon of diesel fuel = 139,000 Btu 1 gallon of home heating oil = 139,000 Btu 1 cubic foot of natural gas = 1,026 Btu
256
Energy
1 gallon of propane = 91,000 Btu 1 barrel (42 gallons) of crude oil = 5,800,000 Btu
Scientists around the world measure energy in joules. A joule (designated with a capital J) is the basic unit of energy in the metric systemrepresenting the amount of energy it takes to lift 100 grams (.1 kg) of anything one meter. One thousand joules is the approximate equivalent of one Btu. The energy potential of food is measured in Calories. A food Calorie (noted with a capital C) is actually a kilocalorie equivalent to 1000 calories (small c). A calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere (an arbitrary representative value for air pressure at sea level). One calorie is equivalent to 4.19 joules. Since one joule represents the amount of energy it takes to lift 100 grams of anything one meter, you can see that to burn one (little) calorie, youd have to lift a 100 gram mass up and down a distance of one meter a little over four times. To burn one food Calorie, youd have to do it about 4000 times! Electrical power is measured in watts. Watts indicate the rate at which electricity is used. The amount of energy used by household appliances is usually described in kilowatt-hours. One kilowatt-hour (kWh), for which you are charged about $.10 - $.20, is equivalent to 1000 watts sustained for one hour. Energy-efficient refrigerators use about 1.4 kilowatt-hours per day, and about 500 kilowatt-hours per year. One kilowatt-hour of electricity is equivalent to 3,412 Btu.
257
258
(Page 1 of 8)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O O O O O O O O O F O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O F O F O F O O O
Standards
Energy
STANDARD
A. Science as Inquiry
Standards
Ask a question about objects, organisms, and events in the environment. (Grades K-4)
Use appropriate tools and techniques to gather, analyze, and interpret data.
Think critically and logically to make the relationships between evidence and explanations.
Scientific investigations involve asking and answering a question and comparing the answer with what scientists already know about the world. (Grades K-4)
Scientists use different kinds of investigations depending on the questions they are trying to answer. Types of investigations include describing objects, events, and organisms; classifying them; and doing a fair test (experimenting). (Grades K-4)
Scientists make the results of their investigations public; they describe the investigations in ways that enable others to repeat the investigations. (Grades K-4)
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996
Standards
(Page 2 of 8)
LESSON 1 O O O 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O
STANDARD Scientists review and ask questions about the results of other scientists work. (Grades K-4)
Different kinds of questions suggest different kinds of scientific investigations. Some investigations involve observing and describing objects, organisms, or events; some involve collecting specimens; some involve experiments; some involve seeking more information; some involve discovery of new objects and phenomena; and some involve making models. O O O O O O O O O
Current scientific knowledge and understanding guide scientific investigations. Different scientific domains employ different methods, core theories, and standards to advance scientific knowledge and understanding.
Technology used to gather data enhances accuracy and allows scientists to analyze and quantify results of investigations.
Energy
Scientific explanations emphasize evidence, have logically consistent arguments, and use scientific principles, models, and theories. The scientific community accepts and uses such explanations until displaced by better scientific ones. When such displacement occurs, science advances.
Standards
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996
259
260
(Page 3 of 8)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O O F F F F O O O O F F F F F O E O O
Standards
Energy
Standards
STANDARD Science advances through legitimate skepticism. Asking questions and querying other scientists explanations is part of scientific inquiry. Scientists evaluate the explanations proposed by other scientists by examining evidence, comparing evidence, identifying faulty reasoning, pointing out statements that go beyond the evidence, and suggesting alternative explanations for the same observations.
Scientific investigations sometimes result in new ideas and phenomena for study, generate new methods or procedures for an investigation, or develop new technologies to improve the collection of data. All of these results can lead to new investigations.
B. Physical Science
Transfer of Energy
Energy is a property of many substances and is associated with heat, light, electricity, mechanical motion, sound, nuclei, and the nature of a chemical. Energy is transferred in many ways.
Heat moves in predictable ways, flowing from warmer objects to cooler ones, until both reach the same temperature.
Electrical circuits provide a means of transferring electrical energy when heat, light, sound, and chemical changes are produced.
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996
Standards
(Page 4 of 8)
LESSON 1 O 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O
STANDARD In most chemical and nuclear reactions, energy is transferred into or out of a system. Heat, light, mechanical motion, or electricity might all be involved in such transfers.
The sun is a major source of energy for changes on the earths surface. The sun loses energy by emitting light. A tiny fraction of that light reaches the earth, transferring energy from the sun to the earth. The suns energy arrives as light with a range of wavelengths, consisting of visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation.
C. Life Science
For ecosystems, the major source of energy is sunlight. Energy entering ecosystems as sunlight is transferred by producers into chemical energy through photosynthesis. That energy then passes from organism to organism in food webs.
Energy
The sun is the major source of energy for phenomena on the earths surface, such as growth of plants, winds, ocean currents, and the water cycle. Seasons result from variations in the amount of the suns energy hitting the surface, due to the tilt of the earths rotation on its axis and the length of the day.
Standards
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996
261
262
(Page 5 of 8)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB F O O O O O O
Standards
Energy
Standards
People have always had questions about their world. Science is one way of answering questions and explaining the natural world. (Grades K-4)
Scientists and engineers often work in teams with different individuals doing different things that contribute to the results. This understanding focuses primarily on teams working together and secondarily, on the combination of scientist and engineer teams. (Grades K-4)
Many different people in different cultures have made and continue to make contributions to science and technology.
Science and technology are reciprocal. Science helps drive technology, as it addresses questions that demand more sophisticated instruments and provides principles for better instrumentation and technique. Technology is essential to science, because it provides instruments and techniques that enable observations of objects and phenomena that are otherwise unobservable due to factors such as quantity, distance, location, size, and speed. Technology also provides tools for investigations, inquiry, and analysis.
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996
Standards
(Page 6 of 8)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB
STANDARD Perfectly designed solutions do not exist. All technological solutions have trade-offs, such as safety, cost, efficiency, and appearance. Engineers often build in back-up systems to provide safety. Risk is part of living in a highly technological world. Reducing risk often results in new technology.
Technological designs have constraints. Some constraints are unavoidable, for example, properties of materials, or effects of weather and friction; other constraints limit choices in the design, for example, environmental protection, human safety, and aesthetics.
Personal Health O O
Food provides energy and nutrients for growth and development. Nutrition requirements vary with body weight, age, sex, activity, and body functioning.
Natural environments may contain substances (for example, radon and lead) that are harmful to human beings. Maintaining environmental health involves establishing or monitoring quality standards related to use of soil, water, and air.
Energy
Standards
Science influences society through its knowledge and world view. Scientific knowledge and the procedures used by scientists influence the way many individuals in society think about themselves, others, and the environment. The effect of science on society is neither entirely beneficial nor entirely detrimental.
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996
263
264
(Page 7 of 8)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB F O O O O
Standards
Energy
Standards
STANDARD Science and technology have advanced through contributions of many different people, in different cultures, at different times in history. Science and technology have contributed enormously to economic growth and productivity among societies and groups within societies.
Women and men of various social and ethnic backgrounds-and with diverse interests, talents, qualities, and motivations-engage in the activities of science, engineering, and related fields such as the health professions. Some scientists work in teams, and some work alone, but all communicate extensively with others.
Science requires different abilities, depending on such factors as the field of study and type of inquiry. Science is very much a human endeavor, and the work of science relies on basic human qualities, such as reasoning, insight, energy, skill, and creativity-as well as on scientific habits of mind, such as intellectual honesty, tolerance of ambiguity, skepticism, and openness to new ideas.
History of Science
Many individuals have contributed to the traditions of science. Studying some of these individuals provides further understanding of scientific inquiry, science as a human endeavor, the nature of science, and the relationships between science and society.
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996
Standards
(Page 8 of 8)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB
STANDARD In historical perspective, science has been practiced by different individuals in different cultures. In looking at the history of many peoples, one finds that scientists and engineers of high achievement are considered to be among the most valued contributors to their culture.
Tracing the history of science can show how difficult it was for scientific innovators to break through the accepted ideas of their time to reach the conclusions that we currently take for granted. O O O O
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996
Energy
Standards
265
266
(Page 1 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O O O O O O O F O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Benchmarks
Energy
Benchmarks
Results of similar scientific investigations seldom turn out exactly the same. Sometimes this is because of unexpected differences in the things being investigated, sometimes because of unrealized differences in the methods used or in the circumstances in which the investigation is carried out, and sometimes just because of uncertainties in observations. It is not always easy to tell which.
B. Scientific Inquiry
Describing things as accurately as possible is important in science because it enables people to compare their observations with those of others. (Grades K-2)
Scientific investigations may take many different forms, including observing what things are like or what is happening somewhere, collecting specimens for analysis, and doing experiments. Investigations can focus on physical, biological, and social questions.
Results of scientific investigations are seldom exactly the same, but if the differences are large, it is important to try to figure out why. One reason for following directions carefully and for keeping records of ones work is to provide information on what might have caused the differences.
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Benchmarks
(Page 2 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB
BENCHMARK Scientists explanations about what happens in the world come partly from what they observe, partly from what they think. Sometimes scientists have different explanations for the same set of observations. That usually leads to their making more observations to resolve the differences. F O O O O O
If more than one variable changes at the same time in an experiment, the outcome of the experiment may not be clearly attributable to any one of the variables. (Grades 6-8) O O
Science is an adventure that people everywhere can take part in, as they have for many centuries.
Clear communication is an essential part of doing science. It enables scientists to inform others about their work, expose their ideas to criticism by other scientists, and stay informed about scientific discoveries around the world. O O O
Energy
Doing science involves many different kinds of work and engages men and women of all ages and backgrounds.
Benchmarks
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
267
268
(Page 3 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O O O F O O O O
Benchmarks
Energy
Benchmarks
Throughout all of history, people everywhere have invented and used tools. Most tools of today are different from those of the past but many are modifications of very ancient tools.
Measuring instruments can be used to gather accurate information for making scientific comparisons of objects and events and for designing and constructing things that will work properly.
Technology extends the ability of people to change the world: to cut, shape, or put together materials; to move things from one place to another; and to reach farther with their hands, voices, senses, and minds. The changes may be for survival needs such as food, shelter, and defense, for communication and transportation, or to gain knowledge and express ideas.
There is no perfect design. Designs that are best in one respect (safety or ease of use, for example) may be inferior in other ways (cost or appearance). Usually some features must be sacrificed to get others. How such trade-offs are received depends upon which features are emphasized and which are downplayed.
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Benchmarks
(Page 4 of 10)
LESSON 1 O 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB
BENCHMARK Even a good design may fail. Sometimes steps can be taken ahead of time to reduce the likelihood of failure, but it cannot be entirely eliminated.
C. Issues in Technology
Technology has been part of life on the earth since the advent of the human species. Like language, ritual, commerce, and the arts, technology is an intrinsic part of human culture, and it both shapes society and is shaped by it. The technology available to people greatly influences what their lives are like.
Any invention is likely to lead to other inventions. Once an invention exists, people are likely to think up ways of using it that were never imagined at first.
Transportation, communications, nutrition, sanitation, health care, entertainment, and other technologies give large numbers of people today the goods and services that once were luxuries enjoyed only by the wealthy. These benefits are not equally available to everyone.
Energy
Technologies often have drawbacks as well as benefits. A technology that helps some people or organisms may hurt otherseither deliberately (as weapons can) or inadvertently (as pesticides can). When harm occurs or seems likely, choices have to be made or new solutions found.
Benchmarks
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
269
270
(Page 5 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O O O O F O F F F F F F F O O F O O F F F F F O O O O F F
Benchmarks
Energy
BENCHMARK
B. The Earth
Benchmarks
Things on or near the earth are pulled toward it by the earths gravity.
When liquid water disappears, it turns into a gas (vapor) in the air and can reappear as a liquid when cooled, or as a solid if cooled below the freezing point of water. Clouds and fog are made of tiny droplets of water.
Air is a substance that surrounds us, takes up space, and whose movement we feel as wind.
E. Energy Transformation
Things that give off light often also give off heat. Heat is produced by mechanical and electrical machines, and any time one thing rubs against something else.
When warmer things are put with cooler ones, the warm ones lose heat and the cool ones gain it until they are all at the same temperature. A warmer object can warm a cooler one by contact or at a distance.
Some materials conduct heat much better than others. Poor conductors can reduce heat loss.
Most processes involve the transfer of energy from one system to another. Energy can be transferred in different ways. (Grades 6-8)
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Benchmarks
(Page 6 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB
BENCHMARK Energy appears in different forms. Motion energy is associated with the speed of an object. Heat energy is associated with the temperature of an object. Gravitational energy is associated with the height of an object above a reference point. Elastic energy is associated with the stretching of an elastic object. Chemical energy is associated with the chemical composition of a substance. Within a system, energy can be transformed from one form to another. (Grades 6-8) E F F F O O O O F O
The earths gravity pulls any object toward it without touching it.
Some source of energy is needed for all organisms to stay alive and grow.
Energy O
C. Basic Function O
From food, people obtain energy and materials for body repair and growth. The indigestible parts of food are eliminated.
Benchmarks
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
271
272
(Page 7 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O O F O F F O O O F O O F F O
Benchmarks
Energy
Benchmarks
Food provides energy and materials for growth and repair of body parts. Vitamins and minerals, present in small amounts in food, are essential to keep everything working well. As people grow up, the amounts and kinds of food and exercise needed by the body may change.
The choice of materials for a job depends on their properties and how they interact with other materials. (Grades 6-8)
The sun is the main source of energy for people and they use it in various ways. The energy in fossil fuels such as oil and coal comes from the sun indirectly, because the fuels come from plants that grew long ago.
Some energy sources cost less than others and some cause less pollution than others.
People try to conserve energy in order to slow down the depletion of energy resources and/or to save money.
Energy can change from one form to another, although in the process some energy is always converted to heat. Some systems transform energy with less loss of heat than others. (Grades 6-8)
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Benchmarks
(Page 8 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB
A. Numbers
When people care about what is being counted or measured, it is important for them to say what the units are (three degrees Fahrenheit is different from three centimeters, three miles from three miles per hour). O O O O
Measurements are always likely to give slightly different numbers, even if what is being measured stays the same.
B. Symbolic Relationships F O F O
Tables and graphs can show how values of one quantity are related to values of another.
C. Shapes F O F F
Graphical display of numbers may make it possible to spot patterns that are not otherwise obvious, such as comparative size and trends.
D. Uncertainty O O O
Energy
Some predictions can be based on what is known about the past, assuming that conditions are pretty much the same now.
E. Reasoning O
One way to make sense of something is to think how it is like something more familiar.
Benchmarks
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
273
274
(Page 9 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Benchmarks
Energy
BENCHMARK
A. Systems
In something that consists of many parts, the parts usually influence one another.
Benchmarks
B. Models
Geometric figures, number sequences, graphs, diagrams, sketches, number lines, maps, and stories can be used to represent objects, events, and processes in the real world, although such representations can never be exact in every detail.
Things change in steady, repetitive, or irregular ways-or sometimes in more than one way at the same time. Often the best way to tell which kinds of change are happening is to make a table or graph of measurements.
Keep records of their investigations and observations and not change the records later.
Offer reasons for their findings and consider reasons suggested by others.
Keep a notebook that describes observations made, carefully distinguishes actual observations from ideas and speculations about what was observed, and is understandable weeks or months later.
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Benchmarks
(Page 10 of 10)
LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SBA1 SBA2 SBA3 SBA4 SRB O O O F O O F O O F O
Organize information in simple tables and graphs and identify relationships they reveal. (Grades 6-8)
Locate information in reference books, back issues of newspapers and magazines, compact disks, and computer databases. (Grades 6-8)
E. Critical-Response Skills O O O F
Recognize when comparisons might not be fair because some conditions are not kept the same.
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Project 2061). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Energy
Benchmarks
275
Assessments
Energy Assessment 1: Energy Forms and Transfers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Energy Assessment 2: Heat Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Energy Assessment 3: Energy Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Energy Assessment 4: Cooperative Group Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Energy Assessment 5: Planning and Designing an Invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Energy Assessment 6: Recording and Analyzing Data and Making Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Note Recording Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
Teacher Masters
Request for Materials (Lessons 1, 4, and 9). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Energy Walk Reference Sheet (Lesson 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213 Identifying Energy Forms (Lesson 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Energy Station Directions (Lesson 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518 Identifying Energy Transfers (Lesson 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 How to Build a Balloon Boat (Lesson 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021 How to Build a Rubber Band Boat (Lesson 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2223 How to Build a Secret Potion Boat (Lesson 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2426 Consumer Math (Lesson 8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2729 Automatic Sunscreen Applicator and Alarm (Lesson 9). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3031 Measuring Accurately (SBA 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Calibrating Thermometers (SBA 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3334 Graphing the Height of a Fern (SBA 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Setting Up a Fair Test (SBA 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3639
ISBN 1-59192-287-9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-P001-17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 2009 Edition. Copyright 2005 Chicago Science Group. All Rights Reserved. Energy Unit Teacher Masters: Table of Contents, page 1 of 2
Family Links
Energy Log (Lesson 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Toy Box Science (Lesson 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Heat Energy Transfers (Lesson 5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Kitchen Conductors (Lesson 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Criteria for Insulators (Lesson 7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Insulator Scavenger Hunt (Lesson 7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Is Your Home Energy-Efficient? (Lesson 8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 My Invention (Lesson 9). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Students Names 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.
Name:
Date:
Bonus Activity Wintergreens in the Dark 1. Bring wintergreen-flavored Lifesavers for you and a friend or family member into a dark room such a closet. Allow your eyes to adjust to the dark. Look carefully at each others mouths as you both chew your Lifesaver. Use the space below to describe what happened.
2. Describe the energy transfer(s) that took place as you chewed the Lifesaver.
Photo Cards
Photo Energy Cards (Lesson 2).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1328
ISBN 1-59192-288-7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-P001-17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 2009 Edition. Copyright 2005 Chicago Science Group. All Rights Reserved.
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
Overhead Transparency: Mapping Energy Transfers (Lessons 3 and 4) Energy Visual 4
2009 Edition. Copyright 2005 Chicago Science Group. All Rights Reserved. www.sciencecompanion.com
Table of Contents
Introduction
Assessment Philosophy........................................................................ 5 Assessment Materials........................................................................... 8
Assessment Masters
What is Energy? Cluster: Lighting Up the Sky .................................................................... 50 Quick Check Items ..................................................................... 51
Energy Transfers Cluster: Johnnies Bat .............................................................................. 52 Riding Bikes................................................................................ 53 Quick Check Items ..................................................................... 54 Heat Energy Transfers Cluster: Hot Chocolate............................................................................. 56 Baking Cookies........................................................................... 57 What to Wear?............................................................................ 58 Quick Check Items ..................................................................... 59 Applying Energy Smarts Cluster: Household Lighting..................................................................... 62 Quick Check Items ..................................................................... 63
4 - Exceeds Expectations
Explores content beyond the level presented in the lessons.
Understands at a secure level (see box below) and can give examples of objects that possess more than one form of energy.
Understands at a secure level (see box below) and can apply their understanding to new situations (e.g., toys brought from home, improvements on boats).
Recognizes that energy moves from place to place and sometimes changes form to make things happen.
Intuitively knows that certain objects have energy but doesnt identify the energy as any specific form.
Has an incomplete understanding of how energy transfers make something happen(e.g., knows that energy transfers but not that sometimes energy changes form)
1 - Beginning
Has no previous knowledge of lesson content.
Johnnies Bat
Energy Transfers Cluster (Lesson 3-4)
Each year, Mr. Dracula throws a Halloween party. He asks every student to bring a toy to share. This year, Johnnies flying bat was the hit of the party. When he arrived at Mr. Draculas classroom, he hung the bat from the center of the ceiling with a piece of string. Once turned on (it ran on batteries), the bat flew around in circles, flashed its lit up red eyes, and screeched loudly. After several flashing and screeching events, the string broke and the bat crashed to the floor. Use words from the word bank and arrows to map what types of energy transfers occurred with Johnnies bat. electrical gravitational TEACHER NOTES:
Use this assessment after teaching Lesson 3. You might encourage your students to use different kinds of lines to represent two different maps. For example, they could use a solid line for the flying bat and a dotted line for the falling bat. They could also use different colorsone for the flying bat and one for the falling bat.
elastic sound
EVALUATION GUIDELINES:
When evaluating student answers, consider whether they include some of the following elements in their written explanations: There are many different energy transfers taking place at the same time. For example, when the bat is flying, chemical energy (from battery) transfers to motion energy (bat flying), light energy (eyes flashing), and sound energy (bat screeching). When the bat falls, gravitational energy transfers to motion energy and possibly ends with sound energy (as it hits the floor).
gravitational
motion chemical
light
sound
Riding Bikes
Energy Transfers Cluster (Lessons 3-4)
Hallie loves riding bikes. She loves how she can pedal really hard to go fast, or not pedal at all, and just gently coast along. She loves being in control of how long it takes her to get somewhere. Hallie thinks of her bike as one of the most amazing machines because it uses no energy to get her from place to place. Do you agree with Hallie that a bike is a machine? Explain your answer.
Do you agree that it uses no energy? Explain your reasoning. TEACHER NOTE:
Use this assessment after teaching Lesson 4.
EVALUATION GUIDELINES:
When evaluating student answers, consider whether they include the following elements in their written explanations: Yes, the bike is a machine. The bike does use energy because a bike could not move without energy transfers. All change requires energy. Muscles or bodies use chemical energy (from the food we eat) and transfers it to the motion energy of our legs to make the bike move. Bikes on a hill or slope have gravitational energy that transfers to motion energy when a bike coasts downhill. All of these transfers help Hallie get from one place to another.
1. (Lesson 3) True or False? If false, rewrite the statements to make them true. a. Energy is required for change to happen. ___________ true
b. Energy cannot move from place to place. ___________ false Energy moves from place to place, or object to object, all of the time. 2. (Lesson 3) Which sequence best describes the energy transfers in a solar propeller? a. light b. light c. light chemical chemical electrical sound motion motion
d. no transfers take place 3. (Lesson 3) In question 2, what happened to the energy during each transfer? a. The energy changed form as it transferred. b. Nothing happened. The energy form stayed the same. c. The energy moved but did not change forms. 4. (Lesson 4) Put an X next to any item that is a machine. X_______ car X_______ rowboat X_______ scissors X_______ lamp
Date:
Teacher Guide Annotations supplied in RED for ease of use. ISBN 1-59192-286-0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-P001-17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 2009 Edition. Copyright 2005 Chicago Science Group. All Rights Reserved.
ISBN 1-59192-285-2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-P001-17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 2009 Edition. Copyright 2005 Chicago Science Group. All Rights Reserved.
Hello Scientist
Date:
motion
electrical energy powers the motor, making the propeller spin electrical
light
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
Example responses for each toy station are included on the following pages, although the students will not necessarily complete the stations in the order presented in this guide.
Date:
Type of Toy:
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
motion
the spring in the pop-up toy extends, making the toy move and pop into the air elastic
hand moves and pushes down on pop-up toy to store elastic energy
motion
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
Date:
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
motion
motion
motion
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
Date:
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
heat tiny glowing pieces of the surfaces fly off as sparks surfaces in toy rub against each other
motion
light
motion
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
Date:
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
light
electrical
sound
connection of electrical circuit allows chemical energy from the battery to transfer to electrical energy
chemical
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
Date:
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
light
electrical
motion
sound
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
Date:
There is a chemical energy to electrical energy component in the spinning top. The spinning causes the batterys electrodes to connect, which transfers the batterys chemical energy to electrical energy and then to light energy. However, students may not identify all of these energy transfers.
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
elastic
light
top is twisted
motion
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
10
Date:
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
motion
top spins
heat
light
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
11
Date:
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
motion
motion
ball is dropped
gravitational
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
12
Date:
Use arrows and words to show how energy was transferred in this toy. You can use as many of the shapes as you need for your map. You can also draw more shapes if you need them.
chemical
light energy from the sun hits the beads, making them change color
light
Energy Forms Electrical Chemical Motion Elastic Gravitational Heat Light Sound
13
Energ y
Student Reference Book
Writers
Belinda Basca and Martha Sullivan
Developers
Colleen Bell, Diane Bell, Cindy Buchenroth-Martin, and Catherine Grubin
Editors
Rachel Burke and Wanda Gayle
www.sciencecompanion.com
2009 Edition Copyright 2005 Chicago Science Group. All Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publisher. SCIENCE COMPANION, EXPLORAGEAR, the CROSSHATCH Design and the WHEEL Design are trademarks of Chicago Science Group and Chicago Educational Publishing. ISBN 1-59192-397-2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-P001-17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Recognizing Forms of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Where Can You Find Energy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Forms of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Motion Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Chemical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Gravitational Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Elastic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Heat Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Light Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Electrical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Sound Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Energy Makes Things Happen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
iii
iv
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
How Homes Stay Warm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 The Dangers of Fiberglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Alternatives to Fiberglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 How Humans Stay Warm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Layer Up! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 How Animals Stay Warm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Hair Traps Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Blubber or Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Down Feathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
vi
Table of Contents
Appendix A: A Walk Through EnergyHistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Appendix B: Automatic Sunscreen Applicator and Alarm. . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2
Recognizing Energ y Transfers
Energy Transfers
Every time something happens energy is involved. In fact, it is the movement of energy from one object to another, one form to another, or one place to another that brings about all change. Scientists use the term energy transfer to describe the movement of energy.
13
14
Chapter 2
As the third planet from the sun, the Earth receives a steady supply of energy from the sun.
The transfer of energy from the sun to the Earth is responsible for many of the changes that take place around us.
15
Weather changes
Weather Facts
Millions of tons of water vapor are evaporated into the air daily. Even the cleanest air found on Earth contains about 1000 dust particles per cubic meter of air. About one million cloud droplets are contained in one drop of rain.
16
Chapter 2
17
18
Chapter 2
Volcanic eruptions are also the result of heat transfers from earths core. When heat from the core is transferred to rock beneath the earths surface, the rock melts. Periodically, this melted (molten)
19
rock escapes out of cracks in the earths surface, sometimes explosively, as when a volcanic eruption occurs.
A decomposing log.
20
Chapter 2
21
Other times energy moves but does not change form. When a spoon is placed in a bowl of soup, heat energy is transferred up the spoon handle without changing form.
22
Chapter 2
How Can I Tell That Energy Is Being Transferred in the Natural World?
Easy, wherever you nd change, energy is being transferred!
Seasons Change
23
A
A Walk Through Energ yHistory
Energy has been making things happen since the dawn of time. Take a walk through time and see how energy has been used to change our world. Not all the dates listed in this timeline are exact. Dates that are approximations will have a c. in front of them. The c. stands for circa meaning around and lets you know that the event happened around that time.
129
130
Appendix A
Blue-green algae appear on Earth. They are the rst plants organisms that convert the suns energy to food for growth. Early humans (Homo erectus) use re for warmth, protection, and food preparation. Learning how to control re was one of the rst great energy inventions.
131
Humans invent the bow and arrow, harnessing the elastic energy of a bow to send arrows ying. People put animals to use pulling wheeled vehicles in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). People use solar energy to dry out their crops and collect salt (which is made by evaporating salt water). Early drawings show Egyptian sailboats with a mast and a single square sail hung from it. Oars are needed when not traveling in the direction of the wind.
c. 9000 b.c.
c. 3500 b.c.
c. 3200 b.c.
Humans begin using petroleum (oil from the earth). In Mesopotamia, rock oil is used in medicines and in the glue that holds ships and buildings together. Polynesian canoescanoes made of two hulls connected by crossbeamscarry explorers over the vast waters of the Pacic Ocean where they establish new lives on the Polynesian Islands. A lighthouse is built at Alexandria in Egypt. The light from a re is reected off a mirror and can be seen 30 miles away. Windmills are used to grind grain in Persia (present-day Iran) and other countries in the Middle East.
c. 3000 b.c.
c. 1500 b.c.
c. 285 b.c.
c. 200 b.c.
132
Appendix A
c. 100 b.c.
Waterwheels are used in what is now central Turkey. One-wheeled carts (wheelbarrows) are invented in China.
a.d. 79
Mt. Vesuvius erupts in Italy and buries the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
c. a.d. 800
Vikings use longboatsboats with long hulls (longer hulls provide more room for oars and rowers than short hulls)to carry warriors and weapons swiftly over the waters of the North Atlantic and northern Europe. The Vikings invade Northern Europe for hundreds of years with the help of these ships. Natural gas wells are drilled in China. The gas ows through bamboo tubes (the rst known pipelines), possibly providing the heat needed to make porcelain.
c. a.d. 1000
133
A man named Wu Ching Tsao Yao of China writes the rst known recipe for making saltpeter, the main ingredient in the gunpowder still used in todays reworks.
a.d. 1044
The deadliest earthquake in history, which killed 1.1 million people, strikes Egypt and Syria. Leonardo da Vinci, an Italian artist and inventor, sketches plans for inventions hundreds of years before they are actually made. They include a bicycle, a ying machine, a helicopter, a propeller, and a parachute. Despite its smoke and fumes, coal replaces wood as the most common way of heating homes in Europe. Galileo Galilei describes the motion of the planets around thesun.
a.d. 1201
c. 14701510
c. 16001700
1610
134
Appendix A
1687
Isaac Newton publishes the Principiathought to be one of the greatest scientic books of all timein which he presents his theory of gravitation (every particle of matter attracts every other particle). He also publishes his three Laws of Motionlaws that describe and predict the motion of all objects on Earth. Newton also wrote about the behavior of light, including how it can be divided into colors by a glass prism.
1690
The clarinet, one example of sound energy being used to make music, was invented in Germany. The mercury thermometer is introduced by Gabriel Fahrenheit. Earlier thermometers, which used air instead of mercury, were not as dependable since they were affected by atmospheric changes. Atmospheric changes had no effect on the mercury used to indicate temperature in Fahrenheits thermometer.
1714
135
Benjamin Franklin gures out that lightening is actually static electricity. He also invents a very efcient stove for heating homes.
c. 1750
James Watt patents the rst efcient steam engine. The stagecoach carries passengers from place to place throughout the world.
1769 1781
On the Delaware River, John Fitch makes the rst successful steamboat voyage. The rst iceboxes (the earliest refrigerators) are used in homes. They are wooden boxes lined with tin or zinc and insulated with materials such as cork, sawdust, and seaweed. These early iceboxes are used to hold blocks of ice and refrigerate food. A drip pan underneath, which collects melted ice water, has to be emptied daily. Allesandro Volta creates the rst electric battery.
1787
1800s
1801
136
Appendix A
1821
Michael Faraday demonstrates that a moving magnet causes electricity to ow through wires. This paves the way for the electric motor and generator to be invented.
1827
The rst photographic picture was produced by a French man named Nicephore Niepce. He put a metal plate coated with a special chemical into a camera box and took a picture exposing the plate to the suns energy (this took eight hours!). When he washed it off he discovered that a permanent picture remained. English chemist John Walker invents the wooden match.
137
1830
In America, Samuel F. B. Morse sends messages over wires with the rst telegraph.
1836
James Prescott Joule conducts a series of experiments to demonstrate the law of conservation of energy: energy can neither be created out of nothing nor destroyed into nothing, but can be changed from one form to another.
1843
138
Appendix A
1845 1859
The rubber band is patented by Stephen Perry of London. Edwin L. Drake strikes oil at his homemade drilling rig in Titusville, Pennsylvania. This is the rst oil well in the United States. It marks the beginning of the modern oil industry, which now fuels the transportation and energy needs of the world. The booming steel industry greatly increases the demand for coal.
1860s
1863 1865
In the city of London, the rst subway is built. James Clark Maxwell presents his electromagnetic theory, which other inventors use to invent electric power, radios, and television. Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone.
1876
1877
139
1879
Wabash, Indiana becomes the rst town completely illuminated by electric lighting. The worlds rst hydroelectric plant opens in Appleton, Wisconsin, demonstrating that moving water can generate electricity. The Rover bicycle, the rst to have all the major features of todays bicycles, is introduced in Great Britain. The rst long-distance telephone call is made between Boston and New York City. Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz of Germany invent gasoline engines similar to those still used in cars today. Wilhelm Roentgen x-rays his wifes hand to produce the rst x-ray picture. Guglielmo Marconi sends and receives the rst radio signal, which leads to the invention of the radio.
1880
1882
1884
1885
1895
140
Appendix A
1902 1903
Willis Carrier builds the rst air conditioner. The Wright Brothers y the rst engine-powered airplane near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Their machine ies for 59 seconds, and reaches an altitude (height) of 852 feet.
1905
Einstein links mass with energy through his famous formula E=mc2. This theory eventually led to nuclear power, nuclear weapons, nuclear medicine, and the eld of astrophysics.
The rst portable electric vacuum cleaner is produced. It weighs 92 pounds! The rst electric washing machine is sold.
141
Thomas Edison demonstrates talking picturesthe rst movies with sound blended in. The rst ight powered by a jet engine takes place over Paris, France. Marie Curie wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her work isolating radium, a substance which gives off radioactive energy. Years later, radium is used to treat cancer.
1910
1911
The rst non-icebox refrigerators (made with compressors) for home use are manufactured in Chicago.
1913
142
Appendix A
Henry Ford thinks of a way for workers to use a conveyor belt to speed up production of the Model T Ford. Soon most manufacturers use this method to make large quantities of their products, including cars.
1919
The modern pop-up toaster, which uses a timer to toast bread to the desired doneness, is introduced by Charles Strite.
1926 1927
First liquid-fuel rocket is launched by Robert Goddard. Philo T. Farnsworth successfully transmits a television signal. The picture on the television screen is black and white. Major league baseball games are played at night for the rst time. Night games are made possible by electric lighting. The Hoover (Boulder) Dam is completed. The rst color television is demonstrated in London.
1935
1936 1938
143
A helicopter is invented by Igor Sikorskymore than 400 years after Leonardo da Vinci rst describes this invention. Scientists demonstrate the rst controlled production of nuclear energy. The rst atomic bomb is tested. The microwave oven, invented by Percy Spencer, is introduced by Raytheon Corporation. The United States explodes the rst hydrogen bomb. Scientists show that the suns energy can be converted to electric current using silicon solar collectors. The United States launches the USS Nautilusthe worlds rst nuclear-powered submarine. The rst commercial nuclear power plant begins operating in Shippingport, Pennsylvania.
1940
1942
1945 1947
1952 1954
1957
144
Appendix A
1958 1963
Scientists at AT&T Bell Laboratories invent the laser. The Clean Air Act is passed to protect Americans from harmful air pollutants, such as those released by coal power plants and steel mills.
1966 1974
The rst hand-held pocket calculator is invented. University City, Missouri is the rst city to pick up recycling from homes (newspapers only).
145
Edward Hammer presents an idea for a uorescent spiral lamp. Because of its high cost, compact uorescent light bulbs do not appear in stores until 1995.
1976
The rst cell phones are tried out in Chicago by two thousand customers. Texas Instruments patents the microchip for use in computers. The rst wind farms are built in the United States, providing an alternative to power plants that burn fossil fuels.
1977
1978 1980s
146
Appendix A
1982
1984
The rst modern tidal power plant in North America opens in Nova Scotia, demonstrating that the motion energy of the tides can be used to generate electricity. Hybrid electric cars become widely available at car dealerships.
2004