HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

9.2 Production of Materials:

. Construct word and balanced formulae equations of all chemical reactions as they are encountered in this module: BASIC reactions to remember:
Acid reactions: acid + base acid + metal acid + carbonate salt + water salt + hydrogen gas carbon dioxide gas + salt + water

Complete combustion: hydrocarbon + oxygen Y+ !anion" water + carbon dioxide + Y !anion"# where Y $ on activity series%

Dis lacement reactions:

Alkene/alkane reactions:
Crac!in" o& pentane: pentane C'H(2 !g" ethylene + propane C2H) !g" + C*H+ !g"

#ydro"enation o& ethylene: ethylene + hydrogen C2H) !g" + H2 !g" ethane C2H6 !g"

#ydration o& ethylene: ethylene + water C2H) !g" + H2, !l" ethylene + chlorine C2H) !g" + Cl2 !g" ethanol C2H',H !l" (-2-dichloroethane C2H)Cl2 !l" &l.oroethane

#alo"enation !more speci&ically- Chlorination" o& ethylene:

#ydrohalo"enation !more speci&ically- #ydrofluorination" o& ethylene: ethylene + hydrogen &l.oride

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

C2H) !g" + H4l !g"

C2H'4l !g" 2-bromo-(-cyclohexanol + hydrogen C6H(06r,H !l" + H6r !a7"

5eaction o& cyclohe$ene with bromine water: cyclohexene + bromine + water bromide C6H(0 !l" + 6r2 !a7" + H2, !l"

Fermentation and other ethanol-based reactions:

Dehydration o& ethanol: ethanol C2H',H !l" ethanol + oxygen C2H',H !l" + *,2 !g" ethylene + water C2H) !g" + H2, !l" carbon dioxide + water 2C,2 !g" + *H2, !g"

Combustion o& ethanol:

%ermentation o& gl.cose: gl.cose C6H(2,6 !a7" ethanol + carbon dioxide 2C2H',H !a7" + 2C,2 !g"

Electrochemistry:
Dis lacement o& copper &rom sol.tion d.e to 8inc: 8inc + copper s.l&ate 9n !s" + C.S,) !a7" 8inc s.l&ate + copper 9nS,) !a7" + C. !s" 8inc!33" ion + s.l&ate ion + copper

&onic equation o& this reaction: 8inc + copper!33" ion + s.l&ate ion 9n + C.2+ + S,)28inc + copper!33" ion 9n !s" + C.2+ !a7" 9n C.2+ + 2e: 9n2+ + 2e: C.

9n2+ + S,)2- + C. 8inc!33" ion + copper 9n2+ !a7" + C. !s"

'et ionic equation o& this reaction:

#alf(equations o& this e7.ation:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

). %ossil fuels ro*ide both ener"y and raw materials such as ethylene+ for the roduction of other substances: RECALL:
2n 2;<2=> is a hydrocarbon with ,=;Y single bonds between the carbons% 2n 2;<>=> is a hydrocarbon with ( or ?,5> do.ble bonds between carbons%

Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the refining of etroleum:
Petroleum !cr.de oil" is a complex mixt.re o& hydrocarbons consisting mainly o& al@anes and smaller 7.antities o& other hydrocarbons s.ch as al@enes% ,thylene !systematic name: ethene"- C2H)- is one o& the most .se&.l s.bstances in the petrochemical ind.stry- and is in e!tremely high demand% Crac!in" is the process o& Abrea@ingB large hydrocarbon molec.les into smaller length chains- .sing heat !C"% ,-: the crac@ing o& pentane into ethylene and propane:

Cr.de oil is separated into its di&&erent components .sing &ractional distillation% 5eason &or Crac@ing: 3n re&ineries- the o.tp.t o& prod.cts D,>S =,E match the economic demand# >EHY;>=> is in Fery high demand- b.t it only ma@es .p a Fery small percentage o& cr.de oil% Eo match the demand &or ethylene- low-demand- long-chain hydrocarbons are Acrac@edB and ethylene is prod.ced%

Ehere are two &orms o& crac@ing- catalytic crac@ing and thermal crac@ing%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6 Catalytic Crac!in":

2 Unit Chemistry

3n this process- carried o.t in a Acat-crac@erB- long alkane molec.les !C(' C2'" are bro@en into G.st two molec.les- an al@ane and an al@ene% Ehis &orm o& crac@ing .ses a C2E2;YSE to brea@ the al@anes% Ehe catalyst .sed are "eolite crystals: 9eolites are al.minosilicates !compo.nds made o& al.mini.m- silicon and oxygen"- with small amo.nts o& metal ions attached% Ehe reaction is carried o.t at '00HC- in the absence o& air- with press.re G.st aboFe atmospheric press.re% Ehis process .ses less heat than EH>5?2; crac@ing- b.t it cannot decompose large molec.les com letely into ethylene- so it is ins.&&icient in meeting the demands o& the ind.stry%

.hermal Crac!in": 2lso called AsteamB crac@ing% Ehis process does not .se a catalyst- only Fery high temperat.res% Ehe long-chain al@anes are passed thro.gh metal t.bes at temperat.res o& 100HC to (000HC- at press.re aboFe atmospheric% Ehe al@anes are decomposed com letely into ethylene and other short chains% Ehe .se o& steam is that is allows &or easy &low o& hydrocarbon gases- it dil.tes the mixt.re to create smooth reactions- and it remoFes carbon deposits in the metal t.bes%

Identify that ethylene# because of the high reactivity of its double bond# is readily transformed into many useful roducts:
>thylene has a highly reactiFe do.ble-bond# 3t is a site o& Fery H3IH >;>CE5,= D>=S3EY% ,ne o& the bonds readily brea@s- creating two new bonding sites on the molec.le:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

2DD3E3,= reactions are a type o& reaction ethylene can .ndergo# in these reactions- one bond in the do.ble bond is bro@en- and the two atoms in a diatomic molec.le are AaddedB on%

Ehere are many types o& addition reactions: #ydro"enation: Hydrogen is reacted with ethylene- .sing a platin.m catalyst at ('0HC% Ehe prod.ct is ethane%

#ydration: >thylene is reacted with water- .sing phosphoric acid as a catalyst- to prod.ce ethanol% Ehis is an ind.strially important reaction%

#alo"enation: 5eactiFe molec.les &rom the halogen gro.p !4l2- Cl2 and 6r2" can all react with ethylene% ,-: Chlorine molec.le reacting with ethylene &orms (-2-dichloroethane%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

#ydrohalo"enation: 3n this reaction- a hydrohalogen !s.ch as HCl or H4l" and ethylene react to &orm a halo-ethane% ,-: H4l reacting with ethylene &orms &l.oroethane%

Ehe ?23= adFantage o& the do.ble bond is that ethylene can .ndergo polymerisation- a Fery important reaction that will be disc.ssed later%

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from $hich olymers are made:
Polymerisation is the chemical reaction in which many identical small molec.les combine to &orm one Fery large molec.le% Ehe small identical molec.les are called ?,=,?>5S- and the large molec.le is called a J,;Y?>5% 6eca.se o& its reactiFe do.ble bond- ethylene is able to .ndergo polymerisation# ethylene- a monomer- &orms the polymer poly!ethylene"%

Identify olyethylene as an addition olymer and e! lain the meaning of this term:
3n an addition olymerisation reaction- no additional molec.les !e%g% water" are prod.ced there is no gain or loss o& atoms- the do.ble bond simply AopensB and monomers attach%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Jolyethylene is an addition polymer- as the ethylene molec.les combine with each other in the &ollowing way:

2s can be seen- no extra molec.les are prod.ced% 2 more realistic representation o& the polyethylene polymer !with nine repeating .nits" is:

%utline the ste s in the roduction of olyethylene as an e!am le of a commercially and industrially im ortant olymer:
>thylene is a commercially and ind.strially important polymer% Ehere are two methods &or its prod.ction: #i"h Pressure Method: 3n this process- ethylene is s.bGected to press.res o& (00-*00 ?Ja- with temperat.re in excess o& *00HC% 2 molec.le- called the initiator- is introd.ced- .s.ally a peroxide% Ehe initiator starts o&& a chainreaction- creating the polyethylene macromolec.le% Ehis process creates 652=CH>D chains o& polyethylene that cannot be pac@ed together tightly% Eh.s branched polyethylene is called low-density polyethylene !;DJ>"% /ie"ler('atta Process: Ehis process .ses only a &ew atmospheres o& press.re and temperat.res o& abo.t 60HC% 2 catalyst is .sed: it is a mixt.re o& titani.m !333" chloride and a trial@ylal.mini.m compo.nd% Ehis process creates U=652=CH>D chains o& polyethylene that can be pac@ed together Fery densely% Eh.s .nbranched polyethylene is called high-density polyethylene !HDJ>"% Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Ehe steps ta@en to prod.ce the polymer are the same in both methods- b.t the initiator molec.le is di&&erent: 3=3E32E3,=: Ehe initiator molec.le is added to the ethylene container# in the diagram below- it is shown as a ero!ide radical !an oxygen compo.nd with a &ree electron"% Ehe initiator reacts with one ethylene molec.le- brea@ing its do.ble bond- and attaches to only ,=> bonding site- creating an ethyleneinitiator 52D3C2;% Ehe KdotL represents a &ree- highly reactiFe- electron%

J5,J2I2E3,=: 2nother ethylene monomer attaches to this radical- opening another bonding site- then another attaches- and so on- rapidly increasing the length o& the chain% ,ne o& these reactions:

5epeating this reaction many times giFes a general &orm.la:

E>5?3=2E3,=: Ehe reaction stops !terminates" when two s.ch chains collide and the two radicals react- &orming a longer chain% Ehis is a random process- so the length o& polyethylene chains can Fary greatly% !Ehe peroxide

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

initiator is eFent.ally eng.l&ed by the reaction- and so is no longer present at termination":

Identify vinyl chloride and styrene as commercially significant monomers by both their systematic and common names:
0inyl Chloride: SYSE>?2E3C =2?>: Chloroethene% 4,5?U;2: C2H*Cl or CH2MCHCl 3t is an ethylene molec.le with one o& its hydrogen atoms s.bstit.ted with a chlorine atom% 3t can &orm polyFinyl chloride- a Fery important polymer% Diagram o& polyFinyl chloride:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6 1tyrene: SYSE>?2E3C =2?>: Jhenylethene% 4,5?U;2: C+H+ or CH2M CHC6H' Styrene is an ethylene molec.le with one o& its hydrogen atoms replaced by a ben8ene ring% 2 ben8ene ring is a six-carbon ring with alternating do.ble-bonds% Ehe do.ble bonds within ben8ene are not reactiFe# b.t the do.ble bonds in al@enes are reactiFe% 3t &orms polystyrene% Diagram o& polystyrene:

2 Unit Chemistry

&escribe the uses of the olymers made from the above monomers in terms of their ro erties:
2ow(Density Polyethylene 32DP,4: Uses 5elated to Jroperties: Jlastic cling wrap# beca.se it is &lexible- clear and non-toxic% Disposable shopping bags# beca.se it is cheap and relatiFely strong% ?il@ bottles# as it is non-toxic- cheap- .n-reactiFe and recyclable% #i"h(Density Polyethylene 3#DP,4: Uses 5elated to Jroperties: <itchen .tensils and containers# as it is strong and non-toxic% 5.bbish bins# it is rigid- only slightly &lexible and hard%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Jipes and other b.ilding materials# it is rigid- hard- and .n-reactiFe% Poly*inyl Chloride 3P0C4: Uses 5elated to Jroperties: Iarden hoses# it can contain UN inhibitors# it is relatiFely .n-reactiFe&lexible- and d.rable% Can be so&tened with plasticisers% Jipes and g.ttering# it is Fery rigid and hard- and .n-reactiFe% 3t is also easily shaped% Crystal Polystyrene: Uses 5elated to Jroperties: CD cases and cassette tapes# .sed beca.se polystyrene is clear- hard- rigideasily shaped- and is a good ins.lator% Screw driFer handles and @itchen c.pboard handles# Fery d.rable and strong- hard and in&lexible% ,$ anded Polystyrene: Uses 5elated to Jroperties: Jac@aging- and disposable c.ps# it is light !&.ll o& air"- cheap- and it is a thermal ins.lator% So.nd-proo&ing# it is a shoc@ absorbent material- light- easily shaped%

PRACTICAL ' Identify data# lan and erform a first-hand investigation to com are the reactivities of a ro riate alkenes $ith the corres onding alkanes in bromine $ater:
3n this experiment an al@ene !cyclohe!ene" and its corresponding al@ane !cyclohe!ane"- were placed in a sol.tion o& yellow bromine water% 5,162.: 3t was obserFed that cyclohexene t.rned the bromine water colo.rlesswhereas the cyclohexane sol.tion remained yellow% Eh.s ,=;Y cyclohexene reacted with the bromine water- and th.s the al@ene was said to be more reactiFe than its corresponding al@ane# this is d.e to the do.ble bond o& the al@ene% 5eaction:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

761.&%8 the method: Cyclohexene and cyclohexane were .sed- instead o& ethylene or propene beca.se C( to C) are gases at room temperat.re- and wo.ld be hard to manage# cyclohexene is li7.id at room temperat.re% 2lso cyclohexeneOane was .sed instead o& hexeneOane beca.se cyclic hydrocarbons are more stable than their linear co.nterparts%

2&M&.A.&9'1 o& the method: Ehe al@ane reacted slightly- as UN radiation ca.sed slow s.bstit.tion reactions%

1A%,.8 preca.tions: 6romine water is highly toxic i& ingested- and is slightly corrosiFe% Cyclohexene and cyclohexane are both poisono.s i& ingested- and both giFe o&& &.mes- as they are highly Folatile and highly &lammable%

PRACTICAL ' Analyse information from secondary sources such as com uter simulations# molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the olymerisation rocess:
3n this experiment- molecular modellin" !its were .sed to show how polyethylene is prod.ced thro.gh the polymerisation o& ethylene% Ehe class was diFided into gro.ps- and each gro.p was proFided with a @it% * ethylene monomers were created by each gro.p- with black balls representing carbons and smaller- $hite balls representing hydrogen%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Ehen the monomers were ApolymerisedB: each gro.p combined their monomers with eFery other gro.p .ntil a large chain was created a section o& polyethylene% 761.&%8 the method: Ehe models created a *D representation o& the chemical process- which led to greater .nderstanding o& polymerisation% Ehe .se o& ball-and-stic@ models- depicting the do.ble-bond with &lexible r.bber rods- greater increased .nderstanding o& the process%

2&M&.A.&9'1 o& the method: Ehe model only proFided a Fery limited section o& a polyethylene molec.le- as there were limited n.mbers o& @its% Ehe .se o& catalysts !s.ch as 9eigler-=atta catalysts" was not shown in the process- and th.s it was not completely acc.rate%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

2. 1ome scientists research the e$traction of materials from biomass to reduce our de endence on fossil fuels: RECALL:
Addition polymers &orm =, extra molec.les when their monomers Goin together% Ehis type o& polymerisation reaction occ.rs d.e to a do.ble-bond openingcreating 2 new bonding sites%

&iscuss the need for alternative sources of the com ounds obtained from the etrochemical industry:

resently

Ehere is an oFerwhelming need &or alternatiFe so.rces o& compo.nds that are presently deriFed &rom the petrochemical ind.stry !i%e% crude oil"% Ehis is beca.se cr.de oil is a &ossil &.el- and is hence a non-renewable reso.rce% 6ased on c.rrent .sage statistics- cr.de oil reserFes co.ld be completely .sed .p within a &ew decades% Compo.nds obtained &rom the petrochemical ind.stry haFe two .ses: Ehe prod.ction o& ener"y: +)P o& cr.de oil is .sed to prod.ce energy% Ehis incl.des petrol and diesel &or cars- heating oil- Get-engine oil and ;JI% Ehe prod.ction o& materials: Ehe other (6P is .sed to prod.ce polymerspharmace.ticals- and other extremely important chemicals%

Some o& the materials created &rom cr.de oil cannot be deriFed by any other ways !or wo.ld be m.ch too expensiFe to synthesise"- so once cr.de oil is exha.stedthere will be no way to prod.ce them%

3t has been arg.ed that alternatiFe &.els be created so that cr.de-oil can be reserFed &or .se by the petrochemical ind.stry to create materials% Ehe increasing cost o& cr.de oil in this c.rrent day and age is another &actor% 2lso- many co.ntries that contrib.te a signi&icant portion o& the worldBs cr.de oil are Fery economically and politically .nstable- with &ragile in&rastr.ct.re- and s.pply &rom these co.ntries can be Fery erratic%

,ne o& the most appealing replacements &or cr.de-oil deriFed compo.nds is cell.lose# this is beca.se it contains all the carbon-chain str.ct.res needed &or the prod.ction o& materials- and it is so remar@ably ab.ndant on >arth%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

E! lain $hat is meant by a condensation olymer:

2 condensation polymer is a polymer that prod.ces > E52 molec.les !.s.ally water" when its monomers combine% >xamples incl.de nat.ral polymers s.ch as cell.lose- starch- protein- D=2- and man.&act.red polymer &abrics s.ch as sil@- polyester and nylon%

&escribe the reaction involved $hen a condensation olymer is formed:

3n condensation- the monomers react differently than in addition reactions% Ehere is no do.ble-bond that opens !as in addition"# the 4U=CE3,=2; I5,UJS o& the two monomers react together- &orming a new bond and water% ,- ( Cell.lose: Cell.lose is a nat.ral polymer &ormed thro.gh the polymerisation o& gl.cose -lucose- C6H(2,6- is the monomer in this polymer% Ehe reaction occ.rs between 2 hydroxyl gro.ps- &orming a glycosidic bond:

2s can be seen- the reaction sites are the hydroxyl !,H -" gro.ps on the &irst and &o.rth carbons !C-( and C-)"% >ach gl.cose molec.le has 2 reaction sites# that is why it can polymerise% ,ne C-,H bonds to another C-,H- &orming a C-,-C bond !glycosidic bond"% Ehe le&t oFer H+ and ,H- combine- &orming water%

&escribe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an e!am le of a condensation olymer found as a ma(or com onent of biomass:
Cell.lose is a nat.rally occ.rring condensation polymer !a bio olymer" 3t is the single most ab.ndant polymer on >arth- ma@ing .p abo.t '0P o& the total biomass o& the planet !biomass is the mass o& all organisms in a giFen area"%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

3t is long polymer chain made o& repeating gl.cose monomer .nits- which 4;3J &or eFery alternate gl.cose- as can be seen in the aboFe diagram% 2boFe- the str.ct.re o& gl.cose is 7.ite cl.ttered% Eo demonstrate a section o& a cell.lose chain- a simpli&ied &orm o& gl.cose will be .sed% Il.cose# in short-&orm: 3t is ass.med that at eFery corner- there is a carbon atom% Hydrogen atoms are not shownb.t are also ass.med to be there- and are ded.ced by @nowing that carbon ma@es ) bonds%

Hence- the str.ct.re o& cell.lose can be shown as:

2s can be seen- it is a Fery linear molec.le- d.e to its straight chains%

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to build etrochemicals and discuss its otential as a ra$ material:
Ehe 62S3C carbon-chain str.ct.res that are .sed to ma@e petrochemicals are short-chained al@enes s.ch as ethylene !2C"- ro ene !*C" and butene !)C"% Il.cose- the basic str.ct.re in cell.lose- is a 6C molec.le% Hence it has to potential to be trans&ormed into the aboFe compo.nds% Ehe Jotential o& Cell.lose as a 5aw ?aterial: 2ltho.gh theoretically- cell.lose can proFide limitless amo.nts o& renewable raw materials- this is c.rrently too expensiFe and impractical% Ehis is beca.se in order to deriFe ethylene- etc%- &rom cell.lose- &irstlycell.lose m.st be bro@en into gl.cose !.sing either bacterial digestion or

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

acidic decomposition"- then &ermented !with yeast" into ethanol and then dehydrated !.sing H2S,)" into ethene# this is a lengthy and expensiFe process% Hence- cell.lose has great potential- b.t is c.rrently not economical%

REPORT ' )se available evidence to gather and

resent data from

secondary sources and analyse rogress in the recent develo ment and use of a named bio olymer* +his analysis should name the s ecific en"yme,sused or organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or otential use of the olymer roduced related to its ro erties:
'ame of :io olymer: 6iopolQ 3t is made o& olyhydro!ybutyrate !JH6" and olyhydro!yvalerate !JHN"% 2lcaligenes e.troph.s !a bacteri.m"% 3n ind.strial prod.ction- 2% >.troph.s is grown in an enFironment favourable to its gro$th to create a Fery large pop.lation o& bacteria !s.ch as high nitrates- phosphates and other n.trients"% Rhen a s.&&iciently large pop.lation has been prod.ced- the enFironment is changed to one that is high in glucose- high in Faleric acid and low in nitrogen% Ehis .nnat.ral enFironment ind.ces the prod.ction o& the polymer by the bacteri.m# the polymer is act.ally a nat.ral &at storage material- created by the 2 >.troph.s in adFerse conditions% ;arge amo.nts o& a chlorinated hydrocarbon- s.ch as trichloromethane are added to the bacteriaOpolymer mix# this dissolFes the polymer% Ehe mixt.re is then &iltered to remoFe the bacteria% Ehe polymer is extracted &rom the hydrocarbon solFent as a powder- which is then melted or treated &.rther to create a .sable polymer% Pro erties: 3t is 63,D>I52D26;> and 63,C,?J2E36;> 9r"anism 6sed: Production:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

3t is non-toxic- insol.ble in water- permeable to oxygen- resistant to UN lightacids and bases- high melting point- high tensile strength%

6ses in 5elation to Pro erties: 3t has many medical applications !e%g% biocompatible stiches that dissolFe or are absorbed by the body"% Disposable containers &or shampoo- cosmetics- mil@ bottles- etc%- as it only ta@es 2 years to decompose bac@ into nat.ral components% Disposable ra8ors- c.tlery- r.bbish bags- plastic plates- etc% 3t is biodegradable- .nli@e polyethylene and other petrole.m deriFed plasticsand so will help to red.ce leFels o& r.bbish in land&ills% 3t is compatible with organisms !biocompatible"# it is not reGected by the bodyBs imm.ne system and so can be .sed sa&ely% 3t is a renewable reso.rce% 3t is c.rrently Fery expensiFe- and c.rrently the demand is not high eno.gh &or it to be economically Fiable%

Ad*anta"es:

Disad*anta"es:

%uture De*elo ments: 5ecently- the gene &or prod.cing 6iopol polymer strands &rom the 2lcaligenes >.troph.s bacteria was extracted and implanted into >% coli .sing genetic engineering techni7.es% >% coli bacteria are m.ch easier to grow than other bacteria- and th.s are cheaper% =.trient so.rces are starting to be deriFed &rom waste materials- s.ch as molasses and other agric.lt.ral wastes% Ehis greatly red.ces costs%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

;. 9ther resources+ such as ethanol+ are readily a*ailable from renewable resources such as lants: RECALL:
2 J,;25 coFalent bond is a bond where one o& the atoms in it is more electronegatiFe than the other- and so the bond has a slight charge% ,lectrone"ati*ity is the ability o& an atom to attract electrons# the more electronegatiFe an atom- the stronger it will hold onto electrons in a chemical bond% Ehe order o& electronegatiFity- &rom most electronegatiFe to least- &or releFant atoms is: fluorine- o!ygen- chlorine- nitrogen- carbon and then hydrogen* 4or example- a bond between oxygen and hydrogen is a polar bond beca.se oxygen holds onto negatiFe electrons stronger# th.s- in this bond- oxygen is slightly negatiFe% 1olubility 5ules: Jolar s.bstances dissolFe other polar s.bstances: Ehis is beca.se the slightly negatiFe end is attracted to the slightly positiFe end o& another polar bond&orming a slight intermolec.lar bond% =on-polar s.bstances dissolFe other non-polar s.bstances: Ehis is d.e to Fery wea@ dispersion &orces between molec.les%

&escribe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this rocess and the catalyst used:
Ehe dehydration o& ethanol is the chemical process whereby a water molec.le is remoFed &rom ethanol&orming ethylene% Dehydration o& ethanol: ethanol C2H',H !l" ethylene + water C2H) !g" + H2, !l"

2n acid catalyst !concentrated s.l&.ric acid" is needed beca.se the acid brea@s the C-,H and C-H bonds- allowing the &ormation o& a do.ble-bond and water !it also red.ces the actiFation energy"%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

S.l&.ric acid is the chosen acid- beca.se it is also a power&.l dehydrating agent%

&escribe the addition of $ater to ethylene resulting in the roduction of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this rocess and the catalyst used:
Ehe hydration o& ethylene is the chemical process whereby a water molec.le is added to ethylene&orming ethanol% #ydration o& ethylene: 3n ethylene + water C2H) !g" + H2, !l" this casethe ethanol C2H',H !l" acid catalyst !concentrated

phosphoric acid" opens the do.ble bond- allowing water to attach- &orming ethanol%

&escribe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for olar and non- olar substances:
See RECALL aboFe% Ethanol is able to act as a solFent &or polar- non-polar and some ionic s.bstances d.e to its .ni7.e molec.lar str.ct.re:

2s can be seen- ethanol is not completely polar or completely non-polar: Ehe 9#( gro.p: Ehis section is polar- and as a res.lt- can &orm polar bonds with other polar s.bstances- s.ch as water%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Ehe C#*C#2< gro.p: C-H and C-C bonds are non-polar- and hence this section is non-polar% 3t can share dispersion &orces with other non-polar s.bstances- and dissolFe them# &or e%g% heptane%

Hence it is a widely .sed solFent &or per&.mes- dyes- pharmace.ticals- etc%

%utline the use of ethanol as a fuel and e! lain $hy it can be called a rene$able resource:
Combustion is the reaction whereby a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to &orm carbon dioxide and water Fapo.r- releasing energy% >thanol is able to .ndergo comb.stion- so it can be .sed as a &.el: C2H',H !l" + *,2 !g" 2C,2 !g" + *H2, !g" Despite its short chain- ethanol is a li7.id !d.e to strong polar bonds"% Ehis ma@es it an easily transportable &.el- and th.s has been .sed &or many years &or o.tdoor camping- hi@ers- etc% 3t has also been .sed as a &.el-additiFe in a.tomobiles- .p to abo.t 20P ethanol% 2s a renewable reso.rce: >thanol can be a renewable reso.rce beca.se it can be deriFed &rom non-&ossil &.el so.rces- s.ch as the &ermentation o& gl.cose% Ehis gl.cose can be deriFed &rom bacterial decomposition o& cell.lose !a renewable Fery ab.ndant material" or &rom starch !mainly &rom corn crops"%

Assess the

otential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the

advantages and disadvantages of its use:

Jotential o& >thanol: +0P o& the worldBs demand &or transportation &.els is petrole.m deriFed% HoweFer- as the price o& petrole.m contin.es to rise- the concept o& other &.els as alternatiFes becomes more attractiFe% 2pproximately + million Fehicles worldwide r.n on ethanolOpetrol blends% *0P o& 6ra8ilian a.tomobiles r.n on at least 2'P ethanol &.els% ?any other co.ntries s.ch as China and So.th 2&rica are inFesting money in researching the potential o& ethanol as a &.el%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

3n 2.stralia- s.gar cane and wheat haFe been &ermented to prod.ce ethanolb.t here- it is c.rrently an .neconomic proposition%

2DN2=E2I>S o& ethanol: 3t is a rene$able reso.rce% 3t is Kgreenho.seL neutral# that is- the C,2 absorbed by the crop !e%g% corn" can match the C,2 prod.ced by comb.stion !i& Fery e&&icient"% 6eca.se ethanol has less carbon than octane !the maGor component o& petrol"as well as the &act it already contains an oxygen atom- it re7.ires less oxygen to com letely comb.st# hence it is a C;>2=>5 and ?,5> >443C3>=E &.el% Jrod.ces only carbon dioxide and water as a by-prod.ct% >ngines m.st be modified to r.n on &.el containing more than 20P ethanol% >ngines $ear do$n &aster d.e to the need &or higher engine compression ratios needed &or ethanol comb.stion% ;arge areas o& land are re7.ired to grow crops that will be harFested &or ethanol prod.ction# land that can be .sed &or other p.rposes% Disposal o& &ermentation wastes presents maGor enFironmental iss.es%

D3S2DN2=E2I>S o& ethanol:

.rocess information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel# evaluating the success of current usage:
Ehere are a &ew &orms in which ethanol can be .sed as an alternatiFe car &.el# these incl.de ethanol/ etrol mi$tures- very ure ethanol fuels- and ethanolo$ered fuel cells: >thanolOJetrol ?ixt.res: Signi&icant 7.antities o& (0P ethanol are sold in some parts o& 2.stralia# howeFer- there has not been m.ch s.ccess as the p.blic holds s.spicions abo.t the e&&ect o& ethanol on their engines% HoweFer- in other co.ntries- ethanolOpetrol mixt.res are Fery s.ccess&.l% 3n the United States- many states re7.ire a minim.m o& (0P ethanol in all &.el sold% 3n Sweden- +'P ethanol mixt.res are common% 6ra8il re7.ires that 2;; car engines are able to accept at least 2'P ethanol% Eh.s in certain co.ntries.se o& ethanol as a &.el is 7.ite s.ccess&.l% Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

J.re >thanol 4.els: KJ.reL ethanol is ethanol with 2E ?,SE (P water% 3t is a Fery clean &.el% >ngines m.st be modi&ied to deal with s.ch high leFels o& ethanol% 3t is c.rrently being .sed in 6ra8il and 2rgentina as a complete alternatiFe to gasoline% 2 7.arter o& all 6ra8ilian cars r.n on p.re ethanol% 3t has proFen to be a Fery e&&icient &.el% >thanol 4.el-Cells: Ehis is still in an experimental stage# it is the proposition that &.el cells be .sed to r.n cars# s.ccess o& s.ch a scheme is still not @nown%

&escribe the conditions under $hich fermentation of sugars is romoted:

%ermentation is the biochemical process in which glucose is t.rned into ethanol and carbon dioxide by the action o& en8ymes prod.ced by microbes !esp% yeast"% Ehe conditions .nder which &ermentation is promoted are: Jresence o& s.itable grain or &r.it made into a p.lp with water% Jresence o& yeast c.lt.res% Ehe excl.sion o& air !anaerobic enFironment"% Ehe temperat.re is @ept at abo.t *1HC%

.resent information from secondary sources by $riting a balanced e/uation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol:
%ermentation o& gl.cose:

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation rocess:

Yeast is added to mashed grain and water%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Ehe yeast and other microbes brea@ down the large carbohydrates !e%g% starch or s.crose" into simple s.gars !gl.cose or &r.ctose" which are then &ermented% s.crose + water C(2H22,(( !a7" + H2, !l" gl.cose + &r.ctose C6H(2,6 !a7" + C6H(2,6 !a7"

3n an oxygen-&ree atmosphere- the yeast .se their en8ymes to brea@ down the s.gars- &orming ethanol and C,2 as prod.cts% C6H(2,6 !a7" 2C2H',H !a7" + 2C,2 !g"

Rhen ethanol concentration reaches ('P- the yeast die and &ermentation SE,JS% Distillation is .sed to obtain higher ethanol concentrations !S'-(00P"%

.rocess information from secondary sources to summarise the rocesses involved in the industrial roduction of ethanol from sugar cane:
Ehe industrial roduction o& ethanol &rom s.gar-cane .ses a &ew more chemicals !some o& which are toxic" and processes compared to ethanol prod.ced &or cons.mption# also s.garcane is higher in simple s.gars compared to corn starch% Ehis is a s.mmary o& the process: Ehe s.gar-cane crop is harFested# the whole plant is then cr.shed and grinded to create a cell.loseOs.gar p.lp% Ehe p.lp is heated to (00HC- and dil.te s.l&.ric acid is added% Ehis hydrolyses the cell.lose and s.crose into gl.cose molec.les% Ehe mixt.re is &iltered to separate the gl.cose sol.tion &rom the solid resid.es o& lignin and .nbro@en cell.lose% Ehe solids resid.e is &.rther hydrolysed with stronger acids and &iltered again% Calci.m hydroxide is added to the s.gar sol.tion remaining to ne.tralise the s.l&.ric acid# an insol.ble salt !precipitate" o& calci.m s.l&ate is &ormed% Ehe sol.tion is &iltered again to remoFe solid calci.m s.l&ate particles% Ehe sol.tion is then placed in an oxygen-&ree tan@- warmed to *1HC- and s.itable yeast c.lt.res are added% 2&ter ('P concentration is reached- the sol.tion is distilled to prod.ce high concentration ind.strial grade ethanol%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

&efine the molar heat of combustion of a com ound and calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data:
Ehe molar heat of combustion is the heat energy released when one mole o& a s.bstance .ndergoes complete comb.stion with oxygen at a press.re o& (0(%* @Ja !or ( atmosphere"- with the &inal prod.cts being C,2 and H2,% 4orm.la &or change in heat:

4or the calc.lation o& the molar heat o& comb.stion o& ethanol- the &ollowing &irst hand Fal.es- were .sed !&rom 200( HSC- T(1":

3n this case- the &orm.la &or CH is applied to the water !the KsystemL":

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

CE M 'S (S M )0 < m M 2'0 g M 0%2' @g C M )%(+ x (0* U @g -( < -( !Ehis Fal.e is a constant# giFen in exams" CH M -0%2' x )%(+ x (0* x )0 M -)(+00 Go.les !U" M -)(%+ @iloGo.les !@U"

Ehere&ore:

6.t the change in mass o& the b.rner was 2%* grams- there&ore only 2%* grams o& ethanol was comb.sted% ?oles M mass O molar mass M 2%* O )6 M 0%0' mol Ehere&ore- -)(%+ @UO0%0' mol M -+*6 @UOmol Hence- the experimental molar heat o& comb.stion o& ethanol is (=;> !7?mol%

Identify the I).AC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C0 to C1:

Al!anols are a gro.p o& al@anes where one or more hydrogens haFe been replaced by the hydro!yl !,H" &.nctional gro.p Rhen naming al@anols- there are speci&ic r.les: @ P Ehe n.mber o& carbons determines the pre&ix o& the name: ( m et h a n e2 e t h a n e * p r o p a n e ) b . t a n e ' p e n t a n e 6 h e x a n e 1 h e p a n e + o c t a n e -

3& there is only ,=> hydroxyl gro.p- the KeL is dropped &rom the pre&ix and the s.&&ix K(olL is added% Ehe carbon the hydroxyl is on m.st also be stated#

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

this is written be&ore the pre&ix with a KdashL% Ehe carbons- depending on how long the chain is- are n.mbered &rom ( to +% ,.-. Ehis al@anol has ' carbons- b.t only one hydroxyl- so its pre&ix is Kpentan-L- and its s.&&ix is K-olL% 2lso- the hydroxyl is on the 2nd carbon !the n.mber is ta@en either &rom the le&t ,5 the right# the S?2;;>5 n.mber m.st be ta@en"% H>=C> this al@anol is 2( entanol 3=C,55>CE naming wo.ld be )-pentanol% 3& there is more than one hydroxyl gro.p- the s.&&ixes are !(-)": ( -ol 2 -diol * -triol ) -tetraol

'o. of 9#As 1uffi$

4or more than one carbon- the KeL at the end o& the pre&ix is =,E dropped% Ehe positions o& the ,H gro.ps m.st be stated% 3& there are 2 hydroxyls on the same carbon- then the n.mber is written twice- with a comma in between: ,.-. Ehis al@anol has 6 carbons- and * hydroxyl gro.ps so its pre&ix is Khexane-L and its s.&&ix is K-triolL% 2lso- one hydroxyl is on the (st carbon- while the other 2 are on the *rd carbon% H>=C>- the 3UJ2C name &or this al@anol is )+;+;(he$anetriol% 3=C,55>CE naming wo.ld be )-)-6-hexanetriol%

PRACTICAL .rocess information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits# digital technologies or com uter simulations to model the addition of $ater to ethylene and the dehydration of ethanol:
Molecular modellin" !its were .sed to model: the addition o& water to ethylene !hydration"% the remoFal o& water &rom ethanol !dehydration"%

K6all-and-stic@L @its were .sed- where black balls represented carbons- smaller$hite balls representing hydrogen- and red balls represented oxygen% 4irstly- and ethylene molec.le was created- and a water molec.le created:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Ehen- the water molec.le was split into a H+ ion and an ,H- ion% Ehe do.ble-bond o& ethylene was opened- and the ions were attached where there were &ree bonding sites# the res.ltant molec.le was ethanol%

Secondly- a separate ethanol molec.le was created: Ehe hydroxide gro.p !,H-" and a hydrogen was remoFed &rom the ends% Ehey were combines- and water was &ormed# the two open bonding sites o& the ethanol were Goined- and ethylene was &ormed%

761.&%8 the method: Ehe models created a *D representation o& the chemical process- which led to greater .nderstanding o& dehydration and hydration processes% Ehe .se o& ball-and-stic@ models- depicting the do.ble-bond with &lexible r.bber rods- greater increased .nderstanding o& chemical reactions%

2&M&.A.&9'1 o& the method: 6oth were seFerely simpli&ied representations o& chemical processes- which had many m.ltiple steps and consisted o& a series o& a7.eo.s !dil.te s.l&.ric acid" or solid catalysts%

PRACTICAL Solve roblems# lan and erform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes:
3n this experiment- sucrose sol.tion was &ermented to &orm ethanol and carbon dioxide% Ehe yeast cells &irst split s.crose into two gl.cose molec.les .sing the invertase en8yme % 2 2'0 m; side-arm conical &las@ with a r.bber stopper was .sed% 2 plastic hose was connected to the side arm- and the end o& the hose was placed in another conical &las@ in a sol.tion o& lime$ater% =o gas was allowed to escape the apparat.s: (00 ml o& 0%(' ? sucrose sol.tion was placed in the conical &las@% ,=> gram o& active yeast was placed into the s.crose-

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

along with a pinch o& sodium bi hos hate !=a2HJ,)" as a yeast n.trient% Ehis was mixed thoro.ghly% Ehe stopper &irmly p.t on- and the &las@ was R>3IH>D with an electronic scale% Ehe apparat.s was then set .p as shown- with the yeast bea@er in a water bath at a constant temperat.re !*1HC"% 6oth &las@s were weighed daily &or ' days% 5,162.1: Ehe yeast &las@ t.rned &oamy and smelt clearly o& alcohol- while the limewater t.rned clo.dy# this proFed that C,2 and ethanol were prod.ced- and that &ermentation occ.rred% Ehe mass o& the yeast &las@ also steadily decreased by abo.t hal& a gram each day# this is d.e to the carbon dioxide escape# the limewater &las@ also gained approximately the same mass% 761.&%8 the method: 2 KclosedL system !where no gas was allowed to escape" was .sed to ens.re an acc.rate experiment% ;imewater was employed to proFe C,2 was prod.ced% Ehe water bath ens.red that the most optimal &ermentation occ.rred% Ehe combined masses o& both &las@s steadily decreased as well# this was d.e to ineFitable lea@ages o& gas% Ehe atmosphere in the &las@s was not anaerobic !oxygen-&ree" and this co.ld haFe hampered the &ermentation process%

2&M&.A.&9'1 o& method:

PRACTICAL ' Identify data sources# choose resources and erform a firsthand investigation to determine and com are heats of combustion of at least three li/uid alkanols er gram and er mole:
Ehe * al@anols .sed were: methanol- ethanol- and )( ro anol >ach al@anol was placed in a spirit b.rner# the original mass recorded- and then was .sed to heat 200 m; o& water !at 2'HC" in a tin can% 2 thermometer was .sed to stir the water as well as meas.re the temperat.re

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

,nce the temperat.re rose by (0 degrees !<elFin or Celsi.s- it doesnBt matter# they both .se the same scale" the spirit b.rner was capped and immediately reweighed%

5,162.1: Ehe CH !change in heat" was calc.lated &or each al@anol by .sing the &orm.la CH M -mCCE% Ehis was then calc.lated per gram- and then per mole- to giFe the heat o& comb.stion per gram- as well as the molar heat o& comb.stion% ?ethanol has the lowest Fal.e- &ollowed by ethanol- and then (-propanol% =,E>: Ehis is not beca.se o& the extra bonds in longer hydrocarbon chains- b.t rather more bonds need to be created in the prod.cts !H 2, and C,2"# recall that: creatin" bonds releases energy% brea!in" bonds absorbs energy%

761.&%8 the method: 2 tin can was .sed as it is a better thermal cond.ctor than a glass bea@er% ?ethanol- ethanol and (-propanol were .sed as they are the shortest al@anols and th.s are the most li@ely to .ndergo complete comb.stion%

2&M&.A.&9'1 o& method: ?olar heat o& comb.stion re&ers ,=;Y to complete comb.stion# the yellow &lames and soot &ormed indicated that the comb.stion was incomplete% Eh.s the experimental data gathered is inacc.rate% 2lso- m.ch heat was lost to the air- as there was not (00P e&&iciency o& heat trans&er &rom &lame to tin can%

Heat was also radiated &rom the can to the air# ins.lation wo.ld red.ce this%

B. 9$idation(reduction reactions are increasin"ly im ortant as a source of ener"y: RECALL:

&onic e7.ations are chemical e7.ations where the ionic compo.nds are split into their ions- displaying their charges# e%g% salts and acids can be split% ,-: Ehe reaction between s.l&.ric acid and magnesi.m: Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Chemical e/uation: H2S,) !a7" + ?g !s" Ionic e/uation: 2H+ + S,)2- + ?g

?gS,) !a7" + H2 !g" ?g2+ + S,)2- + H2

2s can be seen- the ionic compo.nds- s.l&.ric acid- and magnesi.m s.l&ate were split% Hydrogen gas is C,N2;>=E- so it cannot be split% Ehe states !solid- li7.id- etc%" do not need to be written &or ionic e7.ations% ',. ionic e7.ations are ionic e7.ations where the s ectator ions are remoFed# spectator ions are ions !.s.ally polyatomic ions" that remain .nchanged thro.gho.t the reaction%

;oo@ing at the aboFe acid-metal reaction- the s.l&ate ion !S, )2-" is the same on both sides o& the e7.ation# it remains .nchanged- hence: 2et ionic e/uation: 2H+ + ?g ?g2+ + H2

E! lain the dis lacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons:
2 dis lacement reaction is a reaction in which a more reactiFe metal changes a less reactiFe metalBs 3,=S into solid 2E,?S% Ehat is- the less reactiFe metalBs ions are KdisplacedL o.t o& sol.tion and ne.tralised into atoms% ,-: Rhen "inc metal is placed in co er s.l&ate sol.tion- the 8inc will displace 9nS,) !a7" + C. !s" 9n2+ + S,)2- + C. 9n2+ + C. the copper ions- &orming 8inc s.l&ate and solid copper: Chemical e/uation: 9n !s" + C.S,) !a7" Ionic e/uation: 9n + C.2+ + S,)22et ionic e/uation: 9n + C.2+

Displacement reactions are act.ally >;>CE5,= E52=S4>5 reactions- where one s.bstance donates electrons to another# howeFer- this is not clear .ntil yo. loo@ at the half-e/uations o& the reaction%

#alf(equations are another way o& displaying chemical reactions# the net ionic e7.ation is split into two KhalFesL !.s.ally- b.t not always- the same element &rom both sides o& the net ionic e7.ation is ta@en on its own as a hal&-e7.ation"%

4rom aboFe- the two hal& e7.ations are: 9n C.2+ 9n2+ C.

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

H,R>N>5- these are incomplete- as the electrical charges on both sides o& the e7.ation are not balanced% Hence- a tr.e depiction o& the 2 hal&-reactions: 9n C.2+ + 2e: 9n2+ + 2e: C.

,$ lanation: 4or 8inc to ionise- it has to giFe .p 2 electrons &rom its o.ter shell% 6.t &or the copper ion to solidi&y !ne.tralise"- it has to gain 2 electrons% Hence- the net reaction is that 8inc D,=2E>S !or Atrans&ersB" 2 electrons to copper%

Ehere&ore- displacement reactions are electron trans&er reactions% C 9C&DA.&9' V 5,D6C.&9': %!idation and reduction reactions !or 5>D, way o& saying Aelectron-trans&er reactionsB% Ehe terms KoxidationL and Kred.ctionL re&er to the two separate hal&-e7.ations o& a redox reaction# in one hal&- oxidation occ.rs- and red.ction in the other% Eo identi&y whether a hal&-reaction is oxidation or red.ction: 9C&DA.&9' Iain o& , YI>= ;oss o& HYD5,I>= WW ;oss o& >;>CE5,=S WW 3ncrease in , 3D2E3,= SE2E> 5,D6C.&9' ;oss o& , YI>= Iain o& HYD5,I>= WW Iain o& >;>CE5,=S WW Decrease in , 3D2E3,= SE2E> reactions"- are the scienti&ic

'9.,: %!idation states $ill be e! lained later3 T.ic@ way to memorise which is which# remember the 9&2(5&-: 9xidation &s 2oss- 5ed.ction &s -ain o& >;>CE5,=S% 9n C.2+ + 2e: 9n2+ + 2e: !,xidation# 8inc ;,S>S electrons" C. !5ed.ction# copper I23=S electrons" Hence- the 2 hal&-e7.ations aboFe can be labelled as oxidation or red.ction%

Ehe species that is oxidised is the red.ctant !th.s- 8inc is the red.ctant" Ehe species that is red.ced is the oxidant !th.s- copper is the oxidant" Ehere are many types o& redo! reactions- a &ew o& which are: Dis lacement reactions# e%g% magnesi.m and silFer nitrate: ?g !s" + 22g=,* !a7" ?g!=,*"2 !a7" + 22g !s"

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

?g + 22g+ + 2=,* ?g + 22g+ ?g 22g+ + 2e:

?g2+ + 2=,*- + 22g ?g2+ + 22g !2=,*- is the spectator ion"

?g2+ + 2e: !,xidation" 22g !5ed.ction"

Acid?Metal reactions# e%g% s.l&.ric acid and 8inc: H2S,) !a7" + 9n !s" 2H+ + S,)2- + 9n 2H+ + 9n 9n 2H+ + 2e: 9nS,) !a7" + H2 !g" 9n2+ + S,)2- + H2 9n2+ + H2 !S,)2- is the spectator ion" 9n2+ + 2e: !,xidation" H2 !5ed.ction"

Metal?'on(metal reactions# e%g% reacting sodi.m and chlorine gas: 2=a !s" + Cl2 !g" 2=a + Cl2 2=a Cl2 + 2e: 2=aCl !s" 2=a+ + 2Cl- !=o spectator ion in this case" 2=a+ + 2e: !,xidation" 2Cl- !5ed.ction"

Al!ali metal?water reactions# e%g% reacting potassi.m and water: 2< !s" + 2H2, !l" 2< + 2H2, 2< 2H2, + 2e: 2<,H !a7" + H2 !g" 2<+ + 2,H- + H2 2<+ + 2e: !,xidation" 2,H- + H2 !5ed.ction"

Ehis is slightly di&&erent as there are ER, elements in the red.ction hal&% Metal combustion reactions# e%g% b.rning magnesi.m in oxygen: 2?g !s" + ,2 !g" 2?g + ,2 2?g ,2 + 2e: 2?g, !s" 2?g2+ + 2,22?g2+ + 2e: !,xidation" 2,2- !5ed.ction"

Identify the relationshi bet$een dis lacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals:
Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

3n the aboFe metal displacement reaction- between 8inc and copper s.l&ate- the reaction proceeded ,=;Y beca.se Dinc was more reactiFe than co Hence- only a more reactiFe metal will displace a less reactiFe metal% Using this &act- a table o& reactiFity- or Ametal acti*ity seriesB can be &ormed- with the more reactiFe metals on the le&t- and the less reactiFe metals on the right% EH> ?>E2; 2CE3N3EY S>53>S: er% 3& yo. placed copper in a 8inc s.l&ate sol.tion- nothing wo.ld happen%

Ehis AseriesB was ded.ced thro.gh experimentation# it sho.ld be learnt% Eh.s- a metal on the series can displace o.t o& sol.tion 2=Y metal on its rightb.t cannot displace any metal on its left# hydrogen is incl.ded as a standard% Rhat the Ametal actiFity seriesB implies: Ehe metals on the le&t are Fery reactiFe and hence ;,S> electrons easily- and are th.s li@ely to be o$idised# most o& the time they are reductants* Ehe metals on the right are Fery .nreactiFe# but when they are ions- they I23= electrons Fery easily- and th.s are easily reduced# most li@ely o!idants*

Account for the changes in the o!idation state of s ecies in terms of their loss or gain of electrons:
A9$idation stateB- or n.mber- is another name &or the N2;>=CY o& an element% 3t is de&ined as the charge an element !in a compo.nd" wo.ld haFe i& all bonded atoms and electron pairs were remoFed &rom it% 5U;>S 4,5 C2;CU;2E3=I , 3D2E3,= SE2E>S: 2ll atoms in their elemental &orm are giFen an oxidation n.mber o& 8ero !e%g% 9n- H2- J)- S+ are all giFen an oxidation n.mber o& 0"% 'eutral molec.les are giFen an oxidation n.mber o& 8ero !e%g% H2,- =aCl"% Monatomic ions are giFen an oxidation n.mber e7.al to their chargeincl.ding the sign !e%g% C.+ M (- S2- M -2"%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Polyatomic ions are also giFen an oxidation n.mber e7.al to their chargeincl.ding the sign !e%g% ,H- M -(- J,) M -*- =H)+ M (- S,)2- M -2"- and the SU? o& the oxidation states o& the atoms e7.als this n.mber% 9$y"en has an oxidation n.mber o& -2 in all compo.nds- except in peroxideswhere it is e7.al to -( !peroxide is the anion ,22-). #ydro"en has an oxidation n.mber o& +(- except in metal hydrides- where it has an oxidation n.mber o& -( !e%g% in sodi.m hydride- =aH"%

Using these r.les- the oxidation states o& elements in compo.nds can be &o.nd% ,-: 4ind the oxidation n.mber o& manganese in the permanganate ion !?n,)-": 3t is a polyatomic ion with a net charge o& -(% Hence# ?n + ) x , M -( ?n + )!-2" M -( ?n M + ( M 1 Ehere&ore- manganese has an oxidation state o& +1 in <?n,)%

Ehe J,3=E o& all this is that sometimes it is di&&ic.lt to identi&y whether a reaction is oxidation or red.ction# oxidation states proFide a new method: 9$idation is 3=C5>2S> in oxidation n.mber% 5eduction is D>C5>2S> in oxidation n.mber% 9n C.2+ + 2e: 9n2+ + 2e: !,xidation" C. !5ed.ction" er changes &rom

5elating this bac@ to the metal displacement reactions:

3t can be seen that the oxidation state o& Dinc changes &rom !0 +2"# this increase signi&ies an oxidation- while the oxidation state o& co !+2 0"# this decrease shows it is a red.ction%

Eh.s- relating this bac@ to trans&er o& electrons: 2n increase in oxidation n.mber means that electrons haFe been lost- and the oxidation n.mber is increasing !moFing towards the KpositiFeL n.mbers" d.e to the loss o& negatiFe electrons%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

2 decrease in oxidation n.mber means that electrons haFe been gained- and the oxidation n.mber is decreasing !moFing towards the KnegatiFeL n.mbers" d.e to a gain o& negatiFe electrons%

&escribe and e! lain galvanic cells in terms of o!idation/reduction reactions:

2 "al*anic cell is a deFice or an apparat.s that allows >;>CE53C3EY to be prod.ced &rom a chemical reaction !speci&ically- redox reactions"% Electricity is simply a &low o& electrons% 5edox reactions are electron-transfer reactions# i& this electron &low can be exploited- electricity co.ld be prod.ced% 3n a galFanic cell- to .tilise the electron &low- the redox reaction is split into its two hal&-reactions: Ehere are two half(cells# , 3D2E3,= ta@es place in one cell and 5>DUCE3,= in the other% 2 cond.cting wire and salt bridge connects the two hal&-cells and completes the circ.it# as electrons haFe to &low &rom the oxidation cell to the red.ction cell- a &low o& electrons is prod.ced in the wire- and hence electricity is prod.ced% IalFanic cells are explained in more detail belowX

%utline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flo$:
2s galvanic cells .se a redox reaction to ma@e electricity- the metal displacement reaction o& 8inc and copper s.l&ate can be .sed as an example !againX" Ehe two hal&-e7.ations o& the reaction are: 9n C.2+ + 2e: 9n2+ + 2e: !,xidation" C. !5ed.ction"

Ehis is the set-.p o& a galvanic cell .sing these 2 reactions:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Ehis type o& galFanic cell is also called a Daniell Cell% I2;N2=3C C>;; S>E-UJ: Ehere are two cells- each containing a sol.tion o& the metal-s.l&ate# one cell contains "inc sulfate- the other cell co solid co er sulfate% 3n the 8inc s.l&ate- there is a solid Dinc electrode- connected by a wire to a er electrode- which is in the copper s.l&ate sol.tion% 2 salt bridge- soa@ed in otassium nitrate sol.tion- connects the two cells% 3n the 8inc-s.l&ate cell- o$idation is occ.rring- as S,;3D 8inc is oxidised to 8inc 3,=S- which then &low into the 8inc s.l&ate sol.tion% Ehe electrons that are released &low into the wire: 9n 9n2+ + 2e: !,xidation"

Ehe CH>?3C2; 5>2CE3,=S:

3n the copper-s.l&ate cell- reduction is occ.rring- as copper 3,=S are red.ced to S,;3D copper- when then b.ild .p on the copper electrode% >lectrons are receiFed thro.gh the wire- which then red.ce the ions: C.2+ + 2e: C. !5ed.ction"

=,E>: Ehe oxidation and red.ction cells can be on the le&t ,5 the right- it does not matter- altho.gh oxidation is conFentionally on the right% 2s the "inc is slowly oxidised- and more 8inc ions b.ild-.p- the 8inc s.l&ate sol.tion b.ilds .p in J,S3E3N> charge !more 9n2+ than S,)2-"%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6 Similarly- as the co

2 Unit Chemistry er ions are red.ced- the copper s.l&ate sol.tion b.ilds in

=>I2E3N> charge !more S,)2- than C.2+"% HoweFer- this will a&&ect the &low o& electrons# electrically ne.tral sol.tions are needed &or optimal electricity prod.ction% Hence the role o& the salt bridge: Ehe salt brid"e completes the circ.it- b.t also has another &.nction% Ehe salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality# this means that it @eeps the charges in both the hal&-cells at 8ero- by allowing the &low o& ions% Ehe salt bridge is soa@ed in otassium nitrate sol.tion: Eh.s- as the positiFe charge b.ilds .p in the le&t cell- =>I2E3N> nitrate ions migrate towards the cell to ne.tralise the charge# as the negatiFe charge b.ilds .p in the right cellthe J,S3E3N> potassi.m ions moFe towards the cell to ne.tralise it as well%

&efine the terms anode# cathode# electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells:
2n >;>CE5,D> is anything thro.gh which electrical c.rrent passes# in the context o& galFanic cells- they are the metal cond.ctors placed in the electrolytes% 2n >;>CE5,;YE> is any sol.tion that can cond.ct electricity# all salt sol.tions are electrolytes !b.t not all salts are sol.ble"% Ehe terms anode and cathode re&er to the electrodes that are placed in the sol.tion# to identi&y which is the anode and which is the cathode: A' 9C 2node is , 3D3S>D !it is the KnegatiFeL side"% 5,D CA. Cathode is 5>DUC>D !it is the KpositiFeL side"%

Hence- the 8inc was the anode- and the copper was the cathode% 3n galFanic cells- electrons &low &rom anode to cathode%

Solve

roblems and analyse information to calculate the

otential E

re/uirement of named electrochemical rocesses using tables of standard otentials and half-e/uations:
Ehe total *olta"e !or >?4# electromotiFe &orce" a galFanic cell can prod.ce is determined by the s.bstances ta@ing part in the redox reaction% Ehe aboFe cell can also be represented as: Y 9n Z 9n2+ ZZ C.2+ Z C. [: Rhere 9n Z 9n2+ represents a metalOmetal ion co.ple% Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Ehe do.ble line ZZ represents the salt bridge%

>lectrodeOelectrolyte co.ples haFe a 43 >D Foltage- no matter how many moles o& each s.bstance is present% Ehis K&ixed FoltageL is termed the standard reduction otential !or >H"- and is giFen in a table in the exam% 4or example- in s.ch a table it has: 9n2+ + 2e: C.2+ + 2e: 9n !(E.F>0" C. !E.;B0" 9n2+ + 2e:- the reverse o& the

HoweFer- in the cell- the 8inc reaction is: 9n

aboFe reaction# so the S3I= o& >H is %2&PP,D% Hence- &or o.r reaction- the >H &or 9n Z 9n2+ is +0%16N !not -0%16N"- and the >H &or C.2+ Z C. is 0%*)N% EHUS the total >H Fal.e &or this cell is the s.m- which is 0%*) + 0%16 M (%( Folts%

PRACTICAL ' .erform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under $hich a galvanic cell is roduced :
2 galFanic cell was prod.ced in the lab in the same set-.p as aboFe# that is- in the &orm o& a D2=3>;; C>;;% 2 2 cm strip o& Dinc and co er were c.t &rom metal strips% Using wire leads and crocodile clips- the 8inc strip was connected to the =>I2E3N> terminal o& a Foltmeter- and the copper strip connected to the J,S3E3N> terminal% Ehe 8inc was then placed in '0 m; o& (? sol.tion o& Dinc sulfate- and the copper in '0 m; o& (? sol.tion o& co er sulfate. 2 strip o& &ilter paper was soa@ed in otassium nitrate# the two cells were then connected .sing this Asalt bridgeB% 5,162.1: Ehe Foltmeter showed a reading o& 0%) Folts% Rhen more electrolyte was added- the Foltage stayed at 0%) Folts# th.s the Foltage is determined ,=;Y by the metals .sed- and has nothing to do with the amo.nt o& copper or 8inc% 761.&%8 the method: Copper and 8inc were .sed as they are readily aFailable- non-toxic metals% (? sol.tion was .sed as the ratio o& moles o& the salts was (:( 2 potassi.m nitrate salt bridge was .sed as potassi.m and nitrate ions do not react with 8inc- copper o& s.l&ate ions%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

PRACTICAL ' .erform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the difference in otential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution:
Ehe same experiment aboFe was per&ormed again- except a range o& di&&erence electrode electrolyte co.ples were .sed% 5,162.1: Y 9n Z 9n2+ ZZ C.2+ Z C. [: E,E2; Foltage M 0%) N Y ?g Z ?g2+ ZZ C.2+ Z C. [: E,E2; Foltage M 0%S' N Y 2l Z 2l*+ ZZ C.2+ Z C. [: E,E2; Foltage M 0%2 N Y 4e Z 4e2+ ZZ C.2+ Z C. [: E,E2; Foltage M 0%' N

REPORT ' 4ather and resent information on the structure and chemistry of a "inc-carbon dry cell and evaluate it in com arison to a silver-o!ide button cell in terms of: 1. Chemistry 2. Cost and racticality 3. Im act on society and 4. Environmental im act:
.he D58 C,22 !or ;eclanch\ Cell": SE5UCEU5>: Ehe dry cell is made o& a carbon rod s.rro.nded by a mixt.re o& man"anese3&04 o$ide and carbon !in the &orm o& gra hite"# this is the cathode% Ehis is then s.rro.nded by a paste o& ammonium chloride which acts as the electrolyte% 2ll o& this is contained in a Dinc shell- which is the anode% CH>?3SE5Y: Ehe complete chemical e/uation is shown as: 9n !s" + 2?n,2 !s" + 2=H)Cl !a7" Ehe ionic e/uation is: Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil 9nCl2 !a7" + ?n2,* !s" + 2=H* !a7" + H2, !l"

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

9n + 2?n)+ + 2,2- + 2=H)+ + 2ClH2,

9n2+ + 2Cl- + 2?n*+ + *,2- + 2=H* +

6.t there is also another reaction: 2=H)+

2=H* + 2H+

Ehis occ.rs on the le&t hand side# hence 2=H* and 2Cl- are spectator ions: Eh.s the net ionic e/uation is: 9n + 2?n)+ + 2,2- + 2H+ Splitting this into redox half(cells: , 3D2E3,=: 9n 9n2+ + 2e: 2?n*+ + *,2- + H2, 9n2+ + 2?n*+ + *,2- + H2,

5>DUCE3,=: 2?n)+ + 2,2- + 2H+ + 2e:

/n is oxidised: !0 +2" and Mn is red.ced: !+) +*"% Ehe S3?J;343>D galFanic cell representation is: Y 9n Z 9n2+ ZZ ?n)+ Z ?n*+ [ C,SE and J52CE3C2;3EY: Ehe dry cell is relatiFely cheap% 3t is Fery practical to man.&act.re as there is little wastage o& materials# all the materials !incl.ding the casing" ta@e part in the reaction% 3t is light and portable- and can be .sed in small appliances% 3t has a short shel&-li&e howeFer- as the acidic =H)+ slowly corrodes the 8inc% 3?J2CE on S,C3>EY: 3t was the &irst commercially prod.ced battery- and so it had a HUI> impact on society# it made portable deFices s.ch as torches- radios and cloc@s possible% 3t is Fery widely .sed- as it is a cheap- portable so.rce o& steady electricity% >=N35,=?>=E2; 3?J2CE: Nery minimal enFironmental impact% Ehe manganese!333" prod.ct is readily oxidised bac@ to manganese!3N"which is stable and insol.ble# it is harmless%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

2mmoni.m salts and carbon are also harmless# small 7.antities o& 8inc pose no enFironmental ris@% .he 1il*er(9$ide :6..9' C,22: SE5UCEU5>: Ehe silFer-oxide b.tton-cell is made o& layers o& chemicals within a steel case% Ehere is powdered sil*er3&4 o$ide at the bottom# this is the cathode% 2t the top is powdered Dinc# this is the anode% Ehey are separated by a paste o& al@aline otassium hydro$ide which acts as the electrolyte and a catalyst% Ehe steel case does not ta@e part in the reaction%

CH>?3SE5Y: Ehe oFerall chemical e/uation is: 9n !s" + 2g2, !s" 9n, !s" + 22g !s"

HoweFer- this ignores the role o& the potassi.m hydroxide# a more complete chemical e7.ation !with a7.eo.s <,H as catalyst" is: 9n !s" + 2g2, !s" + 2<,H !a7" + H2, !l" Ehe ionic e/uation is: 9n + 22g+ + ,2- + 2<+ + 2,H- + H2, H2, =,E>: Ehe water and ,H- need to be shown &or the hal&-e7.ations% Ehe net ionic e/uation !witho.t <+ ions" is: 9n + 22g+ + ,2- + 2,H- + H2, Splitting this into redox half(cells: 9n2+ + ,2- + 22g + 2,H- + H2, 9n2+ + ,2- + 22g + 2<+ + 2,H- + 9n, !s" + 22g !s" + 2<,H !a7" + H2, !l"

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6 , 3D2E3,=: 9n + 2,H 95: 9n + 2,H-

2 Unit Chemistry

9n2+ + ,2- + H2, + 2e: 9n, + H2, + 2e: 22g + 2,H-

5>DUCE3,=: 22g+ + ,2- + H2, + 2e: 95: 2g2, + H2, + 2e:

22g + 2,H-

/n is oxidised: !0 +2" and A" is red.ced: !+( 0"% EHUS- <,H ta@es part in the e7.ation as a catalyst- by splitting into its ions- b.t at the end o& the reaction- the ions re&orm% Ehe S3?J;343>D galFanic cell representation is: Y 9n Z 9n2+ ZZ 2g+ Z 2g [ C,SE and J52CE3C2;3EY: SilFer oxide b.tton cells are Fery e$ ensi*e- d.e to the high cost o& silFer% HoweFer- eFen small cells are able to proFide large amo.nts o& electricity with a Fery constant Foltage &or a long period o& time# so the bene&its balance o.t the costs o& the silFer% 3t is non-rechargeable% Ehe steel case does not ta@e part in the reaction- and there is Fery little chance o& lea@age% 3?J2CE on S,C3>EY: Ehe Fery small si8e o& the cell- and high constant Foltage allows it to haFe many applications- s.ch as in wristwatches !where they last &or many years"- calc.lators and digital cameras% >=N35,=?>=E2; 3?J2CE: >nFironmental impact is minimal% Ehe "inc- "inc o!ide# silver- and silver o!ide are all stable- insol.ble and non-toxic compo.nds% .otassium hydro!ide is strongly al@aline# howeFer- it is in 7.ite a dil.te &orm as an electrolyte- and small amo.nts are not harm&.l% ,0A26A.&'- the dry-cell in relation to the b.tton cell:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

3n terms o& chemistry- the dry-cell and the b.tton cell haFe Fery similar reactions# howeFer- the b.tton cell is able to prod.ce larger and more constant Foltage s.pply in relation to si8e# this is beca.se sil*er has a higher red.ction potential than man"anese3&04% 2lso the al@aline enFironment o& the b.tton cell enco.rages the reaction to occ.r at a constant rate- &or long periods% 3n terms o& cost and practicality- the dry cell is more practical in most sit.ations as it is cheaper% HoweFer- some sit.ations re7.ire smaller cells that are able to last m.ch longer than the short li&e o& the dry cell- s.ch as in watches% 2lso- the b.tton cell is m.ch less li@ely to lea@- and th.s is a more reliable battery% 3n terms o& impact on society- the dry cell has had a &ar greater impact than the b.tton cell% Ehis is d.e to the historical signi&icance o& the ;eclanch\ cell- the &irst battery eFer prod.ced% Ehe dry cell made portable electrical deFices possible# howeFer- the b.tton cell has allowed the si8e o& electrical deFices to red.ce greatly- as some deFices these days are eFen smaller than dry cells% 6oth cells haFe Fery minimal enFironmental impact- and hence are adFisable to be .sed oFer other more poll.ting cells- s.ch as merc.ry cells%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

G. 'uclear chemistry ro*ides a ran"e of materials: RECALL:

&soto es are atoms o& the same element with di&&erent n.mbers o& =>UE5,=S# b.t they haFe the same n.mber o& J5,E,=S% 3n nuclear chemistry !chemistry dealing with n.clear reactions"- isotopes are shown in the &ollowing &orm:

>%I% chlorine-*' is written as *'Cl and r.bidi.m-+' as +'5b Ehere are three types o& radiation: H !alpha"- I !beta" and J !gamma" radiation: Al ha Decay: 2lpha radiation is made o& Aheli.m n.cleiB !2 protons and 2 ne.trons" that are eGected &rom .nstable large n.clei !too heaFy"% 4or examplethe decay o& .rani.m-2*+:

:eta Decay: 6eta radiation is made .p o& electrons eGected &rom an .nstable n.cle.s !too many ne.trons"# 6UE n.clei do not contain electrons% Hence- the .nderlying reaction is the decomposition o& a neutron:

Rhen a ne.tron decomposes- it &orms an electron- which is immediately eGected as beta radiation- and a roton !Ahydrogen n.cle.sB"- which is capt.red by the n.cle.s% Eh.s- beta decay res.lts in an increase in atomic n.mber !3?J,5E2=E"% 4or example- the beta decay o& cobalt-60 res.lts in an increase o& atomic n.mber- creating nic@lel-60:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Ehere is no s.ch thing as K "amma decayL# gamma radiation- high energy electromagnetic waFes- are emitted in addition to some beta or alpha decays%

&istinguish bet$een stable and radioactive isoto es and describe the conditions under $hich a nucleus is unstable:
5adioacti*ity is the spontaneo.s emission o& 52D32E3,= &rom certain atoms 4or some elements !e%g% carbon"- some o& their isotopes are stable !s.ch as carbon-(2"- and others are radioactiFe !s.ch as carbon-()"% Ehere are 2 conditions .sed to predict whether an atom will be radioactiFe: 2tomic =.mber: 2ll atoms !incl.ding all their isotopes" with more than +* protons !/ K =;" are radioactiFe% Ehat is- all atoms with atomic n.mber greater than bismuth are radioactiFe and .ndergo decay% Jroton-=e.tron 5atio: Ehe ratio o& protons to ne.trons determines whether an atom will be stable or not% 2nything outside the ratios below is radioactiFe: / L 2E- the stable ratio o& protons to ne.trons is ):) 2ro.nd / M ;E- the stable ratio is abo.t ):).; 2ro.nd / M =E- the stable ratio is ):).G

&escribe ho$ transuranic elements are roduced:

.ransuranic elements are elements with atomic n.mbers greater than .rani.m# that is 9 $ S2 !more than S2 protons"% 2ll trans.ranic elements are arti&icially prod.ced% Erans.ranic elements are prod.ced in two ways: 'eutron :ombardment !in n.clear reactors": 3n n.clear reactions- the &ission chain-reaction !o& .rani.m-2*' or other elements" prod.ces large amo.nts o& ne.trons% Rhen atoms are placed inside the reactor- they are bombarded by these ne.trons% ,ccasionally the atom 26S,56S one o& these ne.trons# howeFer- it is .nstable- and .ndergoes beta decay !see aboFe"% Hence the proton n.mber increases- and a trans.ranic element can be created% ,-: Urani.m-2*+ is not &issile !it can not .ndergo the n.clear chainreaction"# when it is placed in the reactor- the &ollowing reaction occ.rs:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

Eh.s- nept.ni.m-2*S- the &irst trans.ranic element- is &ormed% Ehis method is .sed to prod.ce the &irst &ew o& the trans.ranic elements% %usion 5eactions !in particle accelerators": Ehe prod.ction o& larger trans.ranic elements is achieFed by colliding heaFy n.clei with high-speed positiFe particles !s.ch as heli.m or carbon n.clei"% Ehe positiFe particles need to be at Fery high speeds to oFercome the positiFe rep.lsiFe &orce o& the heaFy n.clei and &.se with them% Jarticle accelerators are .sed to bring these particles to the high speeds re7.ired% ,-: Urani.m-2*+ is &.sed with a carbon n.cle.s:

2s a res.lt- cali&orni.m-2)6- a large trans.ranic element- is &ormed%

.rocess information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements:

4o.r new elements haFe been discoFered in the 2( st cent.ry% Ehey are listed below% =ote that their strange names are G.st temporary .ntil the 3UJ2C decides on permanent names: 6nunhe$ium: 2lso @nown as Ke@a-poloni.mL- element ((6 was synthesised in December- 2000- by the Uoint 3nstit.te &or =.clear 5esearch !D.bna5.ssia"% 3t was prod.ced thro.gh the &.sion o& c.ri.m-2)+ and calci.m-)+% Ehe atom decayed )+ milliseconds later% 6nun entium: 2lso @nown as Ke@a-bism.thL- element ((' was synthesised in 4ebr.ary- 200)- by the scientists &rom the Uoint 3nstit.te &or =.clear 5esearch !D.bna- 5.ssia" and the ;awrence ;iFermore =ational ;aboratory !2merica"% 3t was prod.ced thro.gh the &.sion o& americi.m-2)* and calci.m)+% Ehe atom then .nderwent 2;JH2 decay- &orming element ((*- a new element%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

6nuntrium: 2lso @nown as Ke@a-thalli.mL- element ((* was also synthesised in 4ebr.ary- 200)- thro.gh the alpha decay o& unun entium% 6nunoctium: 2lso @nown as Ke@a-radonL- element ((+ is the most recently prod.ced- and the heaFiest element @nown to man% 3t was prod.ced by the &.sion o& cali&orni.m-2)S atoms and calci.m-)+%

&escribe ho$ commercial radioisoto es are roduced:

Commercial radioisotopes are isotopes that are prod.ced on a reg.lar basis &or medical- ind.strial or other .se% ?any are prod.ced by ne.tron bombardment within n.clear reactors- as explained aboFe# at the 2ucas #ei"hts n.clear reactor in Sydney- the 2.stralian =.clear Science and Eechnology ,rganisation !A'1.9" prod.ces a range o& ne.tron-rich isotopes &or commercial .se: +echnitium-55m !an important medical radioisotope" is prod.ced by ne.tron bombardment o& molybden.m-S+% Cobalt-67 !.sed in ind.stry and medicine" is prod.ced by ne.tron bombardment o& the stable cobalt-'S% Americium-890 !a domestically .sed isotope# in smo@e alarms" is prod.ced by ne.tron bombardment o& pl.toni.m-2)(% ,ther isotopes are prod.ced in particle accelerators- s.ch as the 'ational Medical Cyclotron- near the 5oyal Jrince 2l&red hospital% Jarticle accelerators accelerate n.clei to incredible speeds- and which are then collided with heaFy n.clei% Ehis prod.ces ne.tron-de&icient radioisotopes% :inear Accelerators accelerate particles in a straight line- while cyclotrons accelerate particles in a spiral% 5adioisotopes prod.ced incl.de: Iodine-0;0 !.sed to diagnose thyroid disorders"% Carbon-00# nitrogen-0;# o!ygen-0< !all .sed in J>E scans"%

Identify instruments and rocesses that can be used to detect radiation:

-ei"er(MNller Counter: Ehis deFice consists o& a metal t.be &illed with argon gas- connected to a DC power s.pply% Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

2s radiation enters- it ionises the gas- splitting the atoms into electrons and positiFe n.clei that complete the circ.it within the metal t.be# the stronger the radiation- the more ionisation that occ.rs% Ehe ampli&ier releases a series o& clic@s or displays an electronic reading to signi&y that radiation is present% Ehe co.nter th.s display a n.mber in terms o& intensity o& radiation%

Photo"ra hic %ilm: Jhotographic &ilm is a sheet o& plastic coated with silFer halide salts% Ehese salts are sensitiFe to electromagnetic radiation !e%g% light or and dar@en when they are exposed to radiation% Jeople who wor@ with radioactiFe materials o&ten wear badges containing photographic &ilm# the amo.nt o& dar@ening shows how m.ch they haFe been exposed to radiation% -rays"-

1cintillation Counter: Some s.bstances giFe o&& light when they are str.c@ by high-energy radiation% 2 photo-receptor cell senses these &lashes o& light that occ.r- and &rom this meas.res the n.mber o& decay eFents that are occ.rring%

Identify one use of a named radioisoto e in industry and in medicine:

&ndustry: Cobalt-60 is .sed to irradiate &ood to prolong its shel&-li&e% Medicine: Eechneti.m-SSm can be .sed to identi&y the location o& t.mo.rs%

&escribe the $ay in $hich the above named industrial and medical radioisoto es are used and e! lain their use in terms of their chemical ro erties:

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6 Cobalt(>E: US>: Ehe irradiation o& &ood materials%

2 Unit Chemistry

CH>?3C2; J5,J>5EY: 3t is chemically inert- and hence it can be sa&ely ho.sed within machinery witho.t &ear o& any .nwanted reactions- s.ch as oxidation or red.ction% 3t is also a strong gamma emitter%

H,R 3E R,5<S: 4ood on a conFeyer belt is passed thro.gh a chamber containing cobalt-60 ho.sed within machinery% Iamma rays are extremely e&&ectiFe in damaging large biological molec.les !e%g% D=2" beca.se they are high-energy waFes that can destroy chemical bonds% Ehis @ills harm&.l microbes in &ood- ma@ing them sa&er to eat- and last longer% 2dFantages: Iamma rays haFe s.&&icient energy to destroy bacteria b.t not eno.gh to ma@e &ood radioactiFe# also cobalt-60 has a hal&-li&e o& '%* years so it can last Fery long% DisadFantages: Iamma radiation can also destroy .se&.l n.trients in &ood# wor@ers m.st be protected &rom irradiation%

.echnetium(99m: US>: 2 cancer diagnostic tool !identi&ies location o& t.mo.rs"% CH>?3C2; J5,J>5EY: Eechneti.m-SSm can be changed to a n.mber o& oxidation states% Ehis allows &or the prod.ction o& a wide range o& biologically actiFe chemicals# it can be chemically bonded to an organic s.bstance s.ch as gl.cose and inGected into the body% 3t emits low energy gamma rays%

H,R 3E R,5<S: Eechneti.m-SSm is bonded to an organic compo.nd and inserted into the body% Ec-SSm is metastable !as denoted by the m"# this means that its n.cle.s is in an e!cited state% 3t releases gamma radiation to release this energy% Hence it is a so.rce o& p.re gamma radiation- which is then .sed by imaging machinery to diagnose diseases%

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil

HSC - Stage 6

2 Unit Chemistry

2dFantages: 3t has a Fery short hal&-li&e o& 6 ho.rs- and hence ca.ses minimal damage to the patients tiss.es% 3t emits low energy gamma radiation that can be pic@ed .p by machinery- b.t does not damage cells to a great extent% 3t is 7.ic@ly eliminated by the body% Ec-SSm is relatiFely reactiFe- and can be Goined to many compo.nds% DisadFantages: 2s it has s.ch a short hal&-li&e it m.st be contin.o.sly made% Healthy cells may also @illed%

)se available evidence to analyse benefits and roblems associated $ith the use of radioactive isoto es in identified industries and medicine:
6>=>43ES o& radioisotopes: &ndustrial bene&its incl.de the ability to ma@e monitoring e7.ipment that is more sensitiFe- precise and reliable than preFio.sly possible% 3t allows &or more e&&icient processes !s.ch as sterilisation and &ood irradiation" and preFio.sly impossible things !examining &a.lts in constr.ction and machinery"% Medical bene&its incl.de a new wide range o& non-inFasiFe diagnostic techni7.es that wo.ld not be possible on sensitiFe organs !brain- etc"% 5adiation therapy is also a greatly positiFe new treatment% J5,6;>?S with radioisotopes: 'uclear reactors- which are the so.rce o& ne.trons- prod.ce considerable amo.nts o& n.clear waste- which we haFe no way o& disposing sa&ely- and which last &or tho.sands o& years% Ehe storage o& radioacti*e material presents a problem- as they m.st be @ept in shielded containers to preFent radiation lea@ages% Doses o& radiothera y m.st be extremely care&.lly controlled- to balance between the bene&its o& @illing cancer cells- and the ris@ o& harm% =.clear technicians and other wor@ers m.st be contin.ally can res.lt &rom this% rotected and aFoid any &orm o& irradiation- as disease s.ch as cancer or radiation poisoning

Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil