UNIT 6 Module I 127

UNIT SIX
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
OBJ ECTIVES: After studying this unit, you will be able to:
o have a historical perspective of the Industrial Revolution
o evaluate the consequences of using computers in various areas of employment
o analyse changes that information technology brings about
o define statistics
o define cybernetics role in actual life (speak about its applications)
MODULE I
LEAD-IN
1. What is an employment pattern?
2. What may affect the employment pattern of a country?
3. Can you establish any relation between the Industrial Revolution and the change of the
employment pattern?
4. Why do certain jobs disappear?
5. How can the social consequences of unemployment be diminished?
COMPUTERS AND THE CHANGING PATTERN OF EMPLOYMENT
Computers are used in most areas of employment; because of this, many job roles have changed or have
been eliminated. New jobs have come into existence but according to the Policy Studies Institute more jobs are
being lost than created (). New jobs come into existence, as the skills required in the past become less in
demand because newer skills are needed to use and develop the information systems being created. This leads
to a major change in employment patterns ().
New technologies have always affected employment patterns. Up to the eighteenth century, the majority
of the population worked in the primary industries, such as agriculture, forestry, fishing. Technological
innovations began to improve the productivity of the workers in agriculture, starting with the mechanical seed
sower which was introduced early in the eighteenth century, followed by automatic threshers and reapers in
the nineteenth century. These developments meant that fewer workers could produce more agricultural
produce and therefore the numbers of workers employed in the primary sector began to fall.
During the eighteenth century the steam engine was invented and technology was applied to transport in
the form of railways. These developments triggered the Industrial Revolution which created a rapidly growing
secondary employment sector which consisted mainly of new manufacturing industries together with mining,
construction, quarrying and utilities (gas, water and electricity). This growth in manufacturing absorbed all the
labour that was no longer required in the primary sector.
Even before the introduction of microelectronics in the mid-twentieth century, automation of the
manufacturing processes was already beginning to reduce the number of the people in the secondary sector
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in the developed countries. Throughout the twentieth century there has been a continuing growth in the tertiary
or servicing sector. This growth was in the employment of people in offices, banking and insurance, public
administration, the entertainment industry and computing.
The major growth in employment in this century is for information workers required for the new
information technologies () Information technology changes the way information is handled and the way
goods are manufactured. In the future, skill requirements will mean that people may have to be retrained
once or twice during their working life as the job they do is no longer required. Retraining should be readily
available and not cause people financial problems because they are retraining. It will be also necessary to
train people to make better use of their non-working time, because apart from the financial problems of not
working, there are the psychological problems that the unemployed face: the feeling of unwanted and of no
value to society.
We will now look at how the use of computers will change some areas of employment.
There will be less demand for people to carry out routine, clerical and production jobs. Word processors,
databases or electronic mail will take over many of the tasks such as typing, filing, recording orders and
delivering internal mail that are currently carried out by people.
Initially, the demand for word processor operators will increase, but the predicted introduction of the
voice-controlled computers in the 1990s will eliminate many jobs. For example, typists and word processor
operators will not be required as letters will be dictated directly into a computer.
There will be less demand for maintenance engineers as electronic products, with their lack of moving
parts, do not break down so frequently. When there is a breakdown, rectification requires less skill as it often
means just replacing a circuit board with a new one.
To develop the information systems there will be an increase in the demand for information technology
specialists. These information scientists will structure the databases used. Business and organisation analysts
will be needed to translate user needs into system specifications.
(From Terry Corbitt, Information Technology and Its Applications, Avon, Great Britain, 1990)
VOCABULARY
skill =ability to do something expertly
and well
to employ =to give work to somebody,
usually for payment
employer =person who employs others
employee =person employed for wages
employment =1. employing or being
employed; 2. ones regular work or
occupation
the employment =1. state of being
unemployed; 2. amonut of unused labour
to improve =to make better; to use well
insurance =agreement by contract to pay
money especially in case of misfortune;
money paid (by an insurance company)
as a result of such a contract
thresher =machine used to beat the grain
out of wheat
reaper =machine used for cutting grain
to entertain =to make people laugh by
jokes and tricks
trigger =lever for relaxing a spring
especially for a fire arm
to trigger something off =to be the
immediate cause of something serious
growth =increase in number or amount
demand =the desire of people for a
particular good or service
clerical job =a clerks job involving work
in an office
to carry out =to fulfill; to complete
to predict =to see or describe (a future
happening) in advance as a result of
knowledge, experience, reason etc.
solicitor =lawyer who gives advice and
acts for clients in legal matters
UNIT 6 Module I 129
COMPREHENSION I
1.1. Answer the following questions on the text:
1. Where did most of the population work up to the 18
th
century?
2. What did the Industrial Revolution create?
3. What has happened throughout the twentieth century as fa as employment is concerned?
4. What professional category has recorded the major growth in employment?
5. What will skill-requirements impose in the future?
6. Why will people carrying out clerical work be no longer demanded?
7. Even in the field of computers there will be less demand for some jobs. Can you mention them?
Explain why this will happen.
8. What do information scientist deal with?
PRACTICE I
2.1. Fill in the blanks using words from the text:
In order to eliminate negative consequences of unemployment people should be
Technological in the 18
th
century began to improve the productivity of work in agriculture.
The mechanical (two words) was introduced early in the 18
th
century.
The introduction of the (compound adjective) computer will eliminate many jobs.
Business will be needed to translate user needs into system specifications.
The development of (two words) could (two words) some of the jobs that are done by
these specialists.
2.2. Give the verbs and adjectives corresponding to the following nouns:
Noun Verb Adjective
Production
Employment
Application
Change
Invention
Growth
Demand
Payment
Finance
Information
Necessity
Delivery
Movement
Use
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2.3. Match up the following expressions and definitions:
1. to take over A. to recognise and deal with
2. to break down B. based on office work
3. apart from C. to perform
4. to face D. to assume control of
5. to lead to E. besides
6. clerical jobs F. to get out of order
7. to carry out G. to generate
2.4. Word test
A beginner in editing has just written this letter. He knows he has made many mistakes but he
doesnt worry as he will use the spelling facilities of his computer. What spelling mistakes will the computer
identify? Please correct the letter:
Dare J ohn,
I am cvery hapy to tell you that I has just bought a computer. Its really wordenful to have it. It was not
eazy to persuade my farther to invest in such a machine. You know my father. His so reluctant to inovations!
Aprat from this, he is astreh too economicaly, I think. he doesnet like to spent. In this case, I think that hell
come to understand the benefits soon, hell be the one to use the computer most, as his filed of work need it
bedly.
Thats all fro the moments.
Ill witre youu soon to tell how thinks go.
Bets wishes,
Dan
2.5. Make up meaningful sentences by picking up items from the table below
1. word processors operators when will be laid are
introduced
2. computer specialists in
new information
technologies
should be
available
3. emphasis on secondary employment
sector
created
4. the developments of the 18
th
and 19
th
centuries
a the 19
th
century will be
necessary
5. information workers in order to unemployment could be used
6. retraining strategies for decision making will lose
their jobs
to avoid
negative
consequences
7. automatic threshers and reapers of voice-controlled
computer
were
introduced
how to use
information
NOTE: Some items may be used more than once. The columns are not placed in logical order.
UNIT 6 Module I 131
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
PRACTICE II
3.1. Put the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tense paying attention to the sequence of tenses
I know that Jane (to leave) the book on the top shelf and I wonder why it (not be) there. I phoned her to
ask about it and she said she (to do) exactly what I (to ask) her to. The book should be there. Perhaps my
brother (to put) it somewhere else. I shall ask him when he (to come back) home if it (not to be) too late. On
Monday he usually (to overwork) as he needs more money. Ill try to get in touch with him by phone. Itll
be very good if I (to know) what has happened with my book. I have to return it to the library tomorrow.
3.2. Remember some rules of the Sequence of Tense
Main Clause Subordinate Clause
1. Present tense Any tense logically required
2. Past tense a. past tense to express a past action simultaneous
with that of the main verb;
b. past perfect to express a past action prior to that of
the main verb
c. future in the past to express a future action related
to the past
3. Future Present Simple/Present Perfect to express
future actions in:
temporal
conditional clauses (type I)
There are some exceptions to the rules mentioned above:
Main Clause Subordinate Clause
Past tense Present Simple to express general truths; facts universally known
Past tense Any tense logically required in:
attributive, comparative clauses;
adverbial clauses of cause.
Complete the following sentences choosing the right verbal form from those given below:
1. The teacher told the pupils that water at 100 C.
2. They solved the problem fast as they remembered that two parallel lines never each other.
3. They all knew that the Earth around its axis.
4. He had demonstrated long time ago that the atom the smallest particle of matter.
5. I didnt speak to him about the new strategy for I him tonight and we can talk a lot about it.
6. Did you meet the man who the new building?
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boils had met will be
spinning
is not should meet will design
boiled had been
meeting
spins was not shall meet would design
was boiling meet spinned had not been
being
would meet would be
designed
is boiling met had spinned were not was going
to meet
were going
to design
COMPREHENSION II
4.1. Read the paragraphs below carefully, identify the main ideas and give your comments on
them:
One area in which there will be a continuing growing demand for people will be in jobs that computers
cannot do. This will include the caring services such as nursing and social work which require a considerable
amount of human interaction. Computers are unlikely to be used for jobs that require a great deal of physical
dexterity. These jobs, especially those in caring services, could become the status jobs of the future simply
because they cannot be done by computers.
As the whole population will come into contact with computer-based systems, the education system
will need to provide a basic grounding in the use and nature of this technology. This does not mean that
everyone will need to be able to program or be a computer specialist, but they will need to understand the
overall nature of information technology, how the shape it to human or organisational requirements and how
to use it.
4.2. Translate into English:
1. Se vor cere exper]i `n sisteme informa]ionale `nc\ mult timp. 2. E pu]in probabil ca aceste ma[ini
sofisticate s\ fie utilizate pentru slujbe care cer dexteritate fizic\. 3. Te va surprinde c>nd vei afla c\ aproape
fiecare persoan\ va trebui s\ se recalifice cel pu]in o dat\ `n via]a sa activ\. 4. El nu trebuie s\-[i fac\ griji
`n ceea ce prive[te cariera sa, deoarece profesiile care implic\ interac]iunea uman\ nu vor fi `nlocuite de
calculatoare. 5. Dac\ ar fi [tiut c\ sarcini precum `ndosarierea, distribuirea coresponden]ei sau b\tutul la
ma[in\ vor fi f\cute de calculator, nu ar mai fi angajat at>]ia func]ionari.
UNIT 6 Module I 133
UNIT SIX
MODULE I
KEY
Possible answers to LEAD-IN questions.
1. A certain structure/model showing the distribution of jobs/labour in a certain area.
2. There are many factors that may affect the employment pattern. We may speak of various factors that
influence the employment pattern either directly or indirectly such as production shrinkage, economic
stagnation, technical innovation, that lead to temporary or permanent disappearance of some jobs.
3. The relation is obvious. The Industrial Revolution is generated by technical innovations due to which
new jobs come into being, while others disappear which inevitably affects the distribution of labour,
labour offer and demand.
4. Because the skills they require become less in demand or are not needed at all.
5. By a well-thought strategy meant to diminish and eliminate the financial and psychological pro-blems
or the people who lose their jobs. Retraining seems to be the key-word.
PRACTICE I
2.1. retrained; innovations; seed sower; voice-controlled; analysts; experts systems; take over.
2.2.
to produce productive
to employ employed
to apply applying
to change changing; changeable
to invent invented
to grow growing
to demand demanding
to pay paid; payable
to finance financial
to inform informed
to necessitate necessary; necessitous
to deliver delivering; delivered
to move moving; movable
to use usable
2.3.
1. D; 2. F; 3. E; 4. A; 5. G; 6. B; 7. C.
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2.4.
Dear J ohn,
I am very happy to tell you that I have just bought a computer. Its really wonderful to have it. It was not
easy to persuade my father to invest in such a machine. You know my father. Hes so reluctant to innovations!
Apart from this, he is rather too economical, I think. He doesnt like to spend. In this case, I think that hell
come to understand the benefits soon. Hell be the one to use the computer most, as his field of work needs it
badly.
Thats all for the moment. Ill write to you soon to tell how things go.
Best wishes,
Dan
PRACTICE II
3.1. has left, is not; had done; had asked; put; comes back; isnt; overworks; know.
3.2. 1-boils; 2-meet; 3-spins; 4-is not; 5-shall meet; 6-will design.
4.2. 1. Information system experts will be still in demand. 2. These sophisticated machines are unlikely
to be used for jobs that require physical dexterity. 3. You will be surprised when you find out that each person
will have to be retrained at least once in his/her working life. 4. He does not need to worry about his career, as
jobs involving human interaction will not be replaced by computers. 5. If he had known that tasks such as
filing, internal mail delivery and typing will be done by computers, he wouldnt have employed so many
clerks.
UNIT 6 Module II 135
UNIT SIX
MODULE II
STATISTICS
OBJ ECTIVES: After studying this chapter students should be able to:
o define statistics
o define its role in actual life (speak about its applications)
LEAD-IN
1. What is statistics?
2. What is the difference between statistic and statistics?
3. When and how did statistics appear?
4. What is the role of numerical evidence in statistics?
5. Which are the fields in which statistics is mainly used?
STATISTICS
The term and its meaning
Statistics is a body of methods and theory applied to numerical evidence in making decisions in the face
of uncertainty. As a discipline, it has advanced rapidly during the 20
th
century to become reorganised as a
branch of mathematics. Partly due to the relative newness of statistics as a branch of study, the word statistics
has come to have several meanings. In its earlier and still more common usage, statistics means a collection of
numerical data. The figures showing sources of income and expenditures for budget, or the distances between
major cities are all statistics. Closing prices from the Stock Exchange, or your reported income on last years
tax return are also statistics. This usage is seen in the term vital statistics for figures on births, deaths etc., and
in the titles of publications listing population and economic data. The main distinction between our definition
and this usage of the word is its form, plural versus singular: statistics (SG) is a subject of study, whereas
statistics (PL) arenumerical facts.
Its history
Simple forms of statistics have been used since the beginning of civilization. Before 3000 BC the
Babylonians used small clay tablets to record tabulations of agricultural yields and of commodities bartered or
sold. The Egyptians analysed the population and material wealth of their country before beginning to build the
pyramids in the 31
st
century BC. The biblical books of Numbers and 1 Chronicles are, in small parts, statistical
works. Similar numerical records existed in China before 2000 BC. The ancient Greeks held censues to be
used as bases for taxation as early as 594 BC. The Roman Empire was the first government to gather data
about the population, area, and wealth of the territories that it controlled. During the Middle Ages in Europe
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few comprehensive censues were made. Registration of deaths and births was begun in England in the early
16
th
century, and in 1662 the first noteworthy statistical study of population was written. A similar study of
mortality made in Germany in 1691 was used by the English astronomer Edmund Halley as a basis for the
earliest mortality table. In the 19
th
century, with the application of the scientific method to all phenomena in the
natural and social sciences, investigators recognized the need to reduce information to numerical values to
avoid the ambiguity of verbal description.
Its universality
There is perhaps no other subject quite like statistics. It is used by everybody, from some of the
remotest people, such as the bushmen of Africas Kalahari Desert, to space scientists planning grand tours of
the planets. Surprisingly, the use to which statistics is universally applied is not what most people imagine. The
word statistics brings to mind masses of numbers, graphs, and tables. These two play a role in statistics, but a
limited one. The Kalahari bushmen cannot count very far, know little mathematics, draw no graphs, and
assemble no tables, yet they do use statistics. One common thread linking scientist and bushman is that both
must make decisions in the face of uncertainty. The mechanisms used by both utilize limited experience and
in this respect they are not substantially different. The remaining element making them statistical is that both
use numerical evidence. Now, the scientists evidence is obviously numerical, while the bushmans numerical
evidence is the frequency of successful experiments made under various prevailing conditions. Even though
the bushmans findings represent a qualitative factor, frequencies of occurrence are themselves numerical.
Its applications
Our definition of statistics is particularly appropriate for readers who are primarily interested in
applications to business and economics, where there is a high incidence of decisions made under uncertainty.
Managerial decisions involving both numerical data and uncertainty are required daily, ranging from ordering
material used to produce items whose demands are uncertain to hiring personnel whose performances cannot
be predicted. Statistical decisions can answer long-range planning questions, such as when and where to
locate facilities to handle future sales of uncertain levels. Statistics can be helpful in formulating strategic
policies and affect a firms survival, such as new product development, pricing and financing.
At present statistics is a reliable means of describing accurately the values of economic, political,
social, psychological, biological, and physical data and serves as a tool to correlate and analyse such data.
The work of the statistician is no longer confined to gathering and tabulating data, but is chiefly a process of
interpreting the information. The development of the theory of probability increased the scope of statistical
applications. Much data can be approximated accurately by certain probability distributions, and the results
of probability distributions can be used in analysing statistical data.
Probability can be used to test the reliability of statistical inferences and to indicate the kind and
amount of data required for a particular problem.
(Sources: L. Lapin, Statistics for Modern Business Decisions, Harcourt Brace J ovanovich,
Inc. New York 1973, Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia 1993-1997, Microsoft Corporation).
UNIT 6 Module II 137
VOCABULARY
COMPREHENSION I
a) Answer the following questions on the text:
1. What is statistics applied to?
2. Is it a science itself, or a branch of a more comprehensive science?
3. What did it consistin in the early stage?
4. What was it mainly used for at its beginning?
5. What is it used for at present (What does it offer, correlate and analyse)?
6. Why is it used in business and economics?
7. Is it a reliable tool? Whom does it serve mainly?
8. Which branch of mathematics is used in order to test the reliability of statistical inference?
PRACTICE I
2.1. Fill in the blanks with the suitable verb: to do or to make
1. They a lot of money last year, which I not, though I my best. 2. The main idea of the speech
he yesterday was that everyone should his best just by up for lost time. 3. People must without
such luxuries in times of crisis. 4. I think they business with that firm, but youd better certain. 5. He
can use of it whenever he wants. 6. come tonight, its my birthday party. 7. It nt you any good
to stay up so late! 8. She not a mistake in choosing her career: she will certainly a good doctor. 9.
This is all I have, will it ? Ill it . 10. I cant out what hes trying to ; hes probably
gym, this is why hes such a noise.
2.2.
a) Choose between economic and economical and fill in the blanks with the proper word:
1. The adjective is related to economic or to economics, while means saving/not wasteful. 2.
The business is no longer 3. Hes a rather person. 4. It doesnt make sense to own a car in town. 5.
You can find out a lot about the way the system of a country works if you analyse the decisions of top
managers. 6. It would be more to change lodging, if only we could find one with an rent.
vital statistics =statistica popula]iei
figure =cifr\
clay =lut
yield =produc]ie, recolt\ (agr.);
produs, randament (ind); venit, raport
(taxe)
to barter =a schimba marf\ contra
marf\ ; a face troc
census =reces\ m>nt
noteworthy =notabil, demn de a fi luat
`n seam\
thread =a]\ (aici) leg\ tur\
occurrence =apari]ie
to range fromto =a se e[alona de
lala
to hire personnel =a angaja personal
long-range planning =planificare pe
termen lung
reliable =de `ncredere, pe care te po]i
baza
to be confined to =a fi limitat la, a se
limita la
scope =posibilit\ ]i; anvergur\ , (aici)
domeniu
reliability =fiabilitate
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b) Choose between politic and political and fill in the blanks with the proper word:
1. A measure often affects the economic activity of a country. 2. You may talk about economics in
general but its not to tackle the matter of their economy. 3. They are studying economy. 4. He thought
it to refuse the offer, under the given circumstances. 5. A party should always consider the future
perspectives. 6. Their action will prove to have been in the long run.
2.3. Fill in the blanks with one of the following nouns: mean, means, meaning
1. Money is a of change. 2. I dont see the of it. 3. Its nothing else than the geometrical 4. Do
you know the of the golden ? 5. The of transport are rather crowded nowadays. 6. The level of an
economy is highly dependent on the of production.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
PRACTICE II
3.1. Combine the sentence using who (whose, whom), that, which and if necessary making the
required changes in the word order
1. The industrial dispute has now been settled. It disrupted production while it lasted.
2. Lord Nelson was famous for his naval exploits. A column was erected in Trafalgar Square in
his memory.
3. His first decision was more popular than his second. He took his first decision by himself. He
consulted his legal advisers with regard to the second.
4. The Company Chairman was not re-elected to the Board. It was his responsibility to see that
the company functioned profitably. He had failed in this.
5. This is the man. It was through his generosity that the scholarships were established.
6. The plan for a new bypass has now been approved by the Local Authority. By means of it, the
heavy congestion will be considered relieved. This congestion is normally found in the city
centre at rush hours.
(adapted from B. D. GRAVER, Advanced English Practice, OUP, 1963)
3.2. Connect the following sentences using a) however or therefore, and b) if or unless:
a)
1. The speedy means of transport have changed our lives. This change did not come abruptly.
2. City department stores are losing business. Some of them have opened suburban branches.
3. The big summer hotels have lost business. New motels are being built all the time.
4. European highways are much better than they used to be. They still are in need of improvement.
5. We live rather far from the city centre. We spend a lot of time commuting.
6. In the centre of town all the streets have parking meters. It is necessary to have a lot of small
change if you go downtown to shop.
b)
1. He will not learn much he works harder.
2. He will work harder he is motivated.
3. you rang, he would come, I suppose.
4. He wouldnt have known we were here you had rung.
UNIT 6 Module II 139
5. I shant write to him he writes to me first.
6. We shouldnt have been late your watch hadnt been slow.
3.4. Fill in the blanks with the suitable connecting word: all, though, because, however since,
therefore, this is why, thus
1. the goods were of the best quality, they were satisfactory we decided to buy in bulk. We
did so also the price was convenient.
2. The probability of an event ordinarily represents the proportion of times under identical
circumstances that the outcome can be expected to occur , a probability value is often subjective, set
solely on the basis of personal judgement probability is a measure usually attributed to future events,
the likelihood of a past event may also be expressed as a probability value.
3. The capacity of computers inside the animal skull is exploited almost to the full, leaving no
scope for cumulative learning and mental evolution.
4. What is called human progress is purely an intellectual affair. Not much development is seen
on the moral side
5. the history of civilization may be seen as the slow process of the mind learning from experience
to actualise the brains potential. the human brains powers are in some respects immense, they are
nevertheless limited in other respects. The new frontiers to be conquered are, in the convolutions of
the cerebral cortex.
3.5. Read the text below carefully. Fill in the blanks with connecting words as previously. Avoid
using the same word twice (if possible)
a) Everything in nature is in a perpetual state of transformation, motion, and change we discover that
nothing simply surges up out of nothing. , nothing ever disappears without leaving a trace. , this principle
is not yet a statement of the existence of causality in nature . , it is even more fundamental than causality,
it lies at the foundation of the possibility of our understanding nature in a rational way.
To come to causality, the next step is to note inside of all complexity of change and transformation
there are relationships that remain effectively constant. , objects released in midair under a wide range of
conditions quite constantly fall to the ground. , water put into a container quite invariably seeks its own
level. We interpret this constancy as necessary in the sense that it could not be otherwise.
At this point, , we meet a new problem. the necessity of a causal law is never absolute. For
instance if the object released in mid-air is a piece of paper, and if by chance there is a strong breeze
blowing, it may rise. we see that one must conceive of the law of nature as necessary only one
abstracts from contingencies representing essentially independent factors. Such contingencies lead to chance.
we conceive of the necessity of a law of nature as conditional, it applies only to the extent that these
contingencies may be neglected.
(adapted from DAVID BHM, Causality and Change in Modern Physics)
b) Try to give a title to the text, and summarize it (about 50 words).
c) Comment upon the relation between the text given above and statistics and/or its tool probability
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COMPREHENSION II
& Read the paragraphs below and comment upon them taking into account the suggestions
given:
a. There are 36 just men in every generation. If the 36 just men did not exist, mankind couldnt last a day,
it would drown in its own wrongs. The 36 are not marked out by any rank or office. They cannot be
recognised, they never yield their secret, perhaps they are not even aware of it themselves; and yet it is
they who, in every successive generation, justify our existence and who every day save it anew.
(Hassidische Bcher)
b. There are only few who are dragging mankind forward: they are 20%, to be more precise. Only 20%
of the population are the diligent, conscientious workers who do their best not just for the sake of
promotion or for money, but because they think that if a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well.
And they feel so, indeed.
c. In his theory of motivation Maslow says that people satisfy their needs in a systematic way: once a
need has been met, it stops being a motivating factor, so that another a higher need is aimed at.
According to Maslows hierarchy (of needs), the 1) basic; 2) security, and 3) social needs are dominant;
while 4) esteem and 5) self-actualisation needs only seldom appear to be strong; and if so, this usually
occurs at higher social levels (i.e. among individuals with a higher social status).
d. We promote those who take initiative. He who does so may make mistakes; but we dont punish
people for making mistakes, we punish them for not doing. If you dont take any risk, but just sit on
your duff, then we care. (after Alvin Tffler)
Are they (all) statistics? Is any a reliable statistics?
Is there any relation between them? What does it consist in?
Do their deep meanings converge?
What is the moral (warning) they convey?
Do you agree with it?
Translate into English:
Statistica se bazeaz\ `ntr-o at>t de mare m\ sur\ pe experien]\ [i pe judecata ra]ional\ `n alegerea
procedurilor disponibile, `nc>t ar putea fi numit\ o art\. Pe de alt\ parte, statistica utilizeaz\ `ntr-o m\sur\
mai mare sau mai mic\ toate elementele metodei [tiin]ifice, dintre care cea mai notabil\ este concentrarea
asupra erorii. Din aceast\ perspectiv\ este o [tiin]\.
~n orice caz, aceast\ ramur\ modern\ a matematicii ne conduce cu ajutorul probabilit\]ii [i prin calcularea
erorii c\tre solu]iile cele mai adecvate; adic\, ne indic\ deciziile care, `n economie ca [i `n via]a social\,
corespund `n cea mai mare m\sur\ scopului care este, `ntr-o economie s\n\toas\, eficien]a.
Statisticile arat\ pe ce procent din popula]ia angajat\ ne putem bizui, `n c>]i la sut\ dintre oameni
putem avea `ncredere c\ se vor implica p>n\ la cap\t.
UNIT 6 Module II 141
UNIT SIX
MODULE II
KEY
PRACTICE I
2.1. 1. made, did, did; 2. made, do, making; 3. do; 4. are doing, make; 5. make; 6. Do; 7. doesnt, do; 8.
did, make, make; 9. do, make, do; 10. make, do; 11. doing, making.
2.2.
a. 1. -ic, -ical; 2. -ic; 3. -ical; 4. -ic; 5. -ic; 6 -ical, -ic.
b. 1. -ical; 2. -ic; 3. -ical; 4. -ic; 5. -ical; 6. -ic.
2.3. 1. means; 2. meaning; 3. mean; 4. meaning, mean; 5. means; 6. means.
PRACTICE II
3.2.
a. 1. h; 2. th; 3. h; 4. h; 5. th; 6. th.
b. 1. u; 2. if; 3. if; 4. u; 5. u; 6. if.
3.3. 1. Since (As); Thus/Therefore; because (since); 2. However; Although; 3. thus; 4. though; 5.
Thus; Although; therefore.
3.4. Still; Likewise; However; Indeed; since; Thus; Similarly; however; For; Thus; if; Hence; as
(since).
COMPREHENSION II
Suggested answer:
To such an extent does statistics rely on/ Statistics relies so heavily upon experience and judgement /
reasoning in closing the available procedures, that it may be called an art. On the other hand statistics
utilizes to various degrees all the elements of the scientific method. The most noteworthy being / of which
the most noteworthy is its focus on error. From this perspective it is a science. Anyway this modern branch of
mathematics leads us through error and probability to the most appropriate decisions, i.e., it points out / indicates
the / those decisions that, in economy as in social life, best suit the target which, in a sound economy is
efficiency. Statistics show / indicate what percentage of the employed population are reliable / we can rely on,
how many percent are certain to commit themselves entirely.
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UNIT SIX
MODULE III
CYBERNETICS AND ITS CONNECTIONS
OBJ ECTIVES: After studying this chapter you should be able to:
o define cybernetics
o define its principles
LEAD-IN
1. What is cybernetics?
2. What does it study?
3. What is information?
4. What is feedback?
5. Which way do information & feedback operate within a system?
6. What is a system?
7. What are the applications of cybernetics?
8. In which fields are these applications mainly used?
9. What are their consequences?
CYBERNETICS AND ITS CONNECTIONS
According to Wieners definition cybernetics is the information technology and a storage of information.
The cornerstones of cybernetics are the information theory, the theory of algorithms, and the theory of
automatic systems, which investigate the methods of building data-processing systems. Its mathematical
apparatus includes the theory of probability, the theory of functions, mathematical logic.
Cybernetics studies the common properties of different control systems, properties quite independent
of their material basis and which can equally manifest themselves in the inorganic world, in living nature
and in human collectives. It is indeed the remarkable similarity of control processes in systems of entirely
different nature that provided the basis for the development of cybernetics which makes use of mathematical
methods to study control systems and processes. Hence Pekeliss definition of cybernetics as the science of
the general principles of control, means of control, and their utilization in engineering, living organisms,
and human society.
In the first flush of enthusiasm in the late 1940s the founding fathers of cybernetics hoped it might be
the answer to life, the Universe, and everything.. By the time of the preface to the second edition of Wieners
book in 1961 this optimism was already fading. Cybernetics had suffered a period of buzzword fashionability
which provoked a reaction of disillusion. A more solid development followed, in which Wieners keywords
of control, communication, information, and feedback were more clearly seen as facets of the united science
UNIT 6 Module III 143
of information, and its useful application with information theory as the quantitative foundation. Thus cybernetics
may be defined as the basic discipline of information sciences and their applications.
Cybernetics can be subdivided into: a) theoretical mathematical and logical basis, and philosophical
problems; b) technological design and operation of control, and computer hardware; c) applied use of
theoretical and technological cybernetics for solving specific control tasks in industry, power supply, transport,
communication etc.
Our century may be termed the century of cybernetics. Today science, technology, industry can hardly
be imagined without electronic computers, without automata, without the new methods that the science of
control and regulation place at the disposal of man.
However, cybernetics is a key not only to modern information-based technology but also to modern
developments in biological and social sciences. Cybernetics helps scientists to discover various laws in
economics and sociology. And since to quote Wiener again communication and control belong to the
essence of mans life just as they belong to his life in society, cybernetics also came to help physiologists
and psychiatrists in their investigations of the organism, in discovering the quantitative laws governing the
functioning of living control systems.
Cybernetics seeks to discover the common features of two control systems: it studies human thinking
in order to create algorithms more or less faithfully describing the operations of the living control systems; it
also studies the automata design principles, and investigates the possibilities of using them in order to mechanize
human mental process. Thus it enriches the engineers engaged in creating complex automatic systems with the
experience of nature.
Therefore we may say that one of the fundamental issues cybernetics is concerned with is that of
artificial intelligence (Ai), i.e. the ability to reproduce, by whatever means are available to us, the full range
of humanlike abilities. One way of thinking about this problem of cybernetics is to ask the question Could
machines be made to think? If we can manufacture a system, or program a computer able to perform the full
range of intelligent activities of human beings such as problem solving, decision taking, thinking, learning,
adapting to changing circumstances, and the like then we will have to answer the question in the affirmative.
Now thinking machines are the results of this concern of cybernetics with artificial intelligence. Indeed,
mention the words cybernetics and artificial intelligence and the word computer seems to emerge almost
immediately. The incorporation of computers into cybernetics systems requires, in turn, an understanding of
the principles of artificial intelligence as well as those of adaptive, learning, self-organizing, self-repairing
systems.
VOCABULARY
cornerstone =piatr\ de temelie
flush of enthusiasm =val de entuziasm
buzzwords fashionability =mondenitate zgomotoas\
issue =1. chestiune, subiect, problem\ ; 2. rezultat
to be concerned with =a fi preocupat de
available =disponibil
a full range of =o larg\ /`ntreag\ gam\ de
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COMPREHENSION I
1.1. Answer the following questions on the text:
1. What are the cornerstones of cybernetics?
2. What theories does its mathematical apparatus include?
3. What provided the basis for the development of cybernetics?
4. Which are the keywords of cybernetics?
5. Which way do these concepts operate? Which is the relation between them?
6. Does cybernetics offer an answer to life/change/evolution?
7. What are the branches of cybernetics?
8. What is artificial intelligence (Ai)?
9. Can machines think (as people do)?
10. Is cybernetics of any help in discovering various laws in, say, economics and/or sociology?
11. Which other fields of investigation has cybernetics come to help?
12. What is the relation between computer science and cybernetics?
PRACTICE I
2.1.
a. Fill in the blanks with the suitable verb to provide or to supply
1. They food for everyone in the damaged area.
2. Our firm will the schools with a new library.
3. Which company water to the town?
4. Candidates must their own pencils and paper.
5. Can you a substitute for it?
6. Well the tools for the job.
7. They kept us ed with milk for months.
8. It accommodation for several families.
b. Now fill in the blanks with the nouns corresponding to the verbs given above:
1. Our are already exhausted. 2. Fortunately a fresh will soon arrive. 3. This is the law of and
demand. 4. Well get in a of raw materials. 5. They still have a good of coal.
2.2.
a. Match the following definitions with the words: information, knowledge, news, message
knowledge, item of knowledge, news (on, about);
new information, fresh events reported, interesting information;
oral/written communication sent one by one person to another;
persons range of information, familiarity gained by experience (of), understanding, awareness.
b. Fill in the blanks with one of the words in a:
1. Have you any of him? 2. He had no of the facts at the time. 3. Unfortunately we still have no
on the point. 4. We cant take any measures until more is available. 5. Do let me have your ! 6. She has
a thorough of English. 7. Would you give him this ? 8. Ask for some more about it, first. 9. Have you
heard the about the company chairman? 10. She gave us worthy about their firm. 11. Its common
that the advance of depends on the amount of gathered. 12. I left a for the manager. 13. When the
broke he was abroad. 14. They had never, to my , complained before.
UNIT 6 Module III 145
2.3. Say it in a different way (in English, paying particular attention to the underlined words):
1. She has rather slender means, indeed.
2. Im afraid theres no means of doing it.
3. Ill try to open it by means of a penknife.
4. They have always lived beyond their means.
5. My brother has been the means of my success.
6. Theres no doubt that he is a man of means.
7. She is by no means stupid.
8. Its certain that he succeeded by means of hard work.
9. Faith is the means of salvation.
10. They havent got the means to buy it.
11. The main issueis to find out whether they meant it (or not).
12. They were, as usual, at issueover the matter of private ownership.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
PRACTICE II
3.1. Fill in the blanks with articles (where necessary):
a). 1. information is facts that have been processed into form that increases understanding
and is useful to people making decision. 2. It is made up of inputs, processes, and outputs. 3.
inputs may be matter, energy, humans, or facts entered into system. 4. process is that
which transforms input into output. 5. outputs are results of operation of process.
b) 1. science now begins to focus on 2. convergence of 3. man and 4. nature, on
5. framework which makes us, 6. living beings, 7. dependent parts of 8. nature and
simultaneously makes 9. nature 10. object of our thoughts and actions. 11. scientist can no
longer confront 12. universe as 13. objective observer. 14. science recognizes 15.
participation of 16. man with 17. universe.
3.2. Remake the sentences below, placing the underlined adverbs/adverbial phrases at the
beginning of the sentence (and making the necessary inversion):
He had no sooner bought a car than something went wrong with the supply of fuel to the engine.
They tried in vain to bring the matter to a successful issue.
She had hardly had time to check the devices when she was asked to leave if she was not able to do
something.
The experts not only demanded new training facilities; they also required higher salaries.
We didnt discover until later that someone had used the computer during our absence.
They can make the law effective only in this way.
His integrity has never beforebeen at issue.
She wants it so much that shell find the means to get it.
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3.3. Emphasize the underlined words in the text below making the necessary changes in the word
order (make as many sentences as underlined words are)
My brother wanted to become an expert in computer science. So last year he became a student at
the Faculty of Cybernetics. There he found out that nowadays there are systems sciences everywhere,
even among the humanities. That is why he wrote a paper on the relationships between systems sciences
and cybernetics, which sounds as follows: Cybernetics, as a systems science, can be related to the General
Systems Theory. However, cybernetics is not concerned with systems in general, as GST is. Cybernetics
studies a particular case of the closed, self-controlled systems with feedback.
3.4.
a) Use the following words so as to obtain the definitions of:
1. I nformation
and
2. Feedback
1. theory, in, term, reduces, any, the, means, communication, input, information, organism, its,
modern, which, that, uncertainty, is, informs;
2. the, is, as, coupling, the, feedback, to, generally of, input, defined, output, the.
b) Use the following words, each in its proper place, in order to make up correct, meaningful
sentences:
1. succeeds, best, she, begins, seldom, though, does, her, in, always, whatever, she, finishing, she,
enthusiastically.
2. sent, to find, we, Wednesday, as, their, had, the, soon, we, them, managed, parcel, lost, address, i.e., as,
new.
3. one, a, since, from, my, she, is, long, yesterday, Sue, brother, letter, she long, it, hasnt, such, the
received, as.
COMPREHENSION II
& Read the text below and comment upon it taking account of the suggestions given:
The world hierarchy has been generally used by systems theorists because it connotes a graded
succession of levels that can be diagrammed in the branching tree image.
A hierarchy with its built-in, self-regulatory safeguards is a stable affair. It is capable of variation and
change, but only in coordinated ways and only in limited directions. It receives information from the
environment, which modifies the process in the internally active system. But no modification takes place
randomly: each change is governed by fixed rules, which, however, leave room for flexible strategies guided
by feedbacks.
(adapted from J. S. Snaps, Hollonomy: A Human Systems Theory, Intersystems Publications)
UNIT 6 Module III 147
Is society hierarchically structured?
What is the role of information in an economy/a society? What does it bring about?
What is the role of fixed rules within a system?
What does feedback consist in in a society/an economy?
Give some examples of strategies and explain why strategies should be flexible?
Translate into English:
A) 1. Noi aprovizion\m majoritatea cantinelor din zon\. 2. ~ntotdeauna au cheltuit peste posibilit\]ile lor.
3. Av>nd `n vedere s\r\cia mijloacelor materiale ale angaja]ilor no[tri, ne sim]im obliga]i s\ ne exprim\m
dezacordul fa]\ de opinia voastr\/punctul vostru de vedere. 4. Asta este singura modalitate de a-l contacta.
B) Sistemul, const>nd `ntr-o suit\ de p\r]i/elemente corelate, este un tot unitar ale c\rui caracteristici [i
comportament sunt determinate de acelea ale p\ r]ilor componente. Totu[i nici caracteristicile, nici
comportamentul sistemului nu sunt reductibile la acelea ale p\r]ilor. A[adar un sistem este mai mult dec>t o
sum\ de elemente: este un ansamblu (un `ntreg) complex [i dinamic.
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UNIT SIX
MODULE III
KEY
PRACTICE I
2.1.
a) 1. P; 2. S; 3. S; 4. P; 5. P; 6. S; 7. S; 8. p.
b) 1. provisions; 2. supply; 3. s; 4. p; 5. s.
2.2. 1. N; 2. K; 3. I; 4. I; 5. N; 6. K; 7. M; 8. i; 9. N; 10. i; 11. K; 12. M; 13. N; 14. K.
2.3. 1. is (rather) poor; 2. theres no way/its impossible to; 3. with the help of; 4. (tried to) slow off; 5. I
owe my success to ; 6. a rich man; 7. not in the least; 8. through/througin/due to; 9. way; 10. the money; 11.
chef matter/problem; 12. had an argument/did not agree upon.
PRACTICE II
3.1.
a) 1. a b) 1. 2. the. 3.
2. 4. 5. the. 6.
3. The the 7. the. 8. 9.
4. The, the, an 10. the 11. A. 12. the
5. The, the, the, the 13. an. 14. 15. the
16. 17. the
3.2.
1. No sooner had he ; 2. In vain did they try ; 3. Hardly had she had ; 4. Not only did the experts
demand ; 5. Not until later did we discover ; 6. Only in this way can they ; 7. Never before has his
integrity been ; 8. So much does she want it .
3.3.
1. My brother did want to become ; 2. It is an expert in that my brother wanted ; 3. It is last year
that he became ; 4. It is at the Faculty that he became 5. It is there that he 6. It is even among
that 7. It is he who wrote 8. It is as a systems science that cybernetics 9. It is to the General Systems
Theory that cybernetics 10. It is not with systems sciences in general that cybernetics 11. It is a
particular case of the that cybernetics studies.
3.4.
a) In modern communication-theory information means any input which informs the organism, i.e.,
reduces its uncertainty.
Feedback is generally defined as the coupling of the input to the output.
b)
1. Though she always does her best, she seldom succeeds in finishing whatever she enthusiastically
begins.
2. We sent them the parcel last Wednesday, i.e. as soon as we had managed to find their new address.
3. It is long since Sue hasnt received such a long letter from my brother.