Buddhism and Peace

by

K. N. Jayatillake
M. A. (Cantab), PhD. (London) Professor of Philosophy, Uni ersity of Ceylon

Buddhist Publication Society Kandy Sri Lanka

!he "heel Publication #o. $%

First Edition Second Im ression !hird Im ression

1962 1969 19"#

BPS $nline Edition % &2''"( )i*ital !ranscri tion Source+ BPS !ranscri tion Pro,ect For -ree distribution. !his /ork may be re ublished0 re-ormatted0 re rinted and redistributed in any medium. 1o/e2er0 any such re ublication and redistribution is to be made a2ailable to the ublic on a -ree and unrestricted basis0 and translations and other deri2ati2e /orks are to be clearly marked as such.

Buddhism and Peace%

3hile -ello/4scientists ha2e been able to come to*ether and discuss their common roblems /ithout bitterness or acrimony0 the idea that eo le o- di--erent reli*ions can meet and discuss to ics o- mutual interest is o- more recent ori*in. !his is un-ortunate since it is the reli*ious men /ho ro-ess to stand -or the ideals o- truth and lo2e0 /ho should ha2e *i2en a lead in this matter to the others. I need not *o into the historical reasons -or this0 but I am *lad that this or*ani5ation amon* others has in recent times succeeded in e6tendin* its hand o- -ello/shi beyond sectarian boundaries. 3hat Buddhism has to say on the theme o- eace and the conce ts o- truth0 -reedom0 ,ustice and lo2e is0 I belie2e0 articularly a ro riate to our times. !his 2ie/0 I also belie2e0 /ould be shared by most o- you in res ect o- your o/n reli*ions. !his raises a number o- roblems. 7re /e all sayin* the same thin*8 $r are /e sayin* a number o- thin*s /hich com lement and su lement one another0 each o- us contributin* some as ect o- truth re*ardin* these conce ts0 2alues and ideals8 $r can it be that only one o- us &or none o- us( is ri*ht and the rest are /ron*8 $r is it the case that our talk about these thin*s is de2oid o- meanin* and has only an emoti2e si*ni-icance -or us and some o- our hearers8 3e cannot ho e to sol2e all these roblems0 but I belie2e that discussions o- this sort can *o a lon* /ay to hel us see one another9s oints o- 2ie/ and clari-y our o/n 2ie/s about them. It is e2ident that there is a common content in the hi*her reli*ions. 7ll these reli*ions ro-ess a belie- in a !ranscendent :eality0 in sur2i2al0 in moral res onsibility and moral 2alues0 and in a *ood li-e0 des ite the di--erences /hen /e *o into details. !he ;hristians and <uslims seek communion /ith =od0 the 1indus seek union /ith Brahman0 and the Buddhists seek to attain >ibb?na. It is e@ually e2ident that on matters on /hich they disa*ree they cannot all be trueA unless it can be sho/n that the disa*reements are urely 2erbal. ;hristianity belie2es in one uni@ue IncarnationB 1induism in se2eral. !o Islam the 2ery idea is blas hemy. !o the Buddhist it de ends on /hat you mean. >o/ /hat I ha2e to say on the conce ts o- eace0 truth0 -reedom0 ,ustice and lo2e in Buddhism belon*s artly to the common content and artly to the dis arate element0 /hich distin*uishes Buddhism -rom other reli*ions. It /ould be necessary -or me to oint out both0 i- I am to *i2e a clear icture o- the account *i2en o- these conce ts in Buddhism. Peace is a central conce t in the reli*ion o- the Buddha0 /ho came to be kno/n as the Csanti4 r?,?D or the CPrince o- Peace.D For0 on the one hand the aim o- the *ood li-e0 as understood in Buddhism0 is described as the attainment o- a state o- CPeaceD or C santi0D /hich is a characteristic o- >ibb?na or the !ranscendent :eality. $n the other hand0 the ractice o- the *ood li-e is said to consist in Csama4cariy?D or Charmonious &literally+ eace-ul( li2in*D /ith one9s -ello/ bein*s. It /as this doctrine0 /hich *a2e Cin/ard eaceD & ajjhatta-santi(2 and resulted in Charmonious li2in*D &or Cri*hteous li2in*DAdhammacariyAas it is sometimes called(0 /hich the Buddha -or the -irst time in the kno/n history o- mankind sou*ht to s read o2er the entire earth /hen he set u 0 as he claimed Cthe kin*dom o- ri*hteousnessD & dhamma-cakka0 literally0 rule o- ri*hteousness( or Cthe kin*dom o- =odD &brahma-cakka(.3 !he Buddha0 /ho in the earliest te6ts is said to ha2e been Cborn -or the *ood and ha iness o- mankindD &manussaloka hita-sukhatya jto(0E -irst trained si6ty4one o- his disci les to attain the
1

!alk *i2en on " 7 ril 1961 at a Seminar or*ani5ed by the International Fello/shi o- :econciliation0 held at 7ll Souls ;olle*e0 $6-ord Fni2ersity. !he Seminar /as on the theme o- C:eli*ion and Peace0 /ith s ecial re-erence to the conce ts o- !ruth0 Gustice0 Freedom and Lo2e.D 2 Sn "#H 3 CBrahm D means here Cthe hi*hestD or the Cmost sublimeD /ithout theolo*ical connotations. 4 Sn. 6"#

hi*hest s iritual *oal in this li-e itsel- and then sent them out0 re@uestin* that no t/o o- them /ere to *o in the same direction. !hey /ere Cto reach this *ood doctrine0 lo2ely in the be*innin*0 lo2ely in the middle and lo2ely in its consummation.D It is necessary to stress the im ortance o- this trainin* /hich /as intended to brin* about the moral & sla(0 intuiti2e &samdhi( and intellectual4s iritual &pa( de2elo ment o- the erson. For it /as only those /ho had attained the Cin/ard eaceD /ho /ere considered -it to reach0 since accordin* to Buddhism Cit is not ossible -or a man /ho has not sa2ed himsel- to &hel ( sa2e another.D I !hose /ho /ent out on such missions /ere to train themsel2es in such a /ay that Ci- bri*ands /ere to *et hold o- them and cut them limb by limb /ith a double4ed*ed sa/0D they should not consider themsel2es to ha2e done the biddin* o- the Buddha0 i- they sho/ed the sli*htest an*er to/ards them.6 !he ractice o- Cmett?D or ;om assionate Lo2e /as thus an essential art o- the trainin*. !he /orth laced on Lo2e in Buddhism may be *athered -rom the -ollo/in* remark o- the Buddha+ C>one o- the *ood /orks em loyed to ac@uire reli*ious merit is /orth a -raction o- the 2alue olo2in*4kindness.DH !he /ord mett? is the abstract noun -rom the /ord mitra0 /hich means C-riend.D It is0 ho/e2er0 not de-ined ,ust as C-riendlinessD but as analo*ous to a mother9s lo2e -or her only child. CGust as a mother lo2es her only child e2en more than her li-e0 do thou e6tend a boundless lo2e to/ards all creatures.D !he ractice o- the Chi*hest li-eD or the C=od4li-eD &brahma-vihra( is said to consist in the culti2ation o- com assionate -eelin*s to/ards all bein*s0 sym athy &karu( to/ards those in distress /ho need our hel 0 the ability to re,oice /ith those /ho are ,ustly ha y &the o osite emotion to that o- ,ealousy0 en2y0 etc.( & mudit( and im artiality to/ards all. !he erson /ho has success-ully de2elo ed these @ualities is said to be Cone /ho is cleansed /ith an internal bathin*D a-ter bathin* Cin the /aters o- lo2e and com assion -or one9s -ello/ bein*s.D" 3hen the Buddha9s disci le Jnanda su**ested to him that hal- o- the reli*ion o- the Buddha consisted in the ractice o- -riendliness0 the Buddha9s re,oinder /as that it /as not hal- but the /hole o- the reli*ion. It /as this em hasis on com assion /hich made it ossible -or Buddhism to s read its messa*e o2er the *reater art o- 7sia0 /ithout resortin* to military -orce or olitical o/er. It is the roud boast o- Buddhism that not a dro o- blood has been shed in ro a*atin* its messa*e and no /ars ha2e been -ou*ht -or the cause o- Buddhism or the Buddha. It /as able to con2ert eo le to its 2ie/ by its reasonableness and the ins irin* e6am le o- those /ho reached it. )i--erences o- o inion there /ere /ith re*ard to the inter retation o- the te6ts amon* the Buddhists themsel2es0 and this /as ine2itable in a reli*ion /hich *a2e -ull -reedom o- thou*ht and e6 ression to man. But these di--erences did not result in -anaticism and an attem t on the art o- one arty to ersecute the other. 1istory records the -act that those /ho subscribed to the ideals o- <ah?y?na or !hera2?da Buddhism /ere able to study side by side in the same monastery. In /orld con-erences o- Buddhists0 <ah?y?nists and !hera2?dins come to*ether des ite the kno/n di--erences in their 2ie/s. 7nother as ect o- this ractice o- com assion on the art o- the Buddhists is the -act that they /ere the -irst in history to o en hos itals in India0 ;eylon and ;hina -or the medical treatment not only o- human bein*s but o- animals as /ell0 thus translatin* into action the sayin* o- the Buddha that Che /ho ser2es the sick ser2es me.D 9

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< I E6 < I 129 7 Itivuttaka 0 19K21 8 < I #9 9 Vinaya Pitaka0 ahva!!a LIII. 26.

!he e--ect that this doctrine o- com assion had on the Buddhist em eror0 7soka0 may be seen /hen he says0 C7ll men are my children0 and0 as I desire -or my children that they obtain e2ery kind o- /el-are and ha iness both in this /orld and the ne6t /orld0 so do I desire -or all men.D 1ere /as a kin*0 uni@ue in history0 /ho on his con2ersion to Buddhism *a2e u military con@uest as an instrument o- olicy not a-ter de-eat but a-ter 2ictory. 7soka had con@uered an area almost the si5e o- Euro e0 but he did not e6tend his con@uest to the southernmost art oIndia or try to anne6 ;eylon0 althou*h he could ha2e easily done so. !he :ock Edict MIII contains a ersonal con-ession o- his remorse at the si*ht o- the su--erin* and carna*e /hich his military cam ai*ns in2ol2ed. 3hen he embraced Buddhism0 he indul*ed in s iritual con@uest sayin* that Cthe re2erberation o- /ar drumsD /as no/ re laced by the Cre2erberation o- the drum o- the dharma.D It a ears as i- 7soka /as tryin* to emulate the e6am le o- the ri*hteous Cuni2ersal monarchD & cakkavatti-rja( as de icted in the Buddhist te6ts. !he Buddha had said that Cit /as ossible to rule a country in accordance /ith dharma /ithout resortin* to harsh uniti2e measures or en*a*in* in military con@uests.D1' !he Cuni2ersal monarchD /ho is called a Ckin* o- ri*hteousnessD & dharma-rja( *o2erns his country as a model state in /hich there is both economic ros erity as /ell as the ractice ori*hteousness. !he idea and -ame o- this Gust Society s reads o2er the earth until the entire /orld -ollo/s its e6am le and comes under a sin*le rule C/ithout the necessity -or arms or the s/ordD &ada"#na asatth#na(. In any case he seems to ha2e been im ressed by the sentiments about /ar e6 ressed in the Buddhist te6ts. !he )hamma ada says+ CLictory breeds hatred0 -or the con@uered slee in sorro/B castin* aside 2ictory and de-eat0 the eace-ul one d/ells at ease.D11 C!he con@ueror *ets someone /ho con@uers him.D12 C1atred does not cease by hatredA hatred ceases by lo2eA this is the eternal la/.D1# !he <ah?y?na /ork0 the Su2arNabh?sottama SOtra0 contains a bet/een Cthe "E0''' kin*s o- India.D lea -or eace and concord

!he Buddha not only reached a*ainst /ar but actually inter2ened on one occasion to re2ent a /arAthe -irst ractical lesson in ahis in the -ield o- olitics. !/o tribes0 the Sakyas and the Koliyas0 /ho li2ed on either side o- a ri2er /ere makin* /arlike re arations to destroy each other because they could not a*ree on di2idin* the /aters -or their use. It is on this occasion that the Buddha inter2ened and brou*ht about a settlement a-ter askin* the /armon*ers /hat they considered to be o- *reater /orthA/ater or human li2esP It is these acts o- com assion o- the Buddha0 /ho *a2e u a kin*dom to sho/ humanity the /ay to enli*htenment0 /hich made one o- his contem oraries say o- him0 CI ha2e heard it said that =od is ;om assionate but I ha2e seen /ith my o/n eyes ho/ -ull o- ;om assion the Blessed $ne is.D It is not sur risin* there-ore that in the <ah?y?na0 the Buddha should be concei2ed o- as the Incarnation o- the Chi*hest ;om assionD &mah kruika($
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S I 116. 7ccordin* to Buddhist tradition0 there are eriods in the /orld cycles /hen human bein*s are at the eak o- moral and intellectual de2elo ment0 and at such times a /orld ruler & cakkavatti ( is able to *o2ern in ri*hteousness0 /ithout the use o- -orce. 11 )h 2'H 12 S I "I 13 )h I

!he idea o- ;om assion has its ori*ins in re4Buddhistic thou*ht. It is -irst met /ith in the ;h?ndo*ya F anishad0 /here it is said that one should ractise ahis &non42iolence( to/ards all creatures /ith the sole e6ce tion o- holy laces 1EAin other /ords animal sacri-ices to =od /ere ermitted. !he conce t o- ahimsa also -inds a central lace in Gainism0 /here the Gain ascetic *oes into e6tremes in ractisin* this 2irtue. But it /as Buddhism /hich made ahimsa basically a 2irtue to be ractised in human relations and introduced the ne/ /ord C m#ttD &the abstract noun -rom mitra0 -riend( to denote this conce t. But the ob,ect o- one9s mett? &;om assion0 Lo2e( is not only human bein*s but all bein*s both hi*her and lo/er than the human0 and it came to mean the com letely sel-less but boundless com assion o- a Buddha. !he conce t o- Cbein*s hi*her than the humanD is unintelli*ible e6ce t in the back*round othe Buddhist cosmolo*y. 7ccordin* to the Buddhist conce tion o- the cosmos0 there are an innumerable number o- /orld4systems. !he Buddha says0 C7s -ar as these suns and moons re2ol2e sheddin* their li*ht in s ace0 so -ar e6tends the thousand4-old /orld4system. In it are a thousand suns0 a thousand moons0 thousands o- earths and thousands o- hea2enly /orlds. !his is the thousand4-old minor /orld4system. 7 thousand times such a thousand4-old minor /orld4 system is the t/ice a4thousand middlin* /orld system. 7 thousand times such a t/ice4a4 thousand middlin* /orld4system is the thrice4a4thousand ma,or /orld4system.D 1I !his is a conce tion that artially coincides /ith the modern hysicist9s 2ie/ o- the cosmos0 /ith its hundreds o- *alactic systems or island uni2erses0 /hether /e acce t the inter retations o- Bondi and 1oyle or :yle. !he com assion o- the Buddhist is to be e6tended not only to the humans and animals on our earth but to the bein*s in all these /orlds. 7ll bein*s /ithin the cosmos0 ho/e2er lo/ their state o- e2olution may be0 are said to ha2e the ca acity to e2ol2e u to the 2ery hi*hest stateB and ho/e2er hi*h their stature may be0 are said to be sub,ect to death so lon* as they remain /ithin the cosmosAboth these -acts teach us the same lesson0 namely0 that it is each one9s duty to hel his -ello/ bein*s and that no one has any ri*ht or 2alid *rounds to des ise another. 7t the human le2el the need -or mutual hel is much *reater. Buddhism tau*ht the doctrine o- the e@uality o- mankind at a time /hen human ine@uality /as taken -or *ranted. 3e -ind here -or the -irst time the biolo*ical ar*ument that mankind /as one s ecies. !he Buddha says0 CKno/ ye the *rasses and trees Q the marks that constitute s ecies are -or them and their s ecies are mani-old. Kno/ ye the /orms and the moths and the di--erent sorts o- ants0 the marks that constitute s ecies are -or them Q 7s in these s ecies the marks that constitute s ecies are mani-old0 so amon* men the marks that constitute s ecies are not -ound Q >ot as re*ards their hair0 head0 ears Q )i--erence there is in bein*s endo/ed /ith bodies0 but amon*st men this is not the caseAthe di--erence amon*st men is nominal &only(.D16 !he 1indu conce tion o- society /as static and /as dominated by the idea o- caste. !his /as *i2en a di2ine sanction by bein* considered a creation o- =od+ C=od created the -our-old castes /ith their s eci-ic a titudes and -unctions.D1H 7*ainst this /as the dynamic e2olutionary conce tion o- society as ictured in Early Buddhism. !he Buddha countered the ar*uments that the hierarchical -our-old di2ision o- society /as -undamental by ointin* out that in certain societies &e.*. amon* the Rona4Kambo,as0 i.e. certain Persian states(0 there /ere only t/o classes0 the lords and the ser-s and that e2en this /as not ri*id -or Csometimes the lords became ser-s and the ser-s lords.D1"
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%handyo!ya &panishad "0 1I 7 I 22H0 22"B IL I90 6' 16 'uttanipta0 !r. FausbSll0 'acr#d Books o( th# )ast0 Lol. 1'0 17 Bha!avad *ta 0 IL. 1# 18 < II 1IH

. 111K11#

3hile the !heists at that time ur*ed that men /ere created une@ual by =od0 the Buddhists turned the ar*uments o- the !heists a*ainst them. 7T2a*hoUa0 a brahmin con2ert to Buddhism0 /rites in his La,rasOcV &circa 1 st c. B.;.( in a olemic a*ainst caste that the -atherhood o- =od should im ly the brotherhood o- man. 1e says0 C3onder-ulP Rou a--irm that all men roceeded -rom $ne0 i.e. =od &Brahma(B ho/ then can there be a -our-old insu erable di2ersity amon* them8 I- I ha2e -our sons by one /i-e0 the -our sons ha2in* one -ather and mother must be all essentially alike.D 3e also -ind moral and s iritual ar*uments -or e@uality to sho/ that all eo le0 irres ecti2e o- caste0 race or rank /ere ca able o- moral de2elo ment and the hi*hest s iritual attainments. !he Buddhist idea o- -ello/shi or mett? is thus -ounded on the conce tion o- the oneness o- the human s ecies0 the e@uality o- man and the s iritual unity omankind. !he Buddhist undertakin* to re-rain -rom killin* is not a ne*ati2e rece t and has its ositi2e side /hen -ully stated0 2i5. C$ne re-rains -rom killin* creatures0 layin* aside the stick and the s/ord0 and abides conscientious0 -ull o- kindness0 lo2e and com assion to/ards all creatures and bein*s.D197 Buddhist layman has to -ollo/ a ri*hteous mode o- li2in* & samm jva( and this meant that certain ro-essions /ere not o en to him. 7ccordin* to the te6ts -i2e trades are -orbidden+ he should not en*a*e in the sale o- arms & sattha-vijj(0 the sale o- human bein*s or animals &satta-vijj(0 the sale o- -lesh &masa-vijj(0 the sale o- into6icatin* drinks &majja-vijj( and the sale o- dan*erous and oisonous dru*s &visa-vijj(2'. !he order o- monks /ere e6horted to ractise the -ollo/in*0 /hich are said to romote unityAto be com assionate in their beha2iour0 their s eech and their thou*hts to/ards one another and to ha2e all thin*s in common.21 I said that the ideal in Buddhism /as to attain a ermanent state o- mind described as the Cin/ard eaceD not in the remote -uture but in this li-e itsel-. !his is not a assi2e a athetic state o- @uietism as some 3estern critics o- Buddhism ha2e thou*ht. For the assa*e -rom our -inite sel-4centred e6istence to >ibb?na is ictured as one -rom bonda*e to -reedom & vimutti( and o/er &vasi(0 -rom im er-ection to er-ection &parisuddhi+ parama-kusala(0 -rom unha iness to er-ect ha iness &parama-sukha(0 -rom i*norance to kno/led*e &vijj+ a+ a(0 -rom -inite consciousness to in-inite transcendent consciousness & ananta-via(0 -rom the im ermanent to the ermanent &nicca(0 -rom the unstable to the stable & dhuva(0 -rom -ear and an6iety to er-ect security &abhaya(0 -rom the e2anescent to the ine--able & amosadhamma(0 -rom a state o- mental illness to a state o- er-ect mental health0 etc. It is a eace that asses understandin* -or it is the result o- /hat is arado6ically described both as the e6tinction o- one9s sel-4centred desires and the attainment o- an ultimate reality. Let me e6 lain. 7ccordin* to Buddhism0 the s rin*s oaction are si64-old0 com risin* the three immoral bases o- action & akusala-m,la( and the three moral bases o- action &kusala-m,la(0 2i5.

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)IE 7 III 2'" 21 < I #22

%. &mmoral bases a. r!a &cra2in*(+ b. dosa &hatred(+ c. moha &delusion(+ '. Moral bases a. ar!a &non4cra2in*(+ b. adosa &non4hatred(+ c. amoha &non4delusion(+ c!a &charity( m#tt &lo2e( vijj &kno/led*e( kma-r!a or kma-tah0 the desire -or sense *rati-icationB bhava-r!a or bhava-tah+ the desire -or sel-ish ursuits vibhava-tah0 the desire -or destruction erroneous belie-s.

!oynbee has said that the Buddha -ailed Cto distin*uish bet/een sel-4de2otin* and sel-4centred desires.D22 But the distinction bet/een the t/o is so marked in Buddhism that the -ormer &the <oral bases( are not e2en called Cdesires.D C)esiresD or CthirstsD are three-oldA&1( the desire -or sense4*rati-ication &kma-tah(0 &2( the desire -or sel-ish ursuits0 e.*. sel-4 reser2ation0 sel-4 continuity0 sel-4assertion0 sel-4dis lay0 etc. & bhava tah(0 &#( the desire -or destruction & vibhavatah(. !hese desires continually seek and -ind tem orary satis-action & tatra-tatrbhinandin( thou*h e2er remainin* unsatis-ied and ro2ide the -uel -or the rocess called Cthe indi2idual.D !hey are said to be narro/ and limited & pama-kata(02# /hile their o ositesA;harity and Lo2eAare boundless &appama(.2E >o/ the Buddha ur*es only the total e6tinction o- these sel-4 centred desires &i.e.0 1 a W b( and the com lete elimination o- i*norance or delusion &i.e.0 1Kc(. !his is done by *radually culti2atin* and de2elo in* the o osite traits o- charity0 lo2e and kno/led*e until the mind at all its le2els is -inally ur*ed o- all such sel-4centred desires and considerations. !he mind is said to be Cdi2ided into t/o com artmentsD & ubhayato abbhocchinna(02I the conscious and the unconscious. 7s lon* as it is a--ected by the three-old desires0 there is an in-lu6 o- de-ilin* im ulses &sava( into the conscious mind0 and it is in a state o- tension and unrest. >o/ diseases are classi-ied as t/o-old0 bodily disease & kyiko ro!o( and mental disease &c#tasiko ro!o($ It is said that /e su--er -rom bodily disease -rom time to time0 but that mental illness is continual until the -inal state o- sainthood is attained. !his is the conce t o- the healthy mind as understood in BuddhismAa state in /hich the sel-4centred desires are utterly e6tin*uished and the mind en,oys an Cin/ard eace0D /hich is said to be one o- indescribable ha iness. !oynbee has said that this *oal Clooks intrinsically unattainableD 26 since desires cannot be *i2en u /ithout culti2atin* the desire to *i2e them u . !his criticism has already been -orestalled and met in the Pali ;anon itsel-. !he sel-4centred desires are to be eliminated by de endin* on desire &taha nissya-taha pahtabba(2HAnamely the desire -or >ibb?na. But this latter master4desire0 it is ointed out0 is not on the same -ootin* as the -irst4order desires0 -or unlike the sel-4centred desires0 /hich continually seek *rati-ication -rom time to time /ithout bein* ermanently satis-ied0 the master4desire /ould achie2e -inal satis-action and be e6tin*uished /ith the eradication o- the sel-4centred desires and the attainment o- >ibb?na0 /hich coincides /ith it. !his is the Cin/ard eaceD s oken o- in the in the Buddhist te6ts. It is a
22 23

!oynbee0 7rnold0 -n .istorian/s -pproach to 0#li!ion0 $6-ord Fni2ersity Press0 19I60 . 29 < I 29H 24 loc. cit. 25 ) III 1'I 26 !oynbee o . cit. . 6E 27 7 II 1E6

/ord -ull o- meanin* but it has meanin* only to those /ho ha2e e6 erienced it0 artially or -ully. !o others it is de2oid o- meanin* in the same /ay in /hich the -ormulae o- a hysicist /ould be de2oid o- meanin* to one /ho does not understand his sub,ect. !his brin*s us to the roblem o- meanin* and truth in Buddhism. !he t/o are related -or be-ore /e can say that a statement is true or -alse0 /e are obli*ed to ask /hether it is meanin*-ul or si*ni-icant. It is to the credit o- the Buddha that he /as one o- the -irst thinkers o- the East or 3est to discuss the roblem o- the meanin* o- statements0 articularly o- the statements oreli*ion. 3e cannot *o into this in detail0 and /e may state brie-ly that0 accordin* to the Buddha0 a statement is meanin*-ul i- it is in rinci le 2eri-iable in the li*ht o- e6 erience0 sensory or e6tra4sensory. 7 statement should also ha2e a basis in a erson9s e6 erience be-ore he can meanin*-ully assert it0 so that the same statement may be meanin*-ul in one conte6t and meanin*less in another. <eanin*-ul statements may be true or -alse. !ruth is said to ha2e the characteristic o- Ccorres ondence /ith -actD & yathbh,ta(. I- I belie2e that there is a ne6t /orld0 and it is the case that there is a ne6t /orld0 then my belie- is true 2" and other/ise -alse29. !ruth must also be consistentB it is said that Ctruth is one and there is no second truth.D #' But consistency is not enou*h0 -or it is ossible to ha2e se2eral internally consistent systems othou*ht0 mutually contradictin* one another. For this reason any reli*ion based on ure &a riori( reasonin* &takka( is said to be unsatis-actory0 -or0 e2en i- the reasonin* is sound &sutakkita pi hoti(#1 and internally consistent0 the theory may be -alse i- it does not corres ond /ith -act. 3hile Buddhist tolerance is artly deri2ed -rom its em hasis on ;om assion0 it also has its roots in its attitude to truth and its *eneral conce tion o- man. I- men did /ron*0 it /as because they /ere i*norant rather than sin-ul0 and it is0 there-ore0 our duty to enli*hten the i*norant and re-orm them rather than unish them -or their /ron*doin*. I*norance a*ain cannot be re laced /ith kno/led*e by im osin* one9s belie-s on others0 e2en i- they /ere true. Peo le ha2e to *ro/ u and disco2er the truth themsel2es0 and the most that others can do &e2en the Buddha( is to hel them to do this. Far -rom bein* detrimental0 the scienti-ic outlook /as considered to be essential -or the moral and s iritual de2elo ment o- manB and our critical -aculties should be e6ercised to the -ullest e6tent in the disco2ery o- reli*ious truth. !he Buddha tells a @uestioner0 on more than one occasion0 CRou ha2e raised a doubt in a situation in /hich you ou*ht to sus end your ,ud*ment. )o not acce t anythin* because it is rumoured so0 because it is the traditional belie-0 because the ma,ority holds it0 because it is -ound in the scri tures0 because it is a roduct ometa hysical ar*ument and s eculation0 because o- a su er-icial in2esti*ation o- -acts0 because it con-orms /ith one9s inclinations0 because it is authoritati2e or because o- the resti*e42alue o- your teacher.D#2 E2en his o/n teachin* /as no e6ce tion0 and the Buddha did not demand a blind -aith or alle*iance -or it. C$ne must not0D he says0 Cacce t my )hamma &teachin*( -rom re2erence but -irst try it as *old is tried by -ire.D !he sincerity and -rankness on /hich a truly reli*ious li-e should be *rounded demanded healthy criticism and continual sel-4e6amination0 and the im ortance o- such an outlook is no/here so /ell em hasi5ed as in the -ollo/in* e6hortation+ CI- anyone0D says the Buddha0 C/ere to s eak ill o- me0 my doctrine or my order0 do not bear any ill4/ill to/ards him0 be u set
28 29

< I E#' < I E'2 30 Sn ""E 31 < I I2' 32 7 I 191

or erturbed at heart0 -or0 i- you /ere to be so0 it /ould only cause you harm. I-0 on the other hand0 anyone /ere to s eak /ell o- me0 my doctrine and my order0 do not be o2er,oyed0 thrilled or elated at heart0 -or0 i- so0 it /ould only be an obstacle in your /ay o- -ormin* a correct ,ud*ment as to /hether the @ualities raised in us are real and actually -ound in us.D ## !here is a distinction dra/n in the Buddhist te6ts bet/een a Crational -aithD & kravati-saddh( in /hat is 2eri-iable and /orth tryin* out and a Cbaseless -aithD &am,lika-saddh( in un2eri-iable do*masA the -ormer is commended and the latter condemned. Buddhism arts com any /ith other reli*ions in holdin* that moral and reli*ious truths &/ith one e6ce tion( are not di--erent in rinci le -rom scienti-ic truths. Parado6ical as it may seem0 it /as the BuddhaAi.e. a reli*ious teacherA/ho /as the -irst in the history o- thou*ht to state -ormally the t/o rinci les o- causal determination0 namely that 7 and B are causally related+ i- /hene2er 7 ha ens B ha ens and B does not ha en unless 7 has ha ened. !he theory o- causation is central to the understandin* o- Buddhism. !he Buddha tells us Cthe causes o- thin*s that arise -rom causesD and adds that Che /ho understands causation understands the )hamma and 2ice 2ersa.D ;ausation0 ho/e2er0 is not Strictly )eterministic since the mind &/ith its acts o- /ill( can o-ten di2ert and direct the o eration o- causal rocesses and the mind is said to ha2e the ca acity to act /ith de*rees o- -reedom accordin* to its state ode2elo ment. !he Buddhist conce t o- causation0 there-ore0 stands mid/ay bet/een Indeterminism &adhicca-samuppda1 Skt. yad2ccha( on the one hand and Strict )eterminism &niyati( on the other. !here /ere three -orms o- )eterminism re2alent at the time to /hich Buddhism /as o osedAone /as >atural )eterminism &svabhva-vda( /hich held that e2erythin* that ha ens is due to the innate constitution o- thin*sB another /as Karmic )eterminism & pubb#katah#tu+ 'kt$ purtana-karma-k2ta (0 /hich held that e2erythin* that ha ens to an indi2idual /as due to his ast KarmaB lastly0 there /as !heistic )eterminism & issara-nimmna-vda(0 /hich held that all that ha ens /as due to the -iat or /ill o- a Personal =od /ho has created the uni2erse and sustains it. In the uni2erse there o erate hysical la/s & utu-niyma(0 biolo*ical la/s &bja-niyma(0 sycholo*ical la/s &citta-niyma( and moral and s iritual la/s & dhamma-niyma(. 3hile the natural scientists tell us about the -irst three0 the Buddha disco2ers and re2eals the latter. It is said that0 /hether the Buddhas a ear or not0 these la/s o erate and /e are sub,ect to them. 7ll that the Buddha does is to disco2er &or re4disco2er( them. 3hat is thus disco2ered is said to be 2eri-iable by each and e2ery one o- us0 by -ollo/in* the ath that leads to their disco2ery. It is a contin*ent -act that the moral and s iritual li-e &i.e. the reli*ious li-e( is both ossible and desirable in the uni2erse in /hich /e li2e. I- the uni2erse /ere di--erent -rom /hat in -act it is &e.*. i- Indeterminism or Strict )eterminism /ere the case0 i- the soul /ere identical /ith the body or /ere di--erent -rom it0 i- there /ere no !ranscendent :eality(0 then the reli*ious li-e mi*ht not ha2e been ossible and /ould not ha2e been desirable. $ne o- the s iritual truths stated in Buddhism is the la/ o- karma. 7s understood in Buddhism it merely states that there is an obser2able correlation bet/een morally *ood acts and leasant conse@uences to the indi2idual and morally e2il acts and un leasant conse@uences. It does not state that all our resent e6 eriences are due to our ast karma. !his is in -act em hatically denied0 /here it is sho/n that many o- our e6 eriences are due to our o/n actions in this li-e or to causal -actors &such as the /eather0 our state o- hysical health(0 /hich ha2e nothin* to do /ith our karma. !he la/ o- karma as stated is a causal correlation0 /hich *uarantees the -act o- indi2idual moral res onsibility. It is said to be a correlation that is obser2able and 2eri-iable by de2elo in* one9s -aculty o- retro4co*nition0 i.e. the ability to recall
33

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one9s ast li2es. !his -aculty and others are said to be /ithin the reach o- all o- us to de2elo by the ractice o- meditation. 3hat e2idence is there to belie2e in rebirth8 Since rebirth or CreincarnationD is said to be a meanin*-ul conce t and a lo*ical ossibility0 #E the roblem is /hether it is the case or not. Brie-ly0 the e2idence today is o- t/o sorts+ &1( there are cases o- s ontaneous recall o- re2ious li2es0 es ecially on the art o- youn* children0 /hich ha2e been 2eri-ied and claimed to be -ound true. !here /as a recent case in ;eylon re orted in !he ;eylon $bser2er o- 19 Ganuary 19I1B#I &2( there is also e6 erimental e2idence. Peo le under dee hy nosis are able to recall not only the lost memories o- this li-e but o- re2ious li2es as /ell #6. Se2eral inter retations are ossible o- these e6 erimental data0 but I belie2e that the sim lest and best hy othesis to account -or the data I ha2e seen so -ar is that o- rebirth. It is ho ed that /ith more and better e6 erimentation on this 2eri-iable theory o- sur2i2al0 /e shall be able to kno/ the truth about it be-ore lon*. 3hile the F anishadic thinkers inter reted the mystic e6 eriences that they had as bein* due to the *race o- =od0#H Buddhism e6 lains these e6 eriences as due to the natural de2elo ment othe mind. For Buddhism they result -rom the o eration o- causal rocesses relatin* to reli*ious e6 erience. !hey are0 ho/e2er0 not considered sub,ecti2e and are held to be o- *reat 2alue0 thou*h Buddhism does not subscribe to the meta hysical and theolo*ical inter retations *i2en to them in the F anishads and the rest o- mystical literature in the East and 3est. $ne o- the rere@uisites -or de2elo in* these e6 eriences0 /hich *i2e meanin* to the reli*ious li-e0 is the absolute moral inte*rity o- the indi2idual. I ha2e tried to illustrate /hat I meant by sayin* that -or Buddhism s iritual truths /ere on a ar /ith scienti-ic truths. !here is0 ho/e2er0 one Ce6 erience0D i- it may be called an e6 erience0 /hich is beyond the em irical0 henomenal and causal. !his is the e6 erience o- >ibb?na0 /hich is called Cthe !ruthD &sacca(. !his illumination is said to be com arable to that o- a man born blind obtainin* si*ht a-ter a hysician has treated him. It is described as a -larin* u o- a *reat li*ht &?lok? uda ?di( and is said to coincide /ith the e6tinction o- the -ires o- *reed0 hatred and delusion0 and the attainment o- the eace that causes understandin*. It is not a conditioned causal e6 erience0 since >ibb?na is saidXXX to be the Fnconditioned &asaYkhata(0 the Fncaused &akataZ0 na a[icca4samu annaZ( and the !imeless &nibb?naZ na 2attabbaZ atVtan ti i an?*ataZ ti i accu annan ti i(0 not located in s ace &na katthaci0 kuhi\ci(. !o say that one e6ists &hoti u a a,,ati( in >ibb?na or ceases to e6ist &na hoti0 na u a a,,ati are both said to be /ron*. !he @uestion /as ut to the Buddha in his o/n li-e4time+ C!he erson /ho has attained the *oalAdoes he cease to e6ist0 or does he e6ist eternally /ithout de-ectB e6 lain this to me0 $ Lord0 as you understand it.D !he Buddha e6 lains0 C7 erson /ho has attained the *oal is beyond measureB he does not ha2e that /ith /hich one can describe him.D #" Else/here0 the Buddha e6 lained that the @uestion is meanin*less. It is the conce ts /ith /hich /e are -amiliar that make us ask it. 3e can only concei2e o- t/o alternati2esAthe annihilation o- the indi2idual at some oint o- time or his eternal duration in time. !he Buddha illustrates /hat he means /ith an e6am le. I- someone0 /ho has seen a -ire in -ront o- him *o out0 /ere to ask in /hich direction the -ire has *oneAnorthern0 southern0 eastern or /esternAit is a @uestion /hich
34 35

See 7yer0 7. G.0 3h# Probl#m o( 4no5l#d!# 0 Pen*uin Books0 19IH0 . 19#0 19E ;-. C!he ;ase o- Shanti )e2i0D 3h# Illustrat#d 6##kly o( India 0 1I )ecember 19#IB also0 C!he Problem o- :ebirth0D 3h# il5auk## '#ntin#l 0 2I Se tember 1"920 re orted by :al h Shirley. 36 See a recent study by )r. Gonathan :odney0 3h# )7plorations o( a .ypnotist 0 Elek Books0 London0 19I90 /here the e6 eriments are 2aried so as to eliminate hallucination. 37 dhtuh prasdt 0 4atha &panishad 2.2' 38 y#na na vajju ta tassa natthi$ Sn. 1'H6

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cannot be ans/ered0 since the @uestion itsel- is meanin*less. 3itt*enstein takes the same e6am le to illustrate the same oint+ C!hus it can come about that /e are not able to rid oursel2es o- the im lications o- our symbolism /hich seems to admit o- a @uestion like ]3here does the -lame o- a candle *o /hen it is blo/n out8 3here does the li*ht *o8 Q9 3e ha2e been obsessed /ith our symbolism. 3e may say that /e are led into u55lement by an analo*y0 /hich irresistibly dra*s us on.D#9 !he Buddha classi-ied @uestions into -our ty es0 &1( @uestions /hich can be ans/ered cate*orically0 &2( @uestions /hich can he ans/ered only a-ter analysis0 &#( @uestions /hich must be ans/ered /ith a counter4@uestion0 and &E( @uestions /hich ha2e to be ut aside as meanin*less. !he @uestion /hether the saint e6ists in >ibb?na or not0 is said to be meanin*less0 althou*h there is a sycholo*ical ur*e and a lin*uistic reason -or askin* it. 7nother set o@uestions /hich the Buddha set aside as meanin*less /ere the @uestions0 CIs the soul identical /ith the body8D and CIs the soul di--erent -rom the body8D 1a2in* discarded as an em iricist and a C2eri-icationistD the conce t o- the soul or substance as meanin*less these @uestions too are meanin*less since they contain a meanin*less conce t. !he traditional e6 lanation says that these @uestions are like askin* /hether Cthe child o- this barren /oman is -air or dark.D It /as not a*nosticism /hich made the Buddha discard these @uestions but a reali5ation o- their 2ery nature. It is not that there /as somethin* that he did not kno/ but that he kne/ only too /ell /hat he /as talkin* about. 3here lan*ua*e -ailed0 the Buddha literally -ollo/ed the dictum+ C3hereo- one cannot s eak0 thereo- one must be silent0D but his silence /as more elo@uent than /ords. !o those /ho had attained >ibb?na0 no e6 lanation /as necessaryB to those /ho had not0 no e6 lanation /as ossible. !he Buddha /as 2ery meticulous in the use o- lan*ua*e. 1e o-ten re-ormulated @uestions or remo2ed ambi*uities in /ords be-ore ans/erin* them in order to remo2e misleadin* im lications. 1e claimed that he /as not a do*matist &ekaZsa42?do( but an analyst &2ibha,,a4 2?do(. !he truth o- >ibb?na or the ultimate reality is thus strictly ine6 ressible0 but all else that belon*s to the realm o- moral and s iritual truth can be stated and stated recisely. !he -inal state o- Cin/ard eaceD is also a state o- er-ect Freedom &samm?42imutti(0 -or the mind then ceases to be conditioned by the load o- its ast and the desires ra*in* /ithin it. It becomes master o- itsel-. In the state o- normal e2eryday consciousness /e are -inite conditioned bein*s. 7ccordin* to /hat the te6ts say0 /e are conditioned by /hat /e inherit -rom mother and -ather0 by the store o- unconscious memories *oin* back to our childhood and our re2ious li2es0 by the desires and im ulses /hich a*itate /ithin it and by the stimuli /hich come -rom the Csi6 doors o- erce tion0D i.e.0 the data o- the -i2e senses0 our en2ironment and the ideas that /e imbibe and res ond to. But0 des ite the -act that the ordinary man is thus lar*ely conditioned by his inner nature and en2ironment0 he has a certain de*ree o- -reedom to act /ithin limits. )urin* the time o- the Buddha there /ere 2iolent dis utes about this roblem bet/een t/o schools o- thou*ht. !here /ere akiriya42?dins /ho denied -ree/ill because they /ere determinists in some sense or another0 and in the o osite cam /ere the kiriya42?dins /ho u held -ree/ill. !he Buddha held that man /as ossessed o- a de*ree o- -ree/ill0 /hile not denyin* that he /as lar*ely conditioned. 3hat is meant by attainin* sal2ation in Buddhism is the attainment o- -ull -reedom -rom our relati2e state o- bonda*e. !his is ossible because o- the 2ery -act that /e ossess a de*ree o- -ree/ill and the rocesses o- sublimation and de4 conditionin* are causal rocesses0 /hich can be understood and directed by the mind. It also means that man9s sal2ation lies in his o/n hands and that he cannot and should not de end on an e6ternal sa2iour. 7s the )hamma ada says+
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3h# Blu# and Bro5n Books 0 $6-ord0 . 1'"

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By oursel2es is e2il done By oursel2es /e ain endure By oursel2es /e cease -rom /ron* By oursel2es /e become ure. >o one sa2es us but oursel2es >o one can and no one may 3e oursel2es must tread the ath Buddhas only sho/ the /ay. E' !he Buddha says that there are -our -alse reli*ions and -our unsatis-actory reli*ions in this /orldE1. $ne o- the -our -alse reli*ions is that /hich denies causation and asserts that Cbein*s are miraculously doomed or sa2edD &natthi hetu natthi accayo satt?naZ saYkiles?ya Q 2isuddhiy?(.E2 Buddhists ray that Call bein*s may be ha yD &sabbe satt? sukhit? hontu(B but they do not ray -or sal2ation either to the Buddha or to anyone else. 3hen our sal2ation de ends on /hat /e oursel2es do /ith our -ree/ill0 rayer is su er-luous and is nothin* more than a ious /ish or ho e. !he Buddha com ares a erson /ho rays to =od -or sal2ation to one /ho /ishes to cross a ri2er and *et to the other bank0 but ho es to achie2e this by incessantly callin* on the other bank to come to him.E# :eli*ious truths0 /ith the e6ce tion o- the truth about >ibb?na0 are thus Cstatable.D !hey are all 2eri-iable and ha2e meanin* only to those /ho 2eri-y them. !here is indi2idual moral res onsibility and0 there-ore0 ,ustice in the uni2erse. Freedom /e ha2e in a limited sense0 /hich makes it ossible -or us to attain Freedom in the absolute sense. Seekin* our o/n sal2ation may a ear to be a sel-ish ursuit0 but it is a arado6ical -act not only that /e can attain this only by li2in* in a com letely sel-less manner but that the *oal itsel- is one in /hich our sel-4centred indi2iduality is lost in a state Cbeyond measure.D Sel-less charity &c?*a(0 com assionate lo2e &mett?( and enli*htened beha2iour &2i,,?caraNa( is /hat /e ha2e to de2elo in attainin* this *oal. !he Buddhist monk does not cut himsel- a/ay com letely -rom society. 1is isolation is intended to ro2ide him /ith the leisure to de2elo his mind and s iritual 2ision. 1e is thus in a osition to s eak -rom direct e6 erience about the nature o- s iritual truths and *i2e *uidance and ad2ice to his -ello/ bein*s. 1e is one /ho is e6 ected to s eciali5e in his -ield o- in@uiry as much as the hysicist s eciali5es in his. !he de2elo ment o- the mind is a -ull4time ,ob0 and the -indin*s o- these e6 lorations are o- no less interest and 2alue to society than the -indin*s o- the natural scientist /orkin* in his laboratory. Both ha2e somethin* to o--er to societyB and monasticism0 i- understood ri*htly0 has a bi* art as yet to lay in the moral and s iritual re*eneration o- mankind. !here is no easy solution to the roblem o- ho/ /e can ha2e eace on earth and *ood/ill amon* mankind. !he 3est belie2es that their military otential is kee in* the ;ommunist monster at bay0 /hile the ;ommunists in turn are con2inced that their military mi*ht re2ents the ;a italist demon -rom s/allo/in* them. Each side is certain that /ar is the lesser e2il to bein* dominated by their o onents. !he *reat o/ers are /orkin* -or eace by -or*in* the /ea ons o- /ar and talkin* about eace -or ro a*andist ur oses. But the real alternati2e to eace today is the destruction o- mankind. 3hat is really ha enin* is that0 /hile hal- the /orld is s endin* colossal amounts o- money on armaments0 the other hal- is dyin* o- star2ation0 malnutrition and disease in an a*e /hen all this can be re2ented i- the resources are a2ailable
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)h 16I ajjhima 8ikya 0 'andaka 'utta 42 < I I16 43 ) I 2EE0 2EI

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and *ood/ill is resent. Peo le and *o2ernments tend to do /hat is e6 edient rather than /hat is morally *ood. ;an /e say that in such a /orld0 eo le ha2e much -aith in moral and s iritual 2alues8 !here is ho e in the ossibility that the 2ery -ear o- the dire conse@uences o- the ne6t /ar may re2ent it. It /ould be too much to ho e -or a *reat o/er to ha2e the moral coura*e and the s iritual stren*th to disarm unilaterally /ithout -ear o- the conse@uences0 but -or those /ho lo2e humanity more than themsel2es or nations there seems to me to be no other alternati2e but to /ork unreser2edly -or aci-ism.

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Appendix
(A)
!he -ollo/in* are some o- the sentiments e6 ressed about Peace and ;om assion in the )hamma ada0 a Buddhist antholo*y included in the canon. C1e abused me0 he beat me0 he de-eated me0 he robbed meDA the hatred o- those /ho cherish such thou*hts is not a eased. C1e abused me0 he beat me0 he de-eated me0 he robbed meDA the hatred o- those /ho do not cherish such thou*hts is a eased. 1atred ne2er ceases by hatred in this /orld. 1atred ceases by lo2eAthis is the eternal la/. !he /orld does not kno/ that /e must all come to an end here. ^uarrels cease /hen there are those /ho ercei2e this truth. !he noblest 2ictor is he /ho /ould con@uer himselrather than de-eat a hundred thousand men in battle. Better0 indeed0 is the con@uest o- sel- than o- all other -olk. 1a ily do /e li2e /ithout an*er amon* those /ho are an*ry. Let us li2e /ithout an*er amon*st an*ry -olk. Lictory breeds hatredB the 2an@uished li2e in sorro/. !he eace-ul ones li2e in harmony *i2in* u both 2ictory and de-eat. ;on@uer enmity /ith amityB e2il /ith *oodB con@uer miserliness /ith charity and -alsehood /ith truth. !he -ollo/ers o- =otama /hose minds are constantly bent on ahims day and ni*ht0 a/ake clear and alert. &2. #( &2. E( &2. I( &2. 6( &2. 1'#( &2. 1'I( &2. 19H(

&2. 2'1( &2. 222 ( &2. #''(

(B)
!he -ollo/in* is an e6tract -rom the %akkavatti-shanda 'utta0 /hich *i2es an account o- the e2olution o- human society. S eakin* o- the -uture0 it says that there /ill be a *radual loss o2alues due to economic causes0 resultin* in a cataclysm. !he a-termath /ould see a ne/ humanity emer*in* -rom the remnant and creatin* the Gust Society /ith a chan*e o- heart and a chan*e o- system. !he allusion to the decrease in the li-e s an o- human bein*s is0 erha s0 not to be taken literally. C!hus as a result o- *oods not accruin* to those /ho /ere destitute0 o2erty becomes ri-eB -rom o2erty becomin* ri-e0 stealin* increasesB -rom the s read o- stealin*0 2iolence *ro/s a aceB -rom the *ro/th o- 2iolence0 the destruction o- li-e becomes commonB -rom the -re@uency o- murder both the s an o- li-e in those bein*s and their comeliness /aste a/ay Q !he Gust Society as de icted in the Buddhist te6ts is one in /hich there is e@uality0 economic ros erity and the ractice o- the *ood li-e. !he erson /ho is instrumental in brin*in* about such a society is called the %akkavatti-rja or Cthe uni2ersal monarch.D It a ears as i- 7soka /as

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tryin* to emulate the e6am le o- such an ideal monarch. 1is :ock Edict >o. MIII ortrays his Buddhistic attitude to /ar and his attem t to -ound a state on Buddhist rinci les. C!he country o- the K?liY*as /as con@uered by Kin* Priyadarsi0 Belo2ed o- the *ods0 ei*ht years a-ter his coronation. In this /ar in K?liY*a0 men and animals numberin* one hundred and -i-ty thousand /ere carried a/ay ca ti2e -rom that countryB as many as one hundred thousand /ere killed there in action and many times that number erished. 7-ter that0 no/ that the country o- the K?liY*as has been con@uered0 the Belo2ed o- the *ods is de2oted to an intense ractice o- the duties relatin* to the )harma0 to a lon*in* -or )harma and to the inculcation o- )harma amon* the eo le. !his is due to the re entance o- the Belo2ed o- the *ods on ha2in* con@uered the country o- the K?liY*as. #ote( !he =reek &9avana( kin*s mentioned in this inscri tion0 may be identi-ied as -ollo/s+ 7ntiyoka !uram?ya 7ntVkini <ak? 7likasundara 7ntiochus II !heos o- Syria and Palestine Ptolemy II Philadel hus o- E*y t 7nti*onus =onatus o- <acedonia <a*as o- ;yrene 7le6ander o- ;orinth or 7le6ander o- E irus &261K2E6 B.;.( &2"IK2EH B.;.( &2H6K2#9 B.;.( &c. 2I"K2I' B.;.( &2I2K2EE B.;.( &2H2K2II B.;.(

7ssumin* that this inscri tion /as contem oraneous /ith the rule o- all these -i2e kin*s0 it may be dated bet/een 2I2K2I' B.;. or 2I"K2II B.;. !he similarity o- the )hamma /ith the doctrines and ractices o- the re4;hristian Essenes &s.2. )ncyclopa#dia o( 0#li!ion and )thics( o- Syria and Palestine and the !hera eutae &s.2. ibid.( o- E*y t su**ests that they /ere a result o- 7soka9s missions0 in the li*ht o- /hat this inscri tion states. !he Essenes and the !hera eutae seem to ha2e ada ted the Ge/ish scri tures to ado t Buddhist belie-s and a Buddhist /ay o- li-e.

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