Real Numbers

Lawrence Tsang 01/10/2004

Axioms

Denition 1.1. A truth value is either true or false. Denition 1.2. A proposition is a statement whose truth value is to be determined. Denition 1.3. An axiom is a proposition that is assumed to be true. Denition 1.4. An theorem is a proposition whose truth value is unequivocally determined by logical deductions originating from the axioms. Denition 1.5. A proof is a demonstration of a logical deduction leading from the axioms, which unequivocally determines the truth value of a proposition. Denition 1.6. A conjecture is a proposition whose truth value seems to be true, but a proof has not been obtained yet.

Mathematical Notations

The following notations are ubiquitous throughout modern mathematics: xS xS S = {n | P } ST T =S ST T \S x is in set S. x is not in set S. S is the set of all n such that proposition P is true. S is a subset of set T , or x T x S. if T S and S T. S is a proper subset of set T , or S T but S = T. set dierence, or {x | x T and x S }. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Types of Real Numbers

1. [natural] N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}. 2. [integer] Z = {. . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}. 3. [rational] Q =
m n

| m, n Z and n = 0 .

4. [irrational] H = R \ Q. 1

AXIOMS FOR REAL NUMBERS

Axioms for Real Numbers

Let R be the set of real numbers with two binary operations: addition x + y and multiplication x y or just xy . In a written expression involving both additions and multiplications, multiplications take precedence over addition. Furthermore, R obeys the following sets of axioms.

4.1

Field Axioms

The Field Axioms describe the algebraic properties of real numbers. Axiom 4.1 (Closure). For every a, b R, a + b R, ab R. Axiom 4.2 (Commutative). For every a, b R, a + b = b + a, ab = ba. Axiom 4.3 (Associative). For every a, b, c R, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), (ab)c = a(bc). Axiom 4.4 (Distributive). For every a, b, c R, (a + b)c = ac + bc. Axiom 4.5 (Identity). For every a R, there exists 0, 1 R such that a+0=0+a=a a1 = 1a = a Additive Identity, Multiplicative Identity. (15) (16) (14) (12) (13) (10) (11) (8) (9)

Axiom 4.6 (Inverse). For every a R, there exists b, c R such that a+b=b+a=0 ac = ca = 1 Axiom 4.7 (Nontrivial eld). 0 = 1. Some consequences of the eld axioms about real numbers: Theorem 4.8 (Uniqueness of Identity). Additive and multiplicative identities are unique. Proof. Suppose 0 is another additive identity. Then, 0=0+ 0 =0 by identity axiom on 0 by identity axiom on 0. (19) (20) Additive Inverse, Multiplicative Inverse. (17) (18)

The argument for the multiplicative identity is similar. 2

4.1

Field Axioms

AXIOMS FOR REAL NUMBERS

Theorem 4.9 (Uniqueness of inverse). Additive and multiplicative inverses are unique. Proof. Suppose a and a are additive inverses of a. Then, a =0+a = ( a + a) + a =a + (a + a ) =a +0 =a by by by by by identity axiom inverse axiom associative axiom inverse axiom identity axiom. (21) (22) (23) (24) (25)

The argument for the multiplicative inverse is similar. Because of the uniqueness of inverses, we will denote a as the additive inverse of a, and a1 as the multiplicative inverse of a. This notation allows us to dene substraction and division as followed. Denition 4.10 (Substraction). a b = a + (b). Denition 4.11 (Division). a/b = a(b1 ) for b = 0. Theorem 4.12. For all a R, a0 = 0a = 0. Proof. a + 0a = 1a + 0a = (1 + 0)a = 1a =a by by by by multiplicative indentity distributive axiom additive identity multiplicative identity. (26) (27) (28) (29)

Subtracting both sides by a gives 0a = 0. a0 = 0a is true because of commutative axiom. Theorem 4.13. a = (1)a Proof. a + (1)a = (1)a + (1)a = (1 1)a = 0a =0 Subtracting both sides by a gives the theorem. Theorem 4.14 (Zero Factor). If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0. Proof by Contradiction. Suppose both a and b are nonzero. Then say a must have a multiplicative inverse a1 . Then, a1 ab = a1 0 b = 0. (34) (35) by by by by identity axiom distributive axiom additive inverse Theorem 4.12. (30) (31) (32) (33)

But by assumption b = 0. Thus a contradiction is reached, and the assumption is false. Thus both a and b cannot be nonzero, or at least one of them is zero. 3

4.2

Ordering Axiom

AXIOMS FOR REAL NUMBERS

4.2

Ordering Axiom

The Ordering Axiom describe the ordering properties of real numbers. Axiom 4.15 (Ordering). Let P R such that 1. [real] If a, b P, then a + b, ab P. 2. [trichotomy] If a R, then either a P, a = 0, or a P is true exclusively. Denition 4.16 (Inequality). We say a < b if b a P. With this denition, we note that if a P, then a 0 P and thus a > 0 for every a in P. For this reason, we call the set P the set of positive numbers. Also, if a number is not zero and positive, we say the number is negative. We will also denote a b to mean a < b or a = b. Also, we denote a > b to be b < a. Theorem 4.17. 0 < 1. Proof. By the rst part of the Ordering Axiom, there are three possibilities: 1 = 0, 1 P, or 1 P. The rst case is impossible because of Axiom 4.7. Now, we know 1 1 = 1. If 1 were positive, then 1 must also be positive by the rst part of the Ordering Axiom. But this is a contradiction because both 1 and 1 would be positive and this would violate the trichotomy part of the Ordering Axiom. Since 1 cannot be positive and 1 cannot be zero, 1 must be positive. Theorem 4.18. a2 0. a2 = 0 if and only if a = 0. Proof. We consider the three possibilities: a = 0: Then, 0 0 = 0. a > 0: Then, aa P or a2 > 0 by the rst part of the Ordering Axiom. a < 0: Then, a is positive. Let b = a, a positive number. Then, aa = (1)b(1)b = (1)(1)bb = bb P. Thus, a2 > 0. (37) (36)

Theorem 4.19. If a b and b a, then a = b. Proof. The rst condition a b means b a P or a = b. The second condition b a means a b P or b = a. But a b = 1(b a) and by the Trichotomy axiom only b a or 1(b a) can be in P. Thus, we rule out b a P and a b P. The only other condition is a = b. Theorem 4.20 (Inequality Transitivity). If a < b and b < c, then a < c.

4.2

Ordering Axiom

AXIOMS FOR REAL NUMBERS

Proof. a < b means b a P, and b < c means c b P. Thus, (b a)+(c b) P. But, (b a) + (c b) = c a. Thus, c a P or a < c. Theorem 4.21. For all c R, if a < b, then a + c < b + c. Proof. If a < b, then b a P. Because b a = b a + c c = b + c a c = (b + c) (a + c), we have (b + c) (a + c) P, or a + c < b + c. (40) (39) (38)

Theorem 4.22. If c > 0 and a < b, then ac < bc. If d < 0 and a < b, then ad > bd. Proof. In both cases, a < b implies b a P. If c > 0, then (b a)c P. Thus, bc ac P or ac < bc. If d < 0, then d > 0 and (b a)(d) P. Thus, bd + ad = ad bd P or bd < ad. (46) (45) (44) (43) (42) (41)

Theorem 4.23. If n is positive, then n1 is positive. Proof. By Theorem 4.18, n1 n1 > 0. Thus, nn1 n1 > 0 1n n
1 1

(47) (48) (49)

>0 > 0.

Corollary 4.24. If 0 < a < b, then

1 b

1 <a .

4.3

Completeness Axiom

AXIOMS FOR REAL NUMBERS

Proof. By Theorem 4.23, a1 and b1 are also positive. Thus, a<b a(a
1 1

(50)
1 1

) < b(a

(51) (52) (53)

<a 1 1 < b a

4.3

Completeness Axiom

Denition 4.25. Let E R. E is bounded above by u if u x for all x E . u is called an upper bound of E . Likewise, E is bounded below by l if l x for all x E . l is called a lower bound of E . Denition 4.26. If s is an upper bound of E and s u for every upper bound u of E , then s is called the least upper bound denoted by s = sup E. (54)

Likewise, if t is a lower bound of E and t l for every lower bound l of E , then t is called the greatest lower bound denoted by t = inf E. Theorem 4.27. Least upper bound and greatest lower bound are unique. Proof. Suppose s and s are two least upper bounds of a set. Then by denition of the least upper bound, s s and s s (56) But this implies s = s by Theorem 4.19. Similarly, by denition of the greatest lower bound, t t and t t But this also implies t = t . Axiom 4.28 (Completeness). Every subset of R that is bounded above has a least upper bound. Theorem 4.29. Every subset of R that is bounded below has a greatest lower bound. Proof. Suppose E is a set bounded below by m. Then let F = {x | x E }. F is bounded above by m, because m being a lower bound of E means m x for all x E , and thus m x for all x F . By the Completeness Axiom, F has a least upper bound s and s u for every upper bound u of F . Thus, s u for every lower bound u of E . s by denition then is the greatest lower bound of E . (57) (55)

DENSITY OF RATIONAL NUMBERS

Lemma 4.30 (Archimedean principle). For any real number a, there exists an integer n such that a < n. Proof. Suppose the lemma is false and a > n for all integer n. Then the set of integers N is bounded above, and by the Completeness Axiom it has a least upper bound M . Since M is the least upper bound, M 1 cannot be an upper bound. Thus, there is an integer n such that M 1 < n. But this implies M < n + 1 where n + 1 is an integer greater than the upper bound. This is a contradiction, thus the lemma cannot be false. Corollary 4.31. For any real number > 0, there exists an integer n such that 0< 1 < n
1

(58) < n.

Proof. By the Archimedean Principle, there is an integer n such that 0 < 1 By Theorem 4.24, we have 0 < n < .

Well-Ordering Principle

Axiom 5.1 (Well Ordering Principle). Every nonempty subset of the set of natural number has a least element. That is, if E N, then there exists m E such that m n for all n E .

Density of Rational Numbers

Theorem 6.1 (Density of Rational Number). Given any two distinct numbers a and b, there is a rational number p such that a < p < b. Proof. Let d = b a. We have two cases here. 1. Suppose d 1. By Archimedean Principle, there is an integer m such that a < m. (60) By the Well-Ordering Principle, there is a smallest integer n such that a<n and n 1 < a. Thus, n < a + 1. Now, since 1 d, we have a + 1 a + d = b. 7 (65) (64) (63) (62) (61) (59)

DENSITY OF IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

Combining (61), (63) and (65), we have a<n<b Thus, n is our desired rational number. 2. Suppose d < 1. By Corollary 4.31, there is an integer n such that 0< 1 <ba n 1 < nb na. (67) (68) (66)

Now, we can apply the result of the previous case to nb and na. Thus, there is an integer m such that na < m < nb m a< < b. n (69) (70)

Density of Irrational Numbers

2 is irrational. Proof. Suppose 2 = m n . Suppose also that we have reduced the fraction so that not both m and n are even. Then, 2n = m, (71) 2n 2 = m2 . (72)

Lemma 7.1.

Since the left side has a factor of 2, the right side must be even. Thus, m must be even. Let, m = 2p. 2n2 = (2p)2 , n = 2p .
2 2

(73) (74)

Since the right side has a factor of 2, the left side must be even. Thus, n must be even. But this contradicts the fact that both m and n cannot be even. Lemma 7.2. If h is irrational and p is rational, then hp is irrational. Proof. Let p = and n . So,
m n.

Suppose hp is rational, then hp = m m = hp = h , n n m n mn h= = . n m nm

m n

for some integers m

(75) (76)

But this contradicts the fact that h cannot be written as a fraction of integers.

EXERCISE

Theorem 7.3 (Density of irrational number). Given any two distinct numbers a and a, there is an irrational number h such that a < h < b. Proof. Since a < b, we have a b < . 2 2 By Theorem 6.1, there exists a rational number p such that b a <p< 2 2 a < p 2 < b. By Lemma 7.2, p 2 is irrational. Let h = p 2. (79) (80) (78) (77)

Exercise

Exercise 8.1. Identify the type(s) of number for each of the following: (Note that some number may be considered to be of more than one type. In that case, list all the types the number can be associated with.) a. 7 b. 0.7 c. 3 d. 9 e. 0 f. g. h.
21 7 4 3 12 3

Exercise 8.2. Specify the axiom or theorem used to justify each step of the following procedure for solving the algebraic equation. Note that part a is the given equation. 2 = 3x + 5 x 2 = x(3x + 5) 2 = x3x + x5 2 = 3x2 + 5x 0 = 3x + 5x 2 0 = (3x 1)(x + 2)
2

by a) Given. by b) by c) by d) by e) by f)

(81) (82) (83) (84) (85) (86)

EXERCISE

3x 1 = 0 3x = 1 1 x= 3

by g) by h) by i)

x+2=0 x = 2

by j) by k)

(87) (88) (89)

Exercise 8.3. Check the boxes in the table below for each number type obeying the specied axioms. Types of Number N Z Q H R Additive Closure Multiplicative Closure Additive Commutativity Multiplicative Commutativity Additive Associativity Multiplicative Associativity Distributive Additive Identity Multiplicative Identity Additive Inverse Multiplicative Inverse Ordering Axiom Completeness Axiom Table 1: Axioms and Numbers Exercise 8.4. Prove if M 0, then there is a real number a such that a2 = M. (90)

10