BASIC CELLULAR RADIO ENGINEERING

Abstract This paper is intended to provide a better understanding in basic propagation theory, cell planning, basic teletraffic theory, basic antenna theory and common RF ancilliaries.

REVISION LIST
Date 13rd April 2001 Revision 1.0 Description Initial draft Responsibility Edwin Yapp Approvals Comments

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
REVISION LIST.................................................................................................................................................................................................2 1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5 1.4.6 1.4.7 1.5 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5 1.5.6 1.5.7 2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5. 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 5.1.6 5.1.7 BASIC PROPAGATION THEORY................................................................................................................................................5 PROPAGATION BASICS.......................................................................................................................................................................5 RULE OF THUMB.................................................................................................................................................................................6 ATTENUATION SLOPE .......................................................................................................................................................................6 PROPAGATION PROBLEMS................................................................................................................................................................7 Rayleigh Fading......................................................................................................................................................................7 Time Dispersion .......................................................................................................................................................................8 Shadowing................................................................................................................................................................................9 Diffraction.................................................................................................................................................................................9 Reflection ............................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Natural Path Loss ................................................................................................................................................................ 10 Interference............................................................................................................................................................................ 10 PROPAGATION PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS...................................................................................................................................11 Equalization.......................................................................................................................................................................... 11 Diversity ................................................................................................................................................................................. 12 Frequency Hopping............................................................................................................................................................. 13 Interleaving ........................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Channel Coding................................................................................................................................................................... 14 Discontinuous Transmission/Reception .......................................................................................................................... 15 Dynamic Power Control ..................................................................................................................................................... 15 CELL PLANNING........................................................................................................................................................................... 17 NOMINAL CELL PLANNING ............................................................................................................................................................17 CELL PLANNING TOOL .................................................................................................................................................................... 17 PROPOGATION MODELS ..................................................................................................................................................................18 T HE GRID............................................................................................................................................................................................18 CELL PLANNING PROCESS ............................................................................................................................................................... 19 CELL PLANNING CONSID ERATIONS............................................................................................................................................... 20 BASIC TELETRAFFIC THEORY ................................................................................................................................................ 22
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................22 ERLANG TABLES ............................................................................................................................................................................... 23 T RAFFIC CONCEPTS .........................................................................................................................................................................24 DIMENSIONING A CELL...................................................................................................................................................................24

SECTORED VS OMNI SITES.......................................................................................................................................................... 25 BASIC ANTENNA THEORY........................................................................................................................................................ 28 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................28 ISOTROPIC RADIATION.................................................................................................................................................................... 28 COMMON ANTENNA.........................................................................................................................................................................29 ANTENNA SPECIFICATIONS ......................................................................................................................................................29 COMMON RF ANCILLIARIES ................................................................................................................................................... 36
EQUIPMENT .......................................................................................................................................................................................37

Couplers ................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 Splitters/Combine ................................................................................................................................................................ 39 Filters ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Duplexers ............................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Isolators ................................................................................................................................................................................. 41 Cables/Connectors .............................................................................................................................................................. 41 Attenuators ............................................................................................................................................................................ 41

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CHAPTER 1
BASIC PROPAGATION THEORY
Objectives: This chapter will describe the basic studies of wave propagation, some of the problems encountered in propagation as well as the solutions to overcome these problems.

Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to: Understand the basics of wave propagation Explain the problems encountered in propagation Describe the solutions for the propagation problems

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1.

BASIC PROPAGATION THEORY

1.1 PROPAGATION BASICS

The Decibel: A unit measurement in the logarithmic scale as opposed to the linear scale. Use the formula below to convert from linear scale to log scale. 10 log10 (Po /PI ) For example, dBW = 10 log 1 0 (P o/1W) dBm = 10 log1 0 (P o /1mW) For quick references, 10W = 10 log1 0 (10/0.001W) dBm = 40dBm However, when power is a) b) c) d) Doubled, add 3dB (e.g. 40dBm + 3dBm = 43dBm) Tripled, add 5dB Quadrupled, add 6dB Ten-fold, add 10dB or

Basic free space path loss (FSPL) propagation equation, as illustrated in Figure 1-1, is

Radio tower

FSPL

MS

D
Figure 1-1 FSPL = 10 log1 0 [(4 D/)]2 dB FSPL = 22 + 20 log1 0 N dB Where, N = D/ = number of or wavelengths from the antenna

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1.2

RULE OF THUMB
c = f
32.4 + 20log2D + 20logF dB = 32.4 + 6 + 20logD + 20logF dB 32.4 + 20log4D + 20logF dB = 32.4 + 6 + 6 +20logD +20logF dB

Furthering the equation above and knowing that

Hence, at every doubling (octave) of the distance, D, add 6dB/octave.

32.4 + 20log10D + 20logF dB = 32.4 + 20 + 20logD + 20logF dB 32.4 + 20log100D + 20logF dB = 32.4 + 20 + 20 + 20logD +20logF dB

Hence, at every ten-fold (decade) of the distance, D, add 20dB/decade.

1.3

ATTENUATION SLOPE

The FSPL can be re-written as, FSPL = Lo + 10 log D Where is the slope of the attenuation with respect to distance, D.

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1.4
1.4.1

PROPAGATION PROBLEMS
Rayleigh Fading

This occurs when a signal takes more than one path between the MS and BTS antennas. In this case, the signal is not received on a line of sight path directly from the Tx antenna. Rather, it is reflected off buildings, for example, and is received from several different indirect paths. Rayleigh fading occurs when the obstacles are close to the receiving antenna. The received signal is the sum of many identical signals, which differ only in phase (and to some extent amplitude). A fading dip and the time that elapses between two fading dips depend on both the speed of the MS and the transmitting frequency. As an approximation, the distance between two dips caused by Rayleigh fading is about half a wavelength. Thus, for GSM 900 the distance between dips is about 17 cm. Figure 1-2 below shows an example of Rayleigh fading.

Figure 1-2

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1.4.2

Time Dispersion

Time dispersion is another problem relating to multiple paths to the Rx antenna of either an MS or BTS. However, in contrast to Rayleigh fading, the reflected signal comes from an object far away from the Rx antenna. Time dispersion causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) where consecutive symbols (bits) interfere with each other making it difficult for the receiver to determine which symbol is the correct one. An example of this is shown in the figure below where the sequence 1, 0 is sent from the BTS. If the reflected signal arrives one bit time after the direct signal, then the receiver detects a 1 from the reflected wave at the same time it detects a 0 from the direct wave. The symbol 1 interferes with the symbol 0 and the MS does not know which one is correc t. This can be shown in Figure 1-3.

Figure 1-3

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1.4.3

Shadowing

Shadowing occurs when there are physical obstacles including hills and buildings between the BTS and the MS. The obstacles create a shadowing effect that can decrease the received signal strength. When the MS moves, the signal strength fluctuates depending on the obstacles between the MS and BTS. A signal influenced by fading varies in signal strength. Drops in strength are called fading dips.

Figure 1-4

1.4.4

Diffraction

Diffraction occurs at objects, which are in order of the wavelength . Radio waves are bent around objects and the bending angle increases if the objects thickness is smaller compared to . The influence of the object also causes a form of attenuation also known as diffraction loss.

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1.4.5

Reflection Pr = Rh/v PO Rh/v = f( , , , h) Where Rh = Horizontal reflection factor Rv = Vertical reflection factor = Angle of incidence = Permitivity = Conductivity h = Surface roughness

Pr Po
Figure 1-5 An example of reflection if shown in Figure 1-5. 1.4.6 Natural Path Loss

This can be due to rain attenuation, clutter or foliage.

1.4.7

Interference

Frequency can be re-used to achieve capacity in the cellular system. However, this can cause interference. There are 2 types of interference namely:a) Co-channel interference b) Adjacent channel interference

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1.5
1.5.1

PROPAGATION PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

Equalization

Adaptive equalization is a solution specifically designed to counter act the problem of time dispersion. It works as follows: 1. A set of predefined known bit patterns exists, known as training sequences. These are known to the BTS and the MS (programmed at manufacture). The BTS instructs the MS to include one of these in its transmissions to the BTS. 2. The MS includes the training sequence (shown in the figure as S) in its transmissions to the BTS. However, due to the problems over the radio path, some bits may be distorted. 3. The BTS receives the transmission from the MS and examines the training sequence within it. The BTS compares the received training sequence with the training sequence that it had instructed the MS to use. If there are differences between the two, it can be assumed that the problems in the radio path affected these bits must have had a similar effect on the non-training sequence bits. 4. The BTS begins a process in which it uses its knowledge of what happened to the training sequence to correct the other bits of the transmission. Because some assumptions are made about the radio path, adaptive equalization may not result in a 100% perfect solution everytime. However, a good enough result will be achieved. A viterbi equalizer is an example of an adaptive equalizer. This can be shown in Figure 1-6.

Figure 1-6

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1.5.2

Diversity

Antenna diversity increases the received signal strength by taking advantage of the natural properties of radio waves. There are two primary diversity methods, namely space diversity and polarization diversity. a) Space Diversity An increase in received signal strength at the BTS may be achieved by mounting two receiver antennas instead of one. If the two Rx antennas are physically separated, the probability that both the antenna signals are simultaneously affected by a deep fading dip is low. At 900 MHz, it is possible to gain about 3 dB with a distance of five to six meters between the antennas. At 1800 MHz the distance can be shortened because of its decreased wavelength. By choosing the best of each signal, the impact of fading can be reduced. Space diversity offers slightly better antenna gain than polarization diversity, but requires more space. Space diversity can be shown in Figure 1-7.

Figure 1-7

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b) Polarization Diversity With polarisation diversity the two space diversity antennas are replaced by one dual polarized antenna. This antenna has normal size but contains two differently polarized antenna arrays. The most common types are vertical/horizontal arrays and arrays in 45 degree slant orientation. The two arrays are connected to the respective Rx branches in the BTS. The two arrays can also be used as combined Tx/Rx antennas. For most applications, the difference between the diversity gain for space diversity and polarization diversity is negligible, but polarization diversity reduces the space required for antenna. 1.5.3 Frequency Hopping

As mentioned previously, Rayleigh fading is frequency dependent. This means that the fading dips occur at different places for different frequencies. To benefit from this fact, it is possible for the BTS and MS to hop from frequency to frequency during a call. The frequency hopping of the BTS and MS is synchronized. Figure 18 shows frequency hopping. In GSM there are 64 patterns of frequency hopping, one of which is a simple cyclic or sequential pattern. The remaining 63 are known as pseudo-random patterns that an operator can choose from.

Figure 1-8 During TDMA frame N, C1 is used and during TDMA frame N+1, C2 is used. The call uses the same time slot but changes frequencies according to an identified pattern.

1.5.4

Interleaving

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In reality, bit errors often occur in sequence, as caused by long fading dips affecting several consecutive bits. Channel coding is most effective in detecting and correcting single errors and short error sequences. It is not suitable for handling longer sequences of bit errors. For this reason, a process called interleaving is used to separate consecutive bits of a message so that these are transmitted in a non-consecutive way. For example, a message block may consist of four bits (1234). If four message blocks must be transmitted, and one is lost in transmission, without interleaving there is a 25% Bit Error Rate (BER) overall, but a 100% BER for that lost message block. It is not possible to recover from this.

Figure 1-9 If interleaving is used, as shown in Figure 1-9 and Figure 1-10, the bits of each block may be sent in a non-consecutive manner. If one block is lost in transmission, again there is a 25% BER overall. However, this time the 25% is spread over the entire set of mes sage blocks, giving a 25% BER for each. This is more manageable and hence the greater the possibility that the errors can be corrected through the use of a channel decoder.

Figure 1-10

1.5.5

Channel Coding

In digital transmission, the quality of the transmitted signal is often expressed in terms of how many of the received bits are incorrec t. This is called Bit Error Rate

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(BER). BER defines the percentage of the total number of received bits that are incorrectly detected as shown in Figure 1-11. Transmitted bits Received bits 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Errors = 3/10 (BER = 30%) Figure 1-11 This percentage should be as low as possible. It is not possible to reduce the percentage to zero because the transmission path is constantly changing. This means that there must be an allowance for a certain amount of errors and at the same time an ability to restore the information, or at least detect errors so the incorrect information bits are not interpreted as correct. This is especially important during transmission of data, as opposed to speech, for which a higher BER is acceptable. Channel coding is used to detect and correct errors in a received bit stream. It adds bits to a message. These bits enable a channel dec oder to determine whether the message has faulty bits, and to potentially correct the faulty bits. 1.5.6 Discontinuous Transmission/Reception

Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) increases the efficiency of the system through a decrease in the radio transmission interference level. This is achieved when the MS does not transmit during silences. 1.5.7 Dynamic Power Control

This is a feature in the GSM air interface. Both the BTS and MS adjust their power output taking into account the distance between them.

END OF CHAPTER 1

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CHAPTER 2
CELL PLANNING

Objectives:

This chapter describes briefly the cell planning process and some of the factors involved. In this chapter as well, some of the planning tools used will also be introduced.

Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to: Understand the idea and main reasons for cell planning Explain briefly the major steps in cell planning

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2.

CELL PLANNING
Cell planning is defined as the use of a systematic and scientific approach to designing a cellular network. It can also be described as all the activities involved in determining which sites will be used for the radio equipment, which equipment will be used and how the equipment will be configured. Cell planning is needed to avoid interference and ensure good coverage.

2.1

NOMINAL CELL PLANNING

Nominal cell plan is the first cell plan and a starting point for the planner to use for further cell planning or designing. It is based on some measurable as well as educated forecast of data or market research data.

2.2

CELL PLANNING TOOL

Normally, coverage and interference predictions are needed for a cell plan. Hence, at this stage, computer-aided cell planning tools are used for radio propagation analysis. These cell planning tools are needed for: a) Predictions for coverage, interference, traffic and etc. b) Simulations for frequency planning These tools are needed to simplify the planners task through the use of simulations and calculations as well as for the planner to have a starting point to work on. Among the commercial cell planning tools: a) b) c) d) e) f) Asset Planning Tool TEMS Cell Planner Planet from MSI Odyssey from Aethos TOTEM from Nokia Netplan from Motorola

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2.3

PROPOGATION MODELS

Propagation models are essentially a curve fitting exercise. Tests are conducted at various frequencies, locations, periods, distances and antenna heights. The received signal is analysed and fitted into an appropriate curve. Hence, the formulas used to match these curves are generated and used as models. Among the classical models are: a) Longley-Rice Model used for irregular terrain model b) Okumura-Hata Model used for urban/suburban model at 900MHz c) Cost 231-Hata Model used for 1500MHZ to 2000MHz d) Walfisch-Ikegami Cost 231 used for dense urban/microcell areas

2.4

THE GRID

A grid is a mesh of hexagons to represent graphically the equal signal contours of the cell sites within a given system. Relationships can be drawn to describe the theoretical limits of the sites from this graphical representation between the sites and the way signal attenuates as they travel from the sites. Thus, design guidelines can be developed to enable the system towards the theoretical limits in its performance. The main reasons to use grids is to have uniformity in planning such as: a) To visualise the minimum re-use distance b) To visualise the re-use pattern c) To ensure co-channel interferer is streamlined in one direction

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2.5

CELL PLANNING PROCESS

Start

Understand customer requirement

Example: Coverage requirements Initial roll out plans Budget Example: Traffic distribution Growth areas (CBD or not) Coverage (Inbuilding or not) Example: Digitised maps Tool fine tuning through survey of data
NO

Survey

Prepare Cell Planning Tool (CPT)

Draft Plan

Is draft plan ok?

Division of Areas: CBD Suburban Rural In-building

Fine Tune

NO

Finalise plans?

Perform Drive Tests to confirm CPT predictions Review plan with customer

Build

End

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2.6

CELL PLANNING CONSIDERAT IONS

Some considerations are taken in cell planning. In the case of coverage versus capacity, normally new networks need not concern itself with capacity as much as coverage. Hence, high sites are normally built to maximise coverage (e.g. 5070m high sites are very common). However, as the network grows and become a more matured network, new considerations are taken. In this grown network, capacity is considered but the quality of service (QoS) is also important. Hence, there is a tradeoff between these two factors. If more capacity is built, the quality will suffer.

END OF CHAPTER 2

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CHAPTER 3
BASIC TELETRAFFIC THEORY
Objectives: This chapter describes the concept of traffic in a cellular network. The description is from the Erlang tables to dimensioning a cell.

Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to: Explain the terms traffic and GoS Understand the concept of traffic Use the Erlang B table to dimension the number of channels needed in the system

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3.

BASIC TELETRAFFIC THEORY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Traffic refers to usage of channels and is usually thought of as holding time per time unit or the number of call hours per hour for one or several channels. Traffic is measured in the unit Erlang (Er) and Erlang is defined as:The average number of channel simultaneously occupied during a defined period of time and it is dimensionless. For example, as shown in Figure 3-1.

1 2

No of channels

3 4 5

Time Unit
Figure 3-1 Traffic from time period 0 to 10 = (0+1+1+2+3+3+3+2+2+2)/10 =1.9Er The amount of traffic one cell can carry depends on the number of traffic channels available and the acceptable probability that the system is congested (Grade of Service, GoS).

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3.2

ERLANG TABLES

Different Erlang model are used in the calculations of traffic. Among these Erlang models are: a) Erlang B b) Erlang C c) Erlang D However, the most common model used is Erlang B, as shown in Table 3 -1, because it is the simplest yet still accurate model. Erlang B model is used base on several assumptions. These assumptions are: a) The subscriber will wait for a short period of time before retrying. b) All calls are generated randomly. c) Number of subscribers is much higher than number of traffic channels. d) No dedicated (reserved) channels. e) No queues.

Table 3-1: Erlang B Table

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3.3

TRAFFIC CONCEPTS

There are 3 different types of traffic. There are:a) Offered traffic (AO) This is the traffic offered to a group in accordance with a defined theorectical description of the traffic case. It is consequently also a hypotectical quantity and it becomes only meaningful if it is referred to a specific theorectical model. b) Carried traffic (AC) This is the traffic handled by a group. It can be measured and is more practical to quote this traffic. c) Loss traffic (AL ) This is a portion of the traffic lost to an auxilliary route when the primary route is occupied. Generally, AO = AC + AL AO = AC /(1-GoS) and

3.4

DIMENSIONING A CELL

Dimensioning the network now implies using demographic data to determine the sizes of the cells. Dimensioning a whole network while maintaining a fixed cell size means estimating the number of carriers needed in each cell. In addition, traffic is not constant since it varies between day and night, different days as well as with a number of other factors. In GSM cellular system, the following are the typical dimensions of a cell. For GoS of 2%, the number of offered traffic is:1 carrier = 2.9Er 2 carrier = 8.2Er 3 carrier = 14.03Er 4 carrier = 21.04Er It is important that the number of signalling channels (SDCCHs) is dimensioned as well, taking into account the estimated system behaviour in various parts of the network. For example, cells bordering a different location area may have lots of location updating and cells on a highway probably have many handovers. In order to calculate the need for SDCCHs, the number of attempts for every procedure that uses the SDCCH as well as the time that each procedure hold the SDCCH must be taken into account. The procedures involved are location updating, periodic registration, IMSI attach/detach, call setup, SMS, facsimile and supplementary services. The number of false accesses must also be estimated. This is typically quite a high number but still small compared to traffic.

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3.5

SECTORED VS OMNI SIT ES

Omni sites are used in suburban to rural sites, which do not need capacity and when interference is not an issue. Meanwhile, sectored sites are used when interference needs to be split and usually is used in suburban to urban and dense urban sites. The tradeoff between omni and sectored sites is the trunking efficiency. This can be illustrated in an example given below.

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Assume the task is to find the necessary number of traffic channels for one cell to serve subscribers with traffic of 33Er. The GoS during the busy hour is not to exceed 2%. By considering the above requirements and consulting Erlangs Btable, 43 channels are found to be needed as shown in the Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-2: Part of Erlang Bs Table for 43 channels giving the offered traffic (Er) as a function of the GoS (%) Assume five cells are designed to cover the same area as the single cell. These five cells must handle the same amount of traffic as the cell above, 33Er. Acceptable GoS is still 2%. First, the total traffic is divided among the cells (Table 3-2). Traffic distribution over several cells results in a need for more channels than if all traffic had been concentrated in one cell. This illustrates the fact that it is more efficient to use many channels in a larger cell than vice versa. To calculate the channel utilization, the traffic offered is reduced by the GoS of 2% (yielding the carried traffic) and dividing that value by the number of channels (yielding the channel utilization). With 43 channels (as in the previous single cell example), the channel utilization is 33.083/ 43 = 77%, i.e., each channel is used approximately 77% of the time. However, by splitting this cell into smaller cells, more traffic channels are required hence the channel utilization decreases.

Table 3-2: A certain amount of traffic is distributed over several cells

END OF CHAPTER 3

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CHAPTER 4
BASIC ANTENNA THEORY
Objectives: This chapter explains the basic antenna studies from the type of radiation to the type of antennas used as well as some of the antennas specifications.

Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to: Understand the concept of the antenna radiation Describe some of the antenna types as well as the specifications needed

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4.

BASIC ANTENNA THEORY

4.1

INTRODUCTION

An antenna is a radiating element that is fed with an electromagnetic energy. Oscillating charges on a transmitting antenna typically generate ultra high frequency radio waves. Each antenna has a unique radiation pattern. This pattern can be represented graphically by plotting the received, time-averaged power as a function of the angle that is with respect to the direction of maximum power in a log-polar diagram. The pattern is a representative of the antennas performance in a test environment. However, it only applies to the free-space environment in which the test measurement takes place. Upon installation, the pattern becomes more complex due to factors affecting propagation in the reality. Thus, the real effectiveness of any antenna is measured in the field.

4.2

ISOTROPIC RADIATION

An isotropic antenna is a completely non-directional antenna that radiates equally in all directions. Since all practical antennas exhibit some degree of directivity, the isotropic antenna exists only as a mathematical concept. The isotropic antenna can be used as a reference to specify the gain of a practical antenna. The gain of an antenna referenced isotropically is the ratio between the power required in the practical antenna and the power required in an isotropic antenna to achieve the same field strength in the desired direction of the measured practical antenna. Isotropic radiation only exists in an ideal situation. In practice, radiation does not propagate equally in all direction but favouring one direction over another.

Figure 4-1 Figure 4-1 above shows an isotropic source, which is an imaginary origin point where energy is being radiated equally in all spherical direction.

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4.3

COMMON ANTENNA

Among some of the common antennas are:a) Dipole-half wave b) Yagi Antenna c) Log Periodic d) Co-linear panel Dipole-half wave antenna This is a straight conductor cut to one-half of the electrical wavelength with the radio frequency signal fed to the middle of the conductor.

Figure 4-2 Figure 4-2 above shows the radiation pattern of the half-wave dipole, which is normally referred to as a dipole.

4.4

ANTENNA SPECIFICATIONS

A few antenna specifications are taken into account. There are: a) Gain When an antenna focuses its energy in one particular direction, an effective gain is achieved. This effective energy focused is known as the gain of the antenna. Gain measurements are usually made with reference to a reference radiator and it is never absolute.

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The directive gain in relation to an isotropic antenna is expressed in units of dBi and the directive gain in relation to a dipole is expressed in units of dBd. For a dipole and an isotropic antenna with the same input power, the energy is more concentrated in certain directions by the dipole. Generally, dBi = dBd + 2.15dB Cellular antennae specifications are usually quoted in dBi.

Figure 4-3 Figure 4-3 above shows the differences in gain between the isotropic, dipole and practical antenna. The vertical pattern for the practical antenna is that of a directional antenna. The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture according to the formula below, Ae = G2 /4 Thus, Ae . This means that the greater the affective aperture, the greater the gain of the antenna and the size of an antenna is inversely proportional to the frequency of operation.

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PASSIVE

6dB antenna gain

ACTIVE

3dB cable loss

How much power radiating?

20W

10W Power Amplifier

Figure 4-4

An antenna and the cable are passive elements whereas the power amplifier is an active element. The reason that the output power can be higher than the input power is because of the directive gain of the antenna as shown in Figure 4-4. b) Beamwidth

Figure 4-5

Beamwidth is defined as the angular separation between two 3dB points on the field strength radiation pattern of an antenna. It can be specified horizontally and vertically. The beamwidth specification is useful because it gives us an idea of where most of the useful antenna energy is pointing. This specification can be found from the polar plots provided by the manufacturer. The typical values are 90, 65 and 120 .

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Figure 4 -5 shows the definition of beamwidth. Both the horizontal and vertical beamwidths are found using the 3dB down points, alternatively referred to as halfpower points. Figure 4-6 below shows the vertical and hozintal antenna pattern for a real antenna.

Figure 4-6

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c) Antenna Data Sheet When choosing an antenna for a specific application, the manufacturers data sheet must be consulted. The data sheet contains information including antenna gain, beamwidth (vertical and horizontal) and graphs showing the vertical and horizontal patterns.

Figure 4-7 Figure 4 -7 is an example of an antenna data sheet, where the patterns of the beamwidths are also shown. d) Front to back ratio This is a ratio of the front gain to the back gain specified in dBs. The front to back ratio is a useful information to have when considering an antenna type for a specific design. The typical value is between 25-30 Bs. The larger the value, the better the separation between the front and back ratio radiation lobe.

e) Polarisation type
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There are 2 types of polarisation namely:i) Uni-polar This antenna only has elements radiating in one phase. It is used when spatial diversity is employed. ii) Dual polar This antenna has elements radiating in two phase either in 90 of each other or 45 of each other. It is used when polarisation diversity is used. f) Beam tilt angle There are 2 types of beam tilt namely:i) Mechanical In mechanical tilting, the horizontal beamwidth increases with the rising of the downtilt angle. The resulting gain reduction depends on the azimuth directions.

Figure 4-8 Figure 4-8 above shows the mechanical beam tilt of an antenna.

ii) Electrical
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This type of beam tilt has a constant downtilt angle over the whole azimuth range. The horizontal beamwidth is independent of the down tilt angle.

Figure 4-9 Both the diagrams in Figure 4 -9 above show the effect of horizontal radiation pattern at various tilt angles. Other specifications that are taken into account are: a) b) c) d) e) f) Other auxilliary specification Power handling Connector type Dimensions and weight VSWR/Return loss specification Impedance END OF CHAPTER 4

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CHAPTER 5
COMMON RF ANCILLIARIES
Objectives: This chapter explains on the general equipment used in antenna installations such as the couplers, isolators, duplexers and many more.

Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to: Describe the concept of the equipment used for RF networks

5.

COMMON RF ANCILLIARIES
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5.1

EQUIPMENT

The concepts involved in dealing with the equipment are:a) Insertion loss Losses that are due when two ports are connected together, typcically connectors or equipment ports. b) Impedance matching/VSWR Reflections cause standing waves of voltage and current on a tranmission line if it is not terminated with the characteristic impedance, Zo . The characteristic impedance is defined as below: Zo = [138/ K] [log (b/a)] Where a = inner conductor diameter b = inner diameter of outer conductor K = relative dielectric constant = 1 in vacuum Standing waves increase line losses, mostly due to higher currents. They are also indicative of mismatches that result in losses and can degrade filter performance. The Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) or Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is defined as: VSWR = [1 + ] / [1 - ] Where = reflection coefficient = [ZL Zo ] / [ZL + Zo ] and ZL is complex Also, = [VSWR 1] / [VSWR + 1] For purely resistive loads only, VSWR = R L / Zo VSWR = Zo / R L (RL Zo) or (RL Zo)

c) Bandwidth

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Bandwidth is the term used to describe the amount of frequency range allocated to one application. The bandwidth given to an application depends on the amount of available frequency spectrum. The amount of bandwidth available is an important factor in determining the capacity of a mobile system, that is the number of calls, which can be handled. d) Power rating The power rating is an important figure that decribes the optimum and maximum power range that a passive device can handle before reaching critical breakdown of the device. 5.1.1 Couplers

This is a device, which distributes power unequally. It has low insertion loss in the forward direction and is typically 1dB. The auxiliary output is 3dB to 70dB down depending on the coupler. It is used for testing purposes and in building design. This is shown in Figure 5-1.

Auxilliary Line Output (Coupled Output) C

A/C = P1 B/C = P2

Main Line Input

Aux. Line Main Line

Internal Terminatio n

Figure 5-1 Figure 5-2 below shows an in-building design example. The design is a 10-storey building covered with directional coupler/multiple antenna configuration.

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FLOOR 10 FLOOR 9 FLOOR 8 FLOOR 7 FLOOR 6 FLOOR 5 FLOOR 4 FLOOR 3 FLOOR 2 FLOOR 1
MICROCELL REMOTE UNIT

3dB Gain Ant +9dBm/Ch ERP 1:2 Splitter/ Combiner 6dB Couple 6dB Couple 6dB Couple 10dB Couple 10dB Couple 10dB Couple 10dB Couple 10dB Couple 3dB Gain Ant +9dBm/Ch ERP 3dB Gain Ant +8dBm/Ch ERP 3dB Gain Ant +10dBm/Ch ERP 3dB Gain Ant +12dBm/Ch ERP 3dB Gain Ant +9dBm/Ch ERP 3dB Gain Ant +10dBm/Ch ERP 3dB Gain Ant +11dBm/Ch ERP 3dB Gain Ant +12dBm/Ch ERP 3dB Gain Ant +13dBm/Ch ERP

+9dBm/C h +11dBm/C h +13dBm/C h +15dBm/C h +16dBm/C h +17dBm/C h +18dBm/C h +19dBm/C h +20dBm/C h

Figure 5-2

5.1.2

Splitters/Combine

Splitters are used to distribute power evenly between all output ports. Meanwhile, combiners are used to combine the signals from the input ports to one output. There is negligible insertion loss but there is splitting and combining loss of about 3dB for 2-way splitter/combiner.

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5.1.3

Filters

Bandpass filters allow signals within a band of frequency to pass and attenuate all signals outside the band. An example is the GSM bandpass filter. Combline filters are used when sharp roll-off or attenuation is required. Typically, it is used to differentiate TX and RX band. This is illustrated in Figure 5-3.

Attenuation in dB PD5182 RESPONSE CURVE (896-902) MHz)

Frequency in MHz
Figure 5-3

5.1.4

Duplexers

Duplexer is used to separate transmit and receive signals by using 2 combline filters. It allows for transmit and receive from a single antenna as shown in Figure 5-4.

Antenna Tx/Rx

Tx Rx

DUPLEXER
Figure 5-4

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5.1.5

Isolators

Isolator is a directional device, which protects the equipment (typically transmitters) from damage by any power flowing in reverse. Isolation also prevents intermodulation by preventing any unwanted signals from entering back into the active devices (i.e. high isolation between transmitters). 5.1.6 Cables/Connectors

The RF cables are the primary mode of transport of RF signals between the transmitters and antennas. Typically, it is co-axial cables but now fibre-optics and twisted pair are used as well. The radiating cables combine the features of RF cables and antennas. Connectors can provide a good interface between the cables and other RF equipment. Good connectors have low VSWR and can minimise inter-modulation. An example of cable specification is given in the table below. It is important that the cell planner knows this as this will influence the design of the network.

Table 5-1

5.1.7

Attenuators

Attenuator can reduce the power of the RF signals. The size of the attenuators depends on the power rating. However, higher power ratings require heat sink.

END OF CHAPTER 5

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