Kantian Ethics, Rights, and Virtue

Topic 3

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lecture, students will be able to:

1. Explain Kantian Theory of Ethics. 2. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the theory. 3. Compare and contrast between Utilitarian Theory and Kantian Ethics.

An Ethic of Duty
An Action is morally RIGHT if ONLY if the actor is motivated by a GOOD WILL.
Its NOT a matter of the individual weighing up consequences.

Good will ...

Nothing is good in itself except a good will. Goodness of the will depends on the use of them. E.g. some students are smart in using computer, hacked through the universitys security system. Intelligent and courageous but for the WRONG reason.

Beyond the call of duty ...

Will = uniquely human capacity to act from principle. Action done for rational principled reasons - from a sense of duty, if our act is from duty our act has moral worth! E.g. UEM- Renong contribute to MERCY mission. UTP contributes to selected orphanages and old folks homes in Perak as a social responsibility. But, if an act is out of self-interest, it has no moral worth.

Then, how what ...

#!*%^@
Do we determine our duty? Makes an act morally right?

Kants ...

Utilitarianism scores that results will determine the moral judgement. But Kant believed that reasons alone can give us the absolute moral truth and discover our sense of duty.
He championed for the Categorical = Absolute Imperative = Command

1st Categorical Imperative

Act Only According To That Maxim By Which You Can At The Same Time Will That It Should Become A Universal Law.

His absolute moral truth must be logically consistent, free from internal contradiction. I.e. Robin Hood act of stealing from rich give to poor is wrong, CANNOT say for a good cause!

In understanding the First Categorical Imperative

Maxim is defined as saying that expresses a general truth or rule of behaviour. ( Source: Oxford Dictionary) Will = uniquely human capacity to act from principle.
Action done for rational principled reasons - from a sense of duty, if our act is from duty, our act has moral worth!

In understanding the First Categorical Imperative.

Place ourselves in the shoes of the receiving party before acting. If the action is going to bring pain rather than happiness to us, then the action is not ethical.
Put aside our self interests. An act is morally right if and only if we can will it to become a universal law of conduct.

2nd Categorical Imperative

Act So That You Treat Humanity, Whether In Your Own Person Or In That Of Another, Always As An End and Never As A Means Only.
Kants view is that people, unlike things, ought never to be merely used. I.e. employee may be hired for their labor, skills, knowledge and abilities, but must always be treated with respect as a person.

In organizational context
3 points of applications:

Categorical imperative gives us firm rules to follow in moral decision making. No matter what the consequences may be or who does it, some actions are always wrong e.g. lying, cheating, greed etc.
Stress on importance of humanistic dimension, not using / treat others (humans) as a means to an end but as an end themselves. Importance of motivation and acting on principles sense of duty rather than self - interest.

Critiques on Kants Theory

What exactly has moral worth? Because if an act is based on self interest has no moral worth - many moral theorists feel that Kant is too severe on this point.

Is the categorical imperative an adequate test of rightness? Kant said moral rules are without exception.
What does it mean to treat people as means? It is not clear WHEN people are really being treated as ends and merely as means. Because at times we freely choose to do it!

Despite the critiques ...

Kants ethics yield two important results: The principles of universalizability and respect for persons. Universalizability- the persons reasons for acting must be reasons that everyone could act on at least in principle. Kantianism also provides strong foundation for rights. Individual human rights must be acknowledged and inviolable.

Words of Wisdom

Seek a true friend, for a friend seeks the benefit of a friend, Do good to the people for the sake of God or for the peace of your own soul that you may always see what is pure and save your heart from the darkness of hate.

- Rumi, "Mathnawi"

Group discussion:

Read case study Poverty and Pollution and answer questions a, b and c.

Learning outcomes

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to: 1. Define the concept of rights. 2. Recognize the kinds of rights. 3. Explain John Lockes Natural Rights Theory

Any ethical theory must also give an account of the rights we have and also of what is just or fair.
(Boatright JR, 2007)

Rights

Rights play an important role in business ethics, as well as all moral issues.
Employers, employees, consumers, general public, human, non-human each have our own rights. United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 which set forth basic human rights for all people.

Continue ...

Rights can be understood as

ENTITLEMENTS to something!

To have rights is to be entitled to act on our own or to be treated by others in certain ways without asking permission of anyone or being dependent on other peoples goodwill.

Kinds of Rights
1. Legal and moral rights

2. Specific and general rights 3. Negative and positive rights ( Source: Boatright, J.R, 5th Edition, page: 38 and 39)

1. Legal and Moral rights

Legal - recognized and enforced as part of legal system. E.g. the Employment Act 1955 lays down provisions to protect workers.

- Moral rights that we ought to have out of general ethical rules and principles. Do not depend on the existence of legal system. For e.g. as a student, you have the right to be graded fairly.

2. Specific and general rights

Specific - involve identifiable individuals or parties e.g. in contracts. It creates mutual rights or duties for these individuals or parties.
General - involves claims against everyone, or humanity in general. E.g. Freedom of speech. Enforcement of this right rests with the whole community.

3. Negative and Positive rights

Negative - correlated with obligations on the part of others to refrain from acting in ways that interfere with our own freedom of action. It relates to the right of human beings to be free from outside interference. i.e. right to property, choice of religion, freedom from injury and privacy. Positive - impose obligations on other people to provide us with some good or service and thereby to act positively on our behalf. It reflects the vital interests that human beings have in receiving certain benefits. E.g. adequate health care, provision of child education., the right to a decent standard of living as proclaimed by the United Nations 1948 Human Rights Charter.

Natural rights

Relates to United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 which set forth basic human rights for all people. Natural rights focuses on HUMAN RIGHTS . These are rights that belong to all persons purely by virtue of being humans irrespective of race, sex, nationality, etc. Two main features of human rights: - Universality - possessed by everyone. - Unconditionality - human rights do not depend on any particular practices or institutions in society.

Natural Rights

The idea of natural rights long been debated in history going back to the ancient Greeks, who held that there is a higher law that applies to all persons everywhere and serves as a standard for evaluating the laws of the states. Both Roman law and the medieval church adopted this idea and developed it into a comprehensive legal theory.

Natural Rights Theory

The most influential natural rights theory presented by John Locke (1633-1704) in his famous Second Treatise of Government(1690).
Locke began with the supposition of a state of nature, which is the condition of human beings in the absence of any government.

John Lockes Natural Rights Theory

Human beings have rights, even in the state of nature, and that the justification for uniting into a state is to protect these rights. The most important natural right for Locke is the right to property. Although the bounty of the earth is provided by God for the benefit of all, no one can make use of it without taking some portion as ones own. This is done by means of labour, which is a form of property.

John Lockes theory cont..

Every man has property in his own person, so [t] he labour of his body and the work of his hands are properly his.

Learning outcomes

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:

Explain Aristotles Virtue Ethics Theory. Recognize virtues to be emulated to lead a good life.

Aristotles Theory of Virtue Ethics

Asks: what kind of person should we be? According to Aristotle, ethics enable us to lead successful rewarding lives - good life. Virtue is a character trait that manifests itself in habitual action. E.g. honesty cannot consist in telling the truth once; it is rather a trait of a person who tells the truth as a general practice.

According to Aristotle, moral virtues are habits that enable a person to live according to reason. When a person knows and chooses a reasonable middle ground between going too far enough his actions, emotions and desires, moral virtue . is a mean between two vices, one of excess and the other of deficiency and .. it aims at hitting a mean in feeling (desires) and actions.

For example, with respect to the emotion of fear, courage is the virtue of responding to fear with a reasonable amount of daring, whereas being coward is a vice of not being daring enough in response to fear, and recklessness is the vice for being too daring in response to fear.

How does one determine what is reasonable?

According to Aristotle, prudence is the virtue that enables one to know what is reasonable in a given situation.
Prudence being careful and sensible.

Virtues that are universally accepted as good.

Honesty, sincerity, reliable, trustworthy, dependable, patience, prudence, benevolence (kind and helpful), compassion, courage, courtesy, friendliness, moderation, self control, toleration.
Aristotle also included pride as well as shame as virtues. We should be proud of our accomplishments ( not arrogant) and shame of our failures.

Universally accepted bad values

Dishonesty, insincerity, unreliable, untrustworthy, undependable, temperamental, arrogant.

In business ...

Virtue ethics could be applied to business directly by holding that the virtues of a good businessperson are the same as those of a good person. Business is a part of life why not apply good virtues of living in it? However, businesspeople need to engage themselves in business-related character traits. E.g caring, a good business manager must care for their employees and customer but only to certain extent.

Theories in ethics
Theories show what makes right actions right though what weve seen is that they are not wholly incompatible.
All theories, however, championed for rights of individuals based on the principles of respect for persons and agreement that certain virtues are important to have.