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The Name and Nature of Translation Studies is an expanded version of a paper presented in the Translation Section of the Third International Congress of Applied Linguistics, held in Copenhagen, 2 !2" August #$2% &irst issued in the A''TS series of the Translation Studies Section, (epartment of )eneral Literar* Studies, +niversit* of Amsterdam, #$2, presented here in its second pre!pu,lication form - #$./% A slightl* different version appeared in Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 0 - #1$/, pp% #!22% A (utch translation 3as pu,lished under the title 4at is vertaal3etenschap5 In 6enard T% Tervoort -ed%/, Wetenschap & Taal: Het verschijnsel taal van verschillende zijden benaderd (7uider,erg8 Coutinho, #$$/, pp% 21! ".%

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The Name the Nature of Translation Studies1 % Science, 7ichael 7ul9a* points out, tends to proceed ,* means of discover* of ne3 areas of ignorance%2 The process ,* 3hich this ta9es place has ,een fairl* 3ell defined ,* the sociologists of science and research%0 As a ne3 pro,lem or set of pro,lems comes into vie3 in the 3orld of learning, there is an influx of researches from ad:acent areas, ,ringing 3ith them the paradigms and models that have proved fruitful in their o3n fields% These paradigms and models are then ,rought to ,ear on the ne3 pro,lem, 3ith one of t3o results% In some situations the pro,lem proves amena,le to explicitation, anal*sis, explication, and at least partial solution 3ithin the ,ounds of one of the paradigms or models, and in that case it is annexed as a legitimate ,ranch of an esta,lished field of stud*% In other situations the paradigms or models fail to produce sufficient results, and researches ,ecome a3are that ne3 methods are needed to approach the pro,lem% In this second t*pe of situation, the result is a tension ,et3een researches investigating the ne3 pro,lem and colleagues in their former fields, and this tension can graduall* lead to the esta,lishment of ne3 channels of communication and the development of 3hat has ,een called a ne3 disciplinar* utopia, that is, a ne3 sense of a shared interest in a common set of pro,lems, approaches, and o,:ectives on the part of a ne3 grouping of researches% As 4%;% <agstrom has indicated, these t3o steps, the esta,lishment of communication channels and the development of a disciplinar* utopia, ma9e it possi,le for scientists to identif* 3ith the emerging discipline and to claim legitimac* for their point of vie3 3hen appealing to universit* ,odies or groups in the larger societ*%2 %2 Though there are no dou,t a fe3 scholars 3ho 3ould o,:ect, particularl* among the linguists, it 3ould seem to me clear that in regard to the complex of pro,lems clustered round the phenomenon of translating and translations,. the second situation no3 applies% After centuries of incidental and desultor* attention from a scattering of authors, philologians, and literar* scholars, plus here and there a theologian or an idios*ncratic linguist, the su,:ect of translation has en:o*ed and

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constant increase in interest on the part of scholars recent *ears, 3ith the Second 4orld 4ar as 9ind of turning point% As the interest has solidified and expanded, more and more scholars have moved into the field, particularl* from the ad:acent fields of linguistics, linguistics philosoph*, and literar* studies, ,ut also from such seemingl* more remote disciplines as information theor*, logic, and mathematics, each of them carr*ing 3ith him paradigms, =uasi!paradigms, models, and methodologies that he felt could ,e ,rought to ,ear on this ne3 pro,lem% At first glance, the resultant situation toda* 3ould appear to ,e one of great confusion, 3ith no consensus regarding the t*pes of models to ,e tested, the 9ind of methods to ,e applied, to varieties of terminolog* to ,e used% 7ore than that, there is not even li9emindedness a,out the contours of the field, the programs set, the discipline as such% Indeed, scholars are not so much as agreed on the ver* name of the ne3 field% Nevertheless, ,eneath the superficial level, there are a num,er of indications that for the field of research focusing on the pro,lems translating and translations <agstrom>s disciplinar* utopia the ta9ing shape% If this is salutar* development -and I ,elieve that it is/, it follo3s that it is 3orth 3hile to further the development ,* consciousl* turning our attention to matters that are serving to impede it% %0 ;ne of these impediments is the lac9 of appropriate channels of communication% &or scholars and researchers in the field, ,ut channels that do exist still tend to run via the older disciplines -3ith their attendant norms in regard to models, methods, and terminolog*/, sold that papers on the su,:ect of translation are dispersed over periodicals in a 3ide variet* of scholarl* fields and :ournals for practising translators% It is clear that there is a need for other communication channels, cutting across the traditional disciplines to reach all scholars 3or9ing in the field, from 3hatever ,ac9ground% 2% 6ut I should li9e to focus our attention on the other impediments to the development of a disciplinar* utopia% The first of these, the lesser of the t3o in importance, is the seemingl* trivial matter of a name for this field of research% It 3ould not ,e 3ise to continue referring to the discipline ,* its su,:ect matter as has ,een done at this conference, for the map, as the )eneral Semanticists constantl* remind us, is not the territor*, and failure to distinguish the t3o can onl* further confusion% Through the *ears, diverse terms have ,een used in 3ritings dealing 3ith translating and translations, and one can find references in ?nglish to the

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art or the craft of translation, ,ut also to the principles of translation, the fundamentals or the philosoph*% Similar terms recur in &rench and )erman% In some cases the choice of term reflects the attitude, point of approach, or ,ac9ground of the 3riter@ in other it has ,een determined ,* the fashion of the moment in the scholarl* terminolog*% There have ,een a fe3 attempts to create more learned terms, most of them 3ith the highl* active suffix !olog*% Aoger )offin, for instance, has suggested the designation translatolog* in ?nglish, and either its cognate or traductologie in &rench%" 6ut since the Bolog* suffix derives from )ree9, purists re:ect a contamination of this 9ind, all the Late Latin in the case of translatio or Aenaissance &rench in that of traduction% Cet )ree9 alone offers no 3a* out, for metaphorolog*, metaphaseolog*, or metaphastics 3ould hardl* ,e of aid to us in ma9ing our su,:ect clear even to universit* ,odies, let alone to other groups in the larger societ*%$ Such other terms as translatistics or translitics, ,oth of 3hich have ,een suggested, 3ould ,e more readil* understood, ,ut hardl* more accepta,le% 2%2 T3o further, less classicall* constructed terms have come to the fore in recent *ears% ;ne of these ,egan its life in a longer form, the theor* of translating or the theor* of translation -and its corresponding forms8 Theorie des D,ersetEens, thForie de la traduction/% In ?nglish -and in )erman/ it has since gone the 3a* of man* such terms, and is no3 usuall* compressed into translation theor* - bersetzungstheorie/% It has ,een a productive designation, and can ,e even more so in future, ,ut onl* if it is restricted to its proper meaning% &or, as I hope to ma9e clear in the course of this paper, there is much valua,le stud* and research ,eing done in the discipline, and a need for much more to ,e done, that does not, strictl* spea9ing, fall 3ithin the scope of theor* formation% 2%22 The second term is one that has, to all intents and purposes, 3on the field in )erman as a designation for the entire discipline%1 This is the term bersetzungs!issenschaft, constructed to form a parallel to "prach!isseschaft, Literatur!issenschaft, and man* other Wissenschaften% In &rench, the compara,le designation, science e la traduction, has also gained ground, as have parallel terms in various other languages% ;ne of the first to use parallel sounding term in ?nglish 3as ?ugene Nida, 3ho in #"2 chose to entitle his theoretical hand,oo9 To!ards a science of translating## It should ,e noted, though, that Nida did not

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intend the phrase as a name for the entire field of stud*, ,ut onl* for one aspect of the process of translating as such% G ;thers, most of them not native spea9ers of ?nglish, have ,een more ,old, advocating the term science of translation -or translation science/ as the appropriate designation for this emerging discipline as a 3hole% T3o *ears ago this recurrent suggestion 3as follo3ed ,* something li9e canoniEation of the term 3hen 6ausch, Hlegraf, and 4ills too9 the decision to ma9e it the main title to their anal*tical ,i,liograph* of the entire field% It 3as a decision that I, for one, regret% It is not that I o,:ect to the term bersetzungs!issenchaft, for their are fe3 if an* valid arguments against that designation for the su,:ect in )erman% The pro,lem is not that the discipline is not a Wissenschaft, ,ut that not all Wissenschaft can properl* ,e called science% Iust as no one toda* 3ould ta9e issue 3ith the terms Sprach3isseschaft and Literatur3issenschaft, 3hile more than a fe3 3ould =uestions 3hether linguistics has *et reached a stage of precision, formaliEation, and paradigm formation such that it can properl* ,e descri,ed as a science, and 3hile practicall* ever*one 3ould agree that literar* studies are not, and in the foreseea,le future 3ill not ,e, a science in an* true sense of the ?nglish 3ord, in the same 3a* I =uestion 3hether 3e can 3ith an* :ustification use designation for the stud* of translating and translations that places it in the compan* of mathematics, ph*sics, and chemistr*, or even ,iolog*, rather than that of sociolog*, histor*, and philosoph* B or for that matter of literar* studies% 2%0 There is, ho3ever, another term that is active in ?nglish in the naming of ne3 disciplines% This is the 3ord studies% Indeed, for disciplines that 3ithin the old distinction of the universities tend to fall under the humanities or arts rather than the sciences as fields of learning, the 3ord 3ould seem to ,e almost as active in ?nglish as the 3ord 4issenschaft in )erman% ;ne need onl* thin9 of Aussian studies, American studies, Common3ealth studies, population studies, communications studies% True, the 3ord raises a fe3 ne3 complications, among them the fact that it is difficult to derive an ad:ectival form% Nevertheless, the designation translation studies 3ould seem to ,e the most appropriate of all those availa,le in ?nglish, in its adoption as the standard term for the discipline as a 3hole 3ould remove a fair amount of confusion and misunderstanding% I shall set the example ,* ma9ing use of it in the rest of this paper%

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0 A greater impediment than the lac9 of a generall* accepted name in the 3a* of the development of translation studies is the lac9 of an* general consensus as to the scope and structure of the discipline% 4hat constitutes the field of translation studies5 A fe3 3ould sa* it coincides 3ith comparative -or contrastive/ terminological and lexicographical studies@ several loo9 upon it as practicall* identical 3ith comparative or contrastive theor*% 6ut surel* it is different, if not al3a*s distinct, from the case of emerging disciplines, there has as *et ,een little meta!reflection on the nature of translation studies as such B at least that has made its 3a* into print and to m* attention% ;ne of the fe3 cases that I have found is that of 4erner Holler, 3ho has given the follo3ing delineation of the su,:ect8 D,ersetEungs3issenschaft ist Eu verstehen als Jusammenfassung und D,er,egriff fKr alle &orschungs,emKhungen, die von 'hLnomenen MD,ersetEen> und D,ersetEung> ausgehen oder auf diese 'hLnomene Eielen% -Translation studies is to ,e understood as a collective and inclusive designation for all research activities ta9ing the phenomena of translating and translation as their ,asis or focus% 2/ 0% &rom this delineation it follo3s that translation studies is, as no one I suppose 3ould den*, an empirical discipline% Such disciplines, it has often ,een pointed out, have t3o ma:or o,:ectives, 3hich Carl )% <empel has phrased as to descri,e particular phenomena in the 3orld of our experience and to esta,lish general principles ,* means of 3hich the* can ,e explained and predicted% 0 As a field of pure research B that is to sa*, research pursued for its o3n sa9e, =uite apart from an* direct practical application outside its o3n terrain B translation studies thus has t3o main o,:ectives8 - / to descri,e the phenomena of translating and translation-s/ as the* manifest themselves in the 3orld of our experience, and -2/ to esta,lish general principles ,* means of 3hich these phenomena can ,e explaining to and predicted% The t3o ,ranches of pure translation studies concerning themselves 3ith these o,:ectives can ,e designated descriptive translation studies -(TS/ or translation description -T(/ and theoretical translation studies -ThTS/ or translation theor$ -TTh/% 0% ;f these t3o, it is perhaps appropriate to give force consideration to descriptive translation studies, as the ,ranch of the discipline 3hich constantl* maintains the closest contact 3ith the empirical phenomena

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under stud*% There 3ould seem to ,e three ma:or 9inds of research in (TS, 3hich ma* ,e distinguished ,* their focus as product!oriented, function!oriented, and process!oriented% 0% %roduct&oriented 'T", that area of research 3hich descri,es existing translations, has traditionall* ,een an important area of academic research in translation studies% The starting point for this t*pe of stud* is the description of individual translations, or text!focused translation description% A second phase is that all comparative translation description, image comparative and anal*ses are made of various languages% Such individual and comparative descriptions provide the materials for surve*s of larger corpuses of translations, for instance those made 3ithin a specific period, language, andNor text are discourse t*pe% In practice the corpus has usuall* ,een restricted in all three 3a*s8 seventeenth!centur* literar* translations into &rench, or medieval ?nglish 6i,le translations% 6ut such descriptive surve*s can also ,e larger in scope, diachronic as 3ell as -approximatel*/ s*nchronic, and one of the eventual goals of product!oriented (TS might possi,l* ,e a general histor* of translations B ho3ever am,itious such a goal ma* sound at this time% 0% 2 (unction&oriented 'T" is not interested in the description of translations in themselves, ,ut in the description of their function in the recipient social!cultural situation8 it is a stud* of contexts rather than texts% 'ursuing such =uestions as 3hich texts 3ere -and, often as important, 3ere not/ translated at certain time in a certain place, and 3hat influences 3ere exerted in conse=uence, this area of research is one that has attracted less concentrated attention than the area :ust mentioned, though it is often introduced as a 9ind of su,!theme or counter!theme in histories of translations and literar* histories% )reater emphasis on it could lead to the development of a field of translation sociolog* -or B less felicitous ,ut more accurate, since it is a legitimate area of translation studies as 3ell as also sociolog* B socio!translation studies/% 0% 0 %rocess&oriented 'T" concerns itself 3ith the process or act of translation itself% The pro,lem of 3hat exactl* ta9es place in the little ,lac9 ,ox of the translator>s mind as he creates a ne3, more or less matching text in another language has ,een the su,:ect of much speculation on the part of translation>s theorists, ,ut there has ,een ver* little attempt at s*stematic

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investigation of this process on their la,orator* conditions% Admittedl*, the process is an unusuall* complex one, one 3hich, if I% A% Aichards is correct, ma* ver* pro,a,l* ,e the most complex t*pe of event *et produced in the evolution of the cosmos% 2 6ut ps*chologists have developed an are developing highl* sophisticated methods for anal*sing and descri,ing other complex mental process, and it is to ,e hoped that in the future this pro,lem, too, 3ill ,e given closer attention from a leading to an area of stud* that might ,e called in translation ps*cholog* or ps*cho!translation studies% 0% 2 The other main ,ranch of pure translation studies, theoretical translation studies or translation theor$, is, as its name implies, not interest in descri,ing existing translations, o,served translation functions, or experimentall* determined translating process, ,ut in using the results of descriptive translation studies, in com,ination 3ith the information availa,le from related fields and disciplines, to evolve principles, theories, and models 3hich 3ill serve to explain and predict 3hat translating and translations are and 3ill ,e% 0% 2 The ultimate goal of the translation theorist in the ,road sense must undou,tedl* ,e to develop a full, inclusive theor* accommodating so man* elements that I can serve to explain and predict all phenomena falling 3ithin the terrain of translating and translation, to the exclusion of all phenomena falling outside it% It hardl* needs to ,e pointed out that a general translation theor$ in such a true sense of the term, if indeed it is achieva,le, 3ill necessaril* ,e highl* formaliEed and, ho3ever the scholar ma* strive after econom*, also highl* complex% 7ost of the theories that have ,een produced to date are in realit* little more than prolegomena to such a general translation theor*% A good share of them, in fact, are not actuall* theories at all, in an* scholarl* sense of the term, ,ut an arra* of axioms, postulates, and h*potheses that are so formulated as to ,e ,oth too inclusive -covering also non!translator* acts and non!translations/ and too exclusive -shutting out some translator* acts and some 3or9s generall* recogniEed as translations/% 0% 22 ;thers, though the* too ma* ,ear the designation of general translation theories -fre=uentl* preceded ,* the scholar>s protectivel* cautions to3ards/ are in fact not general theories, ,ut partial or specific in their scope, dealing 3ith onl* one or a fe3 of the various aspects of translation theor* as a 3hole% It is in this area of partial theories that the most

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significant advances have ,een made in recent *ears, and in fact it 3ill pro,a,l* ,e necessar* for a great deal of further research to ,e conducted in them ,efore 3e can even ,egin to thin9 a,out arriving at true general theor* in this sense I have :ust outlined% %artial translation theories are specified in a num,er of 3a*s% I 3ould suggest, though, that the* can ,e grouped together into six main 9inds% 0% 22 &irst of all, there are translation theories that I have called, 3ith a some3hat unorthodox extension of the term, )ediu)&restricted translation theories, according to the medium that is used% 7edium!restricted theories can ,e further su,divided into theories of translation as performed ,* humans -human translation/, as performed ,* computers -machine translation/, and performed ,* the t3o in con:unction -mixed or machine!aided translation/% <uman translation ,rea9s do3n into -and restricted theories or OtheoriesO have ,een developed for/ oral translation or interpreting -3ith the further distinction ,et3een consecutive and simultaneous/ and 3ritten translation% Numerous examples of valua,le research into machine and machine!aided translation are no dou,t familiar to us all, and perhaps also several into oral human translation% That examples of medium!restricted theories of 3ritten translation do not come to mind so easil* is largel* o3ing to the fact that their authors have the tendenc* to present them in the guise of unmar9ed or general theories% 0% 222 Second, there are theories that area!restricted% Area&restricted theories can ,e of t3o closel* related 9inds@ restricted as to the languages involved or, 3hich is usuall* not =uite the same, and occasionall* hardl* at all, as to the cultures involved% In ,oth cases, language restriction and culture restriction, the degree of actual limitation can var*% Theories are feasi,le for translation ,et3een, sa*, &rench and )erman -language!pair restricted theories/ as opposed to translation 3ithin Slavic languages -language!group restricted theories/ or from Aomance languages to )ermanic languages -language!group pair restricted theories/% Similarl*, theories might at least h*potheticall* ,e developed for translation 3ithin S3iss culture -one!culture restricted/, or for translation ,et3een S3iss and 6elgian cultures -cultural!pair restricted/, as opposed to translation 3ithin 3estern ?urope -cultural!group restricted/ or ,et3een languages reflecting a pre!technological culture and the languages of contemporar* 4estern culture -cultural!group pair restricted/% Language!restricted theories have close affinities 3ith the 3or9 ,eing done in comparative linguistics and st*listics -though it must al3a*s ,e remem,ered that a language!pair

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translation grammar must ,e a different thing from a contrastive grammar developed for the purpose of language ac=uisition/% In the field of culture!restrict theories there has ,een little detailed research, though culture restrictions, ,* ,eing confused 3ith language restrictions, sometimes get introduced into language! restricted theories, 3here the* are out of place in all ,ut those rare case 3here culture and language ,oundaries coincide in ,oth the source and target situations% It is moreover no dou,t true that some aspects of theories that are presented as general in realit* pertain onl* to the 4estern cultural area% 0% 220 Third, there are ran*&restricted theories, that is to sa*, theories that deal 3ith discourse or texts as 3holes, ,ut concern themselves 3ith lo3er linguistic ran9s or levels% Traditionall*, a great deal of 3riting on translation 3as concerned almost entirel* 3ith the ran9 of the 3ord, and the 3ord and the 3ord group are still the ran9s at 3hich much terminologicall*!oriented thin9ing a,out scientific and technological translation ta9es place% 7ost linguisticall*!oriented research, on the other hand, has until ver* recentl* ta9en the sentence as its upper ran9 limit, largel* ignoring the macro!structural aspects of entire texts as translation pro,lems% The clearl* discerni,le trend a3a* from sentential linguistics in the direction of textual linguistics 3ill, it is to ,e hoped, encourage linguisticall*! oriented theorists to move ,e*ond sentence!restricted translation theories to more complex tas9 of developing text!ran9 -more Oran9!freeO/ theories% 0% 222 &ourth, there are text!t$pe -or discourse!t*pe/ restricted theories, dealing 3ith the pro,lem of translating specific t*pes are genres of lingual messages% Authors and literar* scholars have long concerned themselves 3ith the pro,lems intrinsic to translating literar* texts or genres of literar* texts@ theologians, similarl*, have devoted much attention to =uestions of ho3 to translate the 6i,le and other sacred 3or9s% In recent *ears some effort has ,een made to develop specific theor* for the translation of scientific texts% All these studies ,rea9 do3n, ho3ever, ,ecause 3e still lac9 an*thing li9e a formal theor* of message, text, or discourse t*pes% 6oth 6Klers theor* of t*pes of communication, as further developed ,* the 'rague structuralists, and the definitions of language varieties arrived at ,* linguists particularl* of the 6ritish school provides material for criteria in defining text t*pes that 3ould lend themselves to operationaliEation more aptl* than the inconsistent and mutuall* contradictor* definitions or traditional genre theories% ;n the other hand, the traditional theories

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cannot ,e ignored, for the* continue to pla* a large part in creating the expectation criteria of translation readers% Also re=uiring stud* is the important =uestion of text t*pe s9e3ing or shifting in translation% 0% 22. &ifth, there are ti)e&restricted theories, 3hich fall into t3o t*pes8 theories regarding the translation of contemporar* texts from an older period% Again there 3ould seem to ,e a tendenc* to present one of the theories, that having to do 3ith contemporar* texts, in the guise of general theor*@ the other, the theor* of 3hat can perhaps ,est ,e called cross!temporal translation, is a matter that has led to much disagreement, particularl* among literaril* oriented theorists, ,ut to fe3 generall* valid conclusions% 0% 22" &inall*, there are proble)&restricted theories, theories 3hich confine themselves to one or more specific pro,lems 3ithin the entire area of general translation theor*, pro,lems that can range from such ,road and ,asic =uestions as the limits of variance and invariance in translation or the nature of translation e=uivalence -or, as I should prefer to call it, translation matching/ to such more specific to matters as the translation of metaphors or of proper names% 0% 20 It should ,e noted that theories can fre=uentl* ,e restricted in more than one 3a*% Contrastive linguists interested in translation, for instance, 3ill pro,a,l* produce theories that are not onl* language!restricted ,ut ran9! and time!restricted, having to do 3ith translation ,et3een specific pairs of contemporar* temporal dialects at sentence ran9% The theories of literar* scholars, similarl*, usuall* are restricted as to medium and text t*pe, and generall* also as to culture group@ the* normall* have to do 3ith 3ritten texts 3ithin the -extended/ 4estern literar* tradition% This does not necessaril* reduce the 3orth of such partial theories, for even a theoretical stud* restricted in ever* 3a* ! sa* a theor* of the manner in 3hich su,ordinate clauses in contemporar* )erman novels should ,e translated into 3ritten ?nglish ! can have implications for the more general theor* to3ards 3hich scholars must surel* 3or9% It 3ould ,e 3ise, though, not to lose sight of such a trul* general theor*, and 3iser still not to succum, to the delusion that a ,od* of restrict theories ! for instance, a complex of language!restricted theories of ho3 to translate sentences ! can ,e an ade=uate su,stitute for it%

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0%2 After it this rapid overvie3 of the t3o main ,ranches of pure research in translation studies, I should li9e to turn to that ,ranch of the discipline 3hich is, in 6aconPs 3ords, Oof useO rather than Oof lightO8 applied translation studies% . 0%22 In this discipline, as in so man* others, the first thing that comes to mind 3hen one considers the implications tha extend ,e*ond the limits of the discipline itself is that of teaching% Actuall*, the teaching of translating is of t3o t*pes 3hich need to ,e carefull* distinguished% In the one case, translating as ,eing used for centuries as a techni=ue in foreign!language teaching and test of foreign!language ac=uisition% I shall return to this t*pe in a moment% In the second case, a more recent phenomenon, translating these taught in schools and courses to train professional translators% This second situation, that of translator training, has raised a num,er of =uestions that fairl* cr* for ans3ers8 =uestions that have stood the primaril* 3ith teaching methods, testing techni=ues, and curriculum planning% It is o,vious that the search for 3ell!founded, relia,le ans3ers to these =uestions contri,utes a ma:or area -and for the time ,eing, at least, the ma:or area/ of research in applied translation studies% 0%22 A second, closel* related area has to do 3ith the needs for translation aids, ,oth for use in translator training and to meet re=uirements of the practising translator% The needs are man* and various, ,ut fall largel* into t3o classes8 - / lexicographical and terminological aids and -2/ grammars% 6oth these classes of aids have traditionall* ,een provided ,* scholars in other, related disciplines, and it could hardl* ,e argued that 3or9 on them should ,e ta9en over in toto as areas of applied translation studies% 6ut lexicographical aids often fall far short of translation needs, and contrastive grammars developed for language!ac=uisition purposes are not reall* an ade=uate su,stitute for variet*!mar9ed translation! matching grammars% There 3ould seem to ,e a need for scholars in applied translation studies to clarif* and define the specific re=uirements that aids of these 9inds should fulfil if the* are to meet the needs of practising and prospective translators, and to 3or9 together 3ith lexicologists and contrastive linguists in developing them% 0%20 A third area of applied translation studies is that of translation polic$% The tas9 of the translation scholar in this area is to render informed advice to

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others in defining the place and role of translators, translating, and translation in societ* at large8 such =uestions, for instance, as determining the social and economic position of the translator is and should ,e, or -and here I return to the point raised a,ove/ 3hat part is translating should pla* in the teaching and learning of foreign languages% In regard to that last polic* =uestion, since it should hardl* ,e the tas9 of translation studies to a,et the use of translating in places 3here it is d*sfunctional, it 3ould seem to me that priorit* should ,e given to extensive and rigorous research to assess the efficac* of translating as a techni=ue and testing method in language learning% The chance that it is not efficacious 3ould appear to ,e so great that in this case it 3ould seem imperative for program research to ,e preceded ,* polic* research% 0%22 A fourth, =uite different area of applied translation studies in that of translation criticis)% The level of such criticism is toda* still fre=uentl* ver* lo3, and in man* countries still =uite uninfluenced ,* developments 3ithin the field of translation studies% (ou,tless the activities of translation interpretation and evaluation 3ill al3a*s elude the grasp of o,:ective anal*sis to some extent, and so continue to reflect the intuitive, impressionist attitudes and stances of the critic% 6ut closer contact ,et3een translation scholars and translation critics could do a great deal to reduce the intuitive element to a more accepta,le level% 0%0 After this ,rief surve* of the main ,ranches of translation studies, there are t3o further points that I should li9e to ma9e% The first is this8 in 3hat has preceded, descriptive, theoretical, and applied translation studies have ,een presented as three fairl* distinct ,ranches of the entire discipline, and the order of presentation might ,e ta9en to suggest that their import for one another is unidirectional, translation description suppl*ing the ,asic data upon 3hich translation theor* is to ,e ,uilt, and the t3o of them providing the scholarl* findings 3hich are to ,e put to use in applied translation studies% In realit*, of course, the relation is a dialectical one, 3hich each of the three ,ranches suppl*ing materials for the other t3o, and ma9ing use of the findings 3hich the* in turn provide it% Translation theor*, for instance, cannot do 3ithout the solid, specific data *ielded ,* research in descriptive and applied translation studies, 3hile on the other hand one cannot even ,egin to 3or9 in one of the other t3o fields 3ithout having at least and intuitive theoretical h*pothesis as onePs starting point% In vie3 of this dialectical relationship, it follo3s that, though the needs of a

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given moment ma* var*, attention to all three ,ranches is re=uired if the discipline is to gro3 and flourish% 0%02 The second point is that, in each of the three ,ranches of translation studies, there are t3o further dimensions that I have not mentioned, dimensions, ,ut of translation studies itself% ;ne of these dimensions is historical8 there is a field of the histor* of translation theor*, in 3hich some valua,le 3or9 has ,een done, ,ut also one of the histor* of translation description and of applied translation studies -largel* a histor* of translation teaching and translator training/ ,oth of 3hich are fairl* 3ell virgin territor*% Li9e3ise there is a dimension that might ,e called the methodological or meta!theoretical, concerning itself 3ith pro,lems of 3hat methods and models can ,est ,e used in research in the various ,ranches of the discipline -ho3 translation theories, for instance, can ,e formed for greatest validit*, or 3hat anal*tic methods can ,est ,e used to achieve the most o,:ective and meaningful descriptive results/, ,ut also devoting its attention to such ,asic issues as 3hat the discipline itself comprises% This paper has made a fe3 excursions into the first of these t3o dimensions, ,ut all in all it is meant to ,e a contri,ution to the second% It does not as9 a,ove all for agreement% Translation studies has reached a stage 3here it is time to examine the su,:ect itself% Let the meta!discussion ,egin%

Notes

4ritten in August #$2, this paper is presented in its second pre!pu,lication form 3ith onl* a fe3 st*listics revisions% (espite the intervening *ears, most of m* remar9s can, I ,elieve, stand as the* 3ere formulated, thought in one or t3o places I 3ould phrase matters some3hat differentl* if I 3ere 3riting toda*% In section 0% 222, for instance, su,se=uent developments in textual linguistics, particularl* in )erman*, are note3orth*% 7ore directl* relevant, the dearth of meta! reflection on the nature of translation studies, referred to at the ,eginning of section 0, is some3hat less stri9ing toda* that #$2, again than9s largel* to )erman scholars% 'articularl* relevant is 4olfram 4ilss> as *et pu,lished paper methodische 'ro,leme der allgemeinen und ange3andten D,ersetEungs3issenschatft, read at a collo=uium on translation studies held in )ermershein, 4est )erman*, 0!2 7a* #$.% 2 7ichael 7ul9a*, Cultural )ro3th in Science, in 6arr* 6arnes -ed%/, "ociolog$ of "cience: "elected +eadings -<armonfs3orth, 7iddlesex8 'enguin@ 7odern Sociolog* Aeadings/, pp% 2"! 2 -a,riged reprint of Some Aspects of Cultural )ro3th in The Natural Sciences, "ocial +esearch, 0" Q #"#R, No% /, =uotation p% 0"% 3 See e%g% 4%;% <agstrom, The (ifferentiation of (isciplines, in 6arnes, pp% 2 ! 2. -reprinted from <agstrom, The "cientific ,o))unit$ QNe3 Cor98 6asics 6oo9s, #".R, pp% 222!22"/% 4 <agstrom, p % 20% 5 <ere and Throughout, these terms are used onl* in the strict sense of interlingual translating and translation% ;n the three t*pes of translation in the ,roader sense of the 3ord, intralingual, interlingual, and intersemiotic, see Aoman Ia9o,son, ;n Linguistic Aspects of Translation, in Aeu,en A% 6ro3er -ed%/, -n Translation -Cam,ridge, 7ass%8 <arvard +niversit* 'ress, #.#/, pp% 202!20#% 6 Aoger )offin, 'our une formation universitaire sui generis du traducteur8 AFflexions sur certain aspects mFthodologi=ues et sur la recherche scientifi=ue dans le domaine de la traduction, .eta, " - #$ /, .$!"1, see esp% p% .#% 7 See the <agstrom =uotation in section % a,ove% 8 Though, given the lac9 of a general paradigm, scholars fre=uentl* tend to restrict the meaning of the term to onl* a part of the discipline% ;ften, in fact, it 3ould seem to ,e more or less s*non*mous 3ith translation theor*% 9 ?ugene Nida, To!ards a Theor$ of Translating/ !ith "pecial +eference to %rinciples and %rocedures Involved in 0ible Translating -Leiden8 6rill, #"2/% 10 Cf% Nida>s later enlightening remar9 on his use of the term8 the science of translation -or, perhaps more accuratel* stated, the scientific description of the process involved in translating/, ?ugene A% Nida, Science of Translation, Language, 2. Q #"#R, 210!2#1, =uotation p% 210 n% @ m* italics/% 11 H%!Aichard 6aush Iosef Hlegraf, and 4olfram 4ilss, The "cience of Translation: An Anal$tical 0ibliograph$ -TK,ingen8 TK,inger 6eitrSge Eur Linguisti9/% Tol% I - #$G@ T6L, No% 2 / covers the *ears #"2! #"#@ Tol% II - #$28 T6L, No% 00/ the *ears #$G! #$ plus a supplement over the *ears covered ,* the first volume% 12 4erner Holler, D,ersetEen, D,ersetEung und D,ersetEer% Ju sch3edischen S*mposien K,er 'ro,leme der D,ersetEung, 0abel, $ - #$ /, 0! , =uotation p% 2% See further in this article -also p% 2/ the summar* of a paper D,ertsetEungspraxis, D,ertstEungtheorie und D,ersetEungs3issenschaft presented ,* Holler at the Second S3edish!)erman Translator>s S*mposium, held in Stoc9holm, 20!22 ;cto,er #"#% 13 Carl )% <empel, (unda)entals of ,oncept (or)ation in 1)pirical "cience -Chicago8 +niversit* of Chicago 'ress, #"$@ International ?nc*clopedia of Social Science, &oundations of the +nit* of Sciences, II, &ase% $/, p% % 14 I% A% Aichards, To3ards a Theor* of Translating, in Arthur &% 4right -ed%/, "tudies in ,hinese Thought -Chicago8 +niversit* of Chicago 'ress, #.0@ also pu,lished as .e)oirs of the A)erican Anthropological Association, .. Q #.0R, 7emoir $./, pp% 22$!2"2% 15 6acon>s distinction 3as actuall* not ,et3een t3o t*pes of research in the ,roader sense, ,ut of experiments8 ?xperiments of +se as against ?xperiments of Light% See S% 'it Corder, 'ro,lems and Solutions in Applied Linguistics, paper presented in a plenar* session of the #$2 Copenhagen Congress of Applied Linguistics%