C15H

Natural Sciences Tripos Part II
MATERIALS SCIENCE
C15: Fracture and Fatigue

Dr C. Rae
Lent Term 2012-13
II
Name............................. College..........................
arL ll LenL 2013 l8AC1u8L Anu lA1lCuL

1
C1S: IkAC1UkL AND IA1IGUL

CaLherlne 8ae 9 LecLures
Synops|s

Introduct|on: 1hls course examlnes Lhe use of fracLure mechanlcs ln Lhe predlcLlon of mechanlcal
fallure. We explore Lhe range of macroscoplc fallure modes, brlLLle and ducLlle behavlour. We Lake a
closer look aL fasL fracLure ln brlLLle and ducLlle maLerlals - characLerlsLlcs of fracLure surfaces, lnLer-
granular and lnLra-granular fallure, cleavage and mlcro-ducLlllLy. We descrlbe Lhe range of faLlgue
fallure and apply fracLure mechanlcs Lo Lhe growLh of faLlgue cracks.

Introduct|on: 8evlslon of concepL of energy release raLe, C, and fracLure energy, 8. Cbrelmoff's
experlmenL. 1lmellne for developmenLs.

L|near L|ast|c Iracture Mechan|cs, (LLIM). We look aL Lhe Lhree loadlng modes and hence Lhe sLaLe
of sLress ahead of Lhe crack Llp. 1hls leads Lo Lhe deflnlLlon of Lhe sLress concenLraLlon facLor, sLress
lnLenslLy facLor and Lhe maLerlal parameLer Lhe crlLlcal sLress lnLenslLy facLor.

Superpos|t|on pr|nc|p|e, predlcLlon of crack growLh dlrecLlon.

|ast|c|ty at the crack t|p and Lhe prlnclples behlnd Lhe approxlmaLe derlvaLlon of plasLlc zone shape
and slze. LlmlLs on Lhe appllcablllLy of LLlM. 1he effecL of ConsLralnL, deflnlLlon of plane sLress and
plane sLraln and Lhe effecL of componenL Lhlckness.

Concept of G - k curves, measurlng C and k.

L|ast|c-|ast|c Iracture Mechan|cs, (LIM). 1he deflnlLlon of alLernaLlve fallure predlcLlon
parameLers, Crack 1lp Cpenlng ulsplacemenL, and Lhe ! lnLegral. MeasuremenL of parameLers and
examples of use.

1he effect of M|crostructure on fracLure mechanlsm and paLh, cleavage and ducLlle fallure, facLors
lmprovlng Loughness,

Iat|gue: deflnlLlon of Lerms used Lo descrlbe faLlgue cycles, Plgh Cycle laLlgue, Low Cycle laLlgue,
mean sLress 8 raLlo, sLraln and load conLrol. S-n curves.

1ota| ||fe and damage to|erant approaches Lo llfe predlcLlon, arls law.

Adapt|ng data to rea| cond|t|ons: Coodmans rule and Mlners rule. Mlcro-mechanlsms of faLlgue
damage, faLlgue llmlLs and lnlLlaLlon and propagaLlon conLrol, leadlng Lo a conslderaLlon of facLors
enhanclng faLlgue reslsLance. lacLors affecLlng crack growLh raLes.


2
8ook||st:

1.L. Anderson, lracLure Mechanlcs lundamenLals and AppllcaLlons, 3
rd
Ld. C8C press, (2003) (lracLure
mechanlcs and lL's appllcaLlon Lo faLlgue, very Lhorough and readable)

8. Lawn, lracLure of 8rlLLle Sollds, Cambrldge Solld SLaLe Sclence Serles 2
nd
ed 1993. (LxacLly as lL says
on Lhe label very good on LLlM)

!.l. knoLL, WlLhey, Worked examples ln lracLure Mechanlcs, lnsLlLuLe of MaLerlals. (LxcellenL shorL
summary of fracLure mechanlcs and good worked examples)

P.L. Lwald and 8.!.P. Wanhlll lracLure Mechanlcs, Ldward Arnold, (1984). (rovldes very clear
explanaLlons - dlfferenL perspecLlve from Anderson)

S. Suresh, laLlgue of MaLerlals, Cambrldge unlverslLy ress, (1998)
(LxcellenL on faLlgue buL noL very readable)

C. L. uleLer, Mechanlcal MeLallurgy, McCraw Plll, (1988)
(Cood enLry-level LexL on mechanlcal properLles)


3
IkAC1UkL AND IA1IGUL

S?nCSlS

1hls course examlnes Lhe use of fracLure mechanlcs ln Lhe predlcLlon of mechanlcal fallure. We
explore macroscoplc fallure modes, brlLLle and ducLlle behavlour, and Lake a closer look aL fasL
fracLure ln brlLLle and ducLlle maLerlals - characLerlsLlcs of fracLure surfaces, lnLer-granular and lnLra-
granular fallure, cleavage and mlcro-ducLlllLy.

laLlgue causes 90 of englneerlng fallures: we examlne how we characLerlse Lhe suscepLlblllLy of
maLerlals Lo faLlgue and esLlmaLe llfeLlmes.

C8llll1P'S 1PLC8?, 8LvlSlCn l8CM 18 CCu8SL.

CrlfflLh's 1heory provldes Lhe Lhermodynamlc or energeLlc crlLerlon for fallure: lL does noL conslder
Lhe mechanlsm by whlch fallure occurs.

1he baslc premlse ls LhaL a crack wlll propagaLe ln a maLerlal when Lhe elasLlc energy released as a
resulL of LhaL propagaLlon exceeds Lhe energy requlred Lo propagaLe Lhe crack. ln Lhe flrsL lnsLance
[usL Lhe surface energy needed Lo creaLe Lwo new surfaces was consldered, buL Lhls applles only Lo
ldeal brlLLle sollds l.e. Lhose where fracLure occurs wlLhouL any plasLlc deformaLlon. SubsequenLly Lhls
was wldened Lo lnclude Lhe work requlred Lo perform Lhe plasLlc deformaLlon assoclaLed wlLh ducLlle
fallure and, ln prlnclple, can lnclude any work necessary such as de-coheslon on composlLes phase
changes eLc.

!
!
2a

lf we lnLroduce a crack of lengLh 2a lnLo an lnflnlLe plaLe of Lhlckness 8 under a unlform sLress !, Lhe
elasLlc sLresses relax around Lhe crack and reduce Lhe elasLlc poLenLlal energy u
L
sLored ln Lhe plaLe.
LxLra surface ls creaLed aL Lhe crack, u
S
, and, lf Lhe grlps are flxed, no exLernal work, u
l
, ls done by
Lhe applled force, u
l
= 0.

( )
s E F
U U U a U + + =

4

AL equlllbrlum:

!
dU
da
=
dU
E
da
+
dU
S
da
= 0

1he change ln Lhe poLenLlal energy ls esLlmaLed from an elasLlc analysls of Lhe sLresses around Lhe
crack:

!
U
E
" #
$%
2
a
2
B
E

And Lhe work done Lo propagaLe Lhe crack ls:

s S
aB 4 U ! =
Where Lhe area of Lhe crack ls 2a8, Lhe surface area ls 4a8 and Lhe surface energy ls "
s
.

1hus:
d(U
E
)
da
= !
2B!"
2
a
E
and

!
dU
S
da
= 4B"
s
:
hence:
E
a
2
2
s
!"
= #

8earranglng:
a
E 2
s
!
"
= # CrlfflLh's LquaLlon

1hls ls for an ldeal brlLLle solld, for a ducLlle maLerlal Lhe plasLlc work of deformaLlon g
p
, ls
lnLroduced:

a
E ) 2 (
p s
!
" + "
= #

ModlflcaLlon of Lhe fracLure crlLerlon Lo lnclude plasLlc work leads Lo Lhe more general deflnlLlon of
Lhe energy re|ease rate or Lhe crack extens|on force: C. 1hls ls Lhe change ln Lhe poLenLlal energy, u,
of Lhe sysLem per unlL lncrease ln crack area, A, and has Lhe dlmenslons of force/lengLh.

Lnergy 8elease 8aLe:

!
G = "
dU
dA
= "
dU
2Bda
= "
#$
2
a
E

Accordlng Lo CrlfflLhs crack exLenslon occurs when Lhls equals Lhe work Lo fracLure, 2"
s
+ "
p
.

p s c
2 G G ! + ! = =
C
c
ls a maLerlal consLanL and a measure of Lhe fracLure Loughness.

1he 8PS ls Lhe reslsLance Lo crack growLh Lermed 8 where 8 = 2"
s
+ "
p
.

very few fracLures are Lruly brlLLle l.e. have no permanenL deformaLlon, buL fracLure ls sLlll
deLermlned by Lhe energy balance and Lhe energy drlvlng Lhe cracklng process ls sLlll Lhe elasLlc
energy sLored ln Lhe cracked body. lasL fracLure ls a more accuraLe Lerm Lhan 'brlLLle' fracLure Lo use
for rapld fallure. Where local deformaLlon occurs Lhe cracklng process ls noL reverslble buL we can
deal wlLh a greaL many maLerlals and slLuaLlons uslng slmple elasLlc assumpLlons. 1hls ls known as
llnear elasLlc fracLure mechanlcs.


3
C88LlMCll'S LxL8lMLn1

A real example lllusLraLes Lwo lmporLanL polnLs: flrsLly LhaL brlLLle fracLure ls reverslble under Lhe rlghL
clrcumsLances and secondly, LhaL wheLher lL occurs or noL ls governed by balanclng sLored elasLlc
energy wlLh Lhe work of fracLure.

ln 1930 Cbrelmoff spllL a Lhln sheeL of mlca off a larger plece by lnserLlng a wedge of Lhlckness h
beween Lhe layers. 1he crysLal cleaves along Lhe weak lnLerfaces beLween Lhe layers Lo glve a Lhln
upper fllleL and a Lhlck lower secLlon. As Lhe wedge ls drlven lnLo Lhe crack Lhe crack grows Lo keep
Lhe lengLh consLanL. 1he elasLlc energy sLored as Lhe wedge ls forced lnLo Lhe open crack ls prlnclpally
ln Lhe Lhln upper fllleL, and ls balanced by Lhe coheslve forces aL Lhe crack Llp. 1he crack opens unLll
Lhese are balanced. 1he energy ls calculaLed easlly from Lhe elasLlc properLles of Lhe mlca, and Lhe
geomeLry of Lhe seL-up.

1he elasLlc sLraln ln Lhe canLllever ls glven by beam Lheory:

!
U= U
E
=
Ed
3
h
2
8a
3
where Lhe consLanLs are glven ln Lhe dlagram.

1he surface energy needed Lo grow Lhe crack ls

!
U
S
= 2a" where " ls Lhe surface energy.

LquaLlng Lhe elasLlc energy Lo Lhe surface energy glves an equlllbrlum crack lengLh a
o
of:

!
a
o
= 3Ed
3
h
2
/16"
4

As Lhe wedge ls wlLhdrawn Lhe crack closes and Lhe damage ls preLLy much repalred lf Lhe process ls
done ln vacuum. 1hls can be shown by reopenlng Lhe crack and noLlng LhaL Lhe value of a
o
for Lhe re-
opened crack ls almosL Lhe same. As alr and molsLure are lnLroduced, Lhe quallLy of Lhe 'repalr'
deLerloraLes and Lhe equlllbrlum lengLh a
o
lncreases.

6

1lML LlnL

laLlgue lracLure
~1300 - Leonardo da vlncl - fallure sLress of lron wlres depends on
lengLh - l.e. on probablllLy of flaw
1842 - 8allway accldenL versallles - fallure of axle
1843 - slgnlflcance of faLlgue sLrlaLlons recognlzed W!M 8ankln
1832-1869 - Wohler sysLemaLlc experlmenLs on bendlng and Lorslon
developmenL of S-n curves
1874 & 1899 Cerber and Coodman - llfe predlcLlon meLhodologles
1886 8aushlnger effecL noLed
1900 Lwlng and 8osenberg - recognlLlon of perslsLenL sllp bands
exLruslons and lnLruslons
1913 lnglls - elasLlc sLress fleld around elllpLlcal hole
1920 CrlfflLhs equaLlon for brlLLle maLerlals
1930
1938
Cbrelmoff's experlmenL
WesLergaarde - elasLlc soluLlon of Lhe sLress dlsLrlbuLlon aL
a sharp crack
1943 ConsLance 1lpper and Lhe LlberLy shlps - 8ecognlLlon of Lhe
uucLlle -8rlLLle LranslLlon '1lpper LesL' and Lhe role of crysLal
sLrucLure ln fallure
1943 Mlnor - accumulaLlon of faLlgue damage
1933 -34 ComeL alrllner losses due Lo faLlgue fallure
1934 Coffln Manson emplrlcal laws for PCl and LCl
1936 1936 Wells applles fracLure mechanlcs Lo faLlgue Lo explaln Lhe
ComeL faLlgue fracLures
1936 lrwln - developmenL of Lhe concepL of energy release raLe
based on WesLergarde's work
1936 uemonsLraLlon of Lhe role of S8 ln lnlLlaLlng faLlgue fallure
1937 lracLure mechanlcs predlcLs dlsc fallures for CL
1960 1960 arls law relaLlng Lhe crack growLh raLe Lo Lhe sLress
lnLenslLy facLor
1960-61 lrwln/uugdale/Wells - developmenL of LLlM and effecL of
plasLlc zone slze and shape
1968 roposal of Lhe ! lnLegral by rlce and Lhe C1Cu by Wells Lo
cope wlLh Lhe fallure of ducLlle maLerlals
1976 Shlh and PuLchlnson esLabllsh Lhe LheoreLlcal basls of Lhe !-
lnLegral and llnk lL Lo Lhe C1Cu
1980 # Chaboche uevelopmenL of Llme dependanL fracLure -
lnLeracLlons beLween creep and faLlgue.

7
LlnLA8 LLAS1lC l8AC1u8L MLCPAnlCS

When a crack occurs ln a maLerlal Lhe local sLress around Lhe crack ls ralsed. LLlM relles on Lhe
sufflclenL of Lhe speclmen/componenL belng elasLlc such LhaL Lhe energy release raLe can be
calculaLed from Lhe elasLlc dlsplacemenLs around Lhe crack Llp. Pence lf you can solve for Lhe elasLlc
sLress ln any conflguraLlon you can (ln prlnclple) calculaLe C from - du
L
/da.

S18LSS CCnCLn18A1lCn A1 lLA1u8LS

ln some slmple slLuaLlons Lhe equaLlons governlng elasLlc deformaLlon can be solved analyLlcally:

l. Lxpresslng Lhe sLresses ln Lerms of complex poLenLlals
ll. Speclfylng Lhe boundary condlLlons
lll. llndlng funcLlons Lo saLlsfy Lhe above

Cr, more generally, solvlng Lhe problem uslng flnlLe elemenL analysls. Cne problem for whlch Lhere ls
a soluLlon ls LhaL of a c|rcu|ar ho|e |n an |nf|n|te th|n p|ate sub[ecL Lo a sLress !
o
.

ln polar co-ordlnaLes Lhe sLresses are glven
by:

!
"
rr
=
"
o
2
1 +
r
o
2
r
2
+ 1 + 3
r
o
4
r
4
# 4
r
o
2
r
2
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
)
cos2*
+
,
-
.
-
/
0
-
1
-

!
"
##
=
"
o
2
1 +
r
o
2
r
2
$ 1 + 3
r
o
4
r
4
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
cos2#
+
,
-
.
-
/
0
-
1
-

!
r!
= !
"
o
2
1!3
r
o
4
r
4
+ 2
r
o
2
r
2
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
sin2!
(
)
*
+
*
,
-
*
.
*

SubsLlLuLlng r = r
o
and $ = 90 and 0: glves Lhe maxlmum and mlnlmum hoop sLresses !$$, aL Lhe edge
of Lhe noLch as 3!
o
and -!
o
. 1hus Lhe presence of a round hole ln Lhe plaLe lncreases Lhe Lenslle sLress
by a facLor of Lhree ln one dlrecLlon and lnLroduces a compresslve sLress aL Lhe Lop of Lhe hole equal
Lo Lhe dlsLanL Lenslle sLress.

8ecause all Lhe sLresses are elasLlc and Lherefore small, Lhe lmposed sLress flelds, and Lhe soluLlons
for Lhose sLress flelds, can be added: Lhls ls known as Lhe 8lnClLL Cl SuL8CSl1lCn.

Pence, ln blaxlal sLress Lhe Lwo sLresses !
o
aL rlghL angles are added Lo each oLher Lo produce a 2u
hydrosLaLlc Lenslon and Lhe sLresses around Lhe hole ln Lhe plaLe are consLanL:

3!
o
- !
o
= 2!
o
.


8

AnoLher lmporLanL slLuaLlon for whlch an exacL soluLlon exlsLs ls LhaL of an e|||pt|ca| ho|e, seml-axes a
and b, ln a plaLe, sub[ecL Lo a dlsLanL sLress !
o
. ln Lhls case Lhe maxlmum sLress ls aL Lhe Llp of Lhe
elllpse:

2a
2b
2!
"o

!
"
max
= "
o
1+
2a
b
#
$
%
&
'
( or

!
"
max
= "
o
1+2
a
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
)

where
a
b
2
= ! Lhe radlus LangenLlal aL Lhe Llp.

Pence for a long Lhln crack where a >>b,

!
"
max
= "
o
2
a
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
)

1hls ls sllghLly modlfled for a half crack aL Lhe edge of a plaLe by Lhe facLor 1.12 because Lhe free
surface (zero sLress) allows Lhe elllpse Lo open raLher wlder Lhan for Lhe embedded crack.

1he facLor !
max
/!
o
by whlch Lhe elasLlc sLress ls ralsed by a feaLure such as a crack or a hole ls Lhe
sLress concenLraLlon facLor k
L
. 1hls ls dlmenslonless.

9
SPA8 C8ACkS

1he above ls very useful for flndlng Lhe effecL of feaLures (lnLended or unlnLended) ln Lhe sLrucLure,
buL mosL cracks are long and have sharp Llps. 1hese can be of aLomlc dlmenslons ln brlLLle maLerlals.

ln 1939 WesLergaard solved Lhe sLress fleld for an lnflnlLely sharp crack ln an lnflnlLe plaLe. 1he elasLlc
sLresses were glven by Lhe equaLlons,

!
xx
=
!
o
!a
2!r
cos
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
1' sin
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
sin
3!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
(
)
*
+
,
-

!
yy
=
!
o
!a
2!r
cos
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
1+ sin
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
sin
3!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,

!
xy
=
!
o
!a
2!r
sin
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
cos
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
cos
3!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&

+ slmllar expresslons for dlsplacemenLs u

[LquaLlons for Lhe polar sLresses as a funcLlon of r and $ are ln Lhe daLa-book.]

All Lhe equaLlons separaLe lnLo a geomeLrlcal facLor and Lhe sLress lnLenslLy facLor:

!
K = "
o
#a

k deLermlnes Lhe ampllLude of Lhe addlLlonal sLress due Lo Lhe crack over Lhe whole speclmen, buL
parLlcularly aL Lhe crack Llp where growLh has Lo occur.

When $ = 0 Lhe sLress openlng Lhe crack has Lhe value :
!
yy
=
!
o
"a
2"r
=
K
2"r

1he value of k aL whlch fracLure occurs ls Lhe maLerlal-dependanL

lracLure 1oughness: K
Ic
= !
f
"a

lor a flxed sLress Lhls deflnes Lhe maxlmum sLable crack lengLh or for a flxed crack lengLh Lhe
maxlmum sLress.

r

10
?ou have come across k ln 1A and 18: 8e careful, Lhere are a number of parameLers k:

k
t
=
!
max
!
o
sLress concenLraLlon facLor (dlmenslonless)
K = !
o
"a sLress lnLenslLy facLor a m
x

K
Ic
= !
f
"a crlLlcal sLress lnLenslLy facLor a m
x
or lracLure 1oughness

1he equaLlons lndlcaLe an lnflnlLe sLress aL Lhe crack Llp when r = 0. 1hls ls noL a problem as Lhe
sLored elasLlc energy forms a flnlLe lnLerval. A small volume aL Lhe crack Llp wlll be above Lhe yleld
sLress and Lhus ln a plasLlc sLaLe.

1he form for Lhe sLress lnLenslLy ls for a crack ln an lnflnlLe plaLe, buL more generally Lhe
dlmenslonless consLanL ls added Lo accounL for Lhe geomeLry of loadlng ln a wlde range of more
reallsLlc crack geomeLrles:

K =Y!
o
"a

K =1.12!
o
"a Ldge crack of lengLh a, normal Lo !
app
ln a seml-lnflnlLe body:
K =
2
!
"
o
!a Clrcular lnLernal crack, radlus a ln an lnflnlLe body lylng normal Lo !
app

K =1.12
2
!
"
o
!a Seml-clrcular surface crack, radlus a ln a seml-lnflnlLe body, normal Lo !
app
:

C1PL8 MCuLS Cl lAlLu8L - 8lnClLL Cl SuL8CSl1lCn

1he above equaLlons consldered only a sLress normal Lo Lhe crack surface buL much more complex
sLaLes of sLress wlll exlsL aL cracks. 1hese can be resolved ln Lo Lhree dlsLlncL crack openlng modes,
Lermed wlLh exLraordlnary lmaglnaLlon, modes l ll and lll. ComblnaLlons of Lhese can descrlbe any
sLaLe of sLress and Lhe sLresses are addlLlve as Lhey remaln elasLlc.
lor example Lhe mode ll sLress equaLlons lnclude Lhe facLor ! = K
II
"r .

Crack openlng modes l, ll and lll.


11

WC8klnC Cu1 1PL LnL8C? - 8LLA1lnC C 1C k

1he sLress lnLenslLy k ls Lhe key value deflnlng Lhe sLresses around Lhe crack Llp arlslng from LhaL
crack. 1here ls a very slmple relaLlonshlp beLween k and Lhe energy release raLe C. lL ls Lhls slmpllclLy
LhaL makes k such a useful value Lo know.

1he energy release raLe ls glven by lnLegraLlng sLress % sLraln over Lhe volume of Lhe cracked body,
and has Lhe value:

G=
K
2
E
lor plaln sLress, or G=
K
2
E
(1!!
2
) for plane sLraln.

1o show how Lhls works we Lake Lhe example of a slmple Lhrough-Lhlckness cenLre crack. We
calculaLe C from Lhe work necessary Lo !"#$% Lhe open crack. 1he dlsplacemenL, u, of Lhe surface of
Lhe crack ls glven by Lhe equaLlon:
u =
2!
o
E
a
2
! x
2
( )
1/2

Pence Lhe elasLlc energy ls Lhe negaLlve of Lhe work done:

U
E
= !2
!
o
u
2
"
#
$
%
&
'
0
a
(
) 2dx
U
E
= !
4!
o
2
2
2E
a
2
! x
2
( )
0
a
"
1/2
dx
U
E
= !
4!
o
2
2
2E
a 1! sin
2
"
( )
0
# /2
!
1/2
dx
d"
d"
U
E
= !
4!
o
2
E
a cos"
( )
0
# /2
!
"acos"d"
U
E
= !
4!
o
2
a
2
E
1
2
(cos
2
0
" /2
!
# + sin
2
#)d#

U
E
= !
4!
o
2
a
2
2E
"
"
#
$
%
0
# /2
= !
4!
o
2
a
2
#
2& 2E
= !
!
o
2
a
2
#
E

ulfferenLlaLlng Lhe elasLlc energy glves Lhe energy release raLe:

G= !
dU
E
dA
= !
dU
E
2da
=
2a!
o
2
"
2E
=
K
2
E

Pence, Lhe values of k for each openlng mode, k
l
, k
ll
, k
lll
, can each be assessed separaLly by addlng all
Lhe conLrlbuLlng k values for each mode. 1hus lL ls posslble Lo assess complex shapes and loadlng by
calculaLlng Lhe ks for each of Lhe applled loads.


12

8uL, Lhe LoLal change ln energy ln Lhe body as a whole can be expressed dlrecLly ln Lerms of Lhe
lndlvldual sLress lnLenslLles whlch characLerlse Lhe crack Llp sLress and dlsplacemenL flelds. 1he LoLal
energy release raLe ls glven by Lhe expresslon:

!
EG = K
I
2
+K
II
2
+(1+")K
III
2
lor plane sLress or:

!
EG = (1"#
2
)K
I
2
+(1"#
2
)K
II
2
+(1+#)K
III
2
lor plane sLraln.

l.e. for a glven mode add Lhe k values, buL Lo assess Lhe LoLal energy release raLe add Lhe C
values for each modes (sum Lhe squares of k).

&#'%( *+%$% %,-.'/#0$ 1# 0#' /0!"-1% '+% 2.!345#-01 $'5%$$ 6+/!+ 7-$' 2% .11%18
!ys
!o
K dominated
Overall stress
r
Plastic zone

ulagram showlng Lhe neL sLress resulLlng from Lhe remoLe sLress and Lhe sLress lnLenslLy . lor !
o
<< !
ys

Lhe plasLlc zone ls domlnaLed by Lhe sLress concenLraLlon effecL of Lhe crack.

ul8LC1lCn Cl C8ACk C8CW1P

Cracks grow aL Lhe mlnlmum sLress necessary. lf Lhere ls an easler rouLe Lhey Lake lL. So for
lnsLance, lf fracLure along a graln boundary requlres less energy Lhen all Lhlngs belng equal
Lhe crack wlll be |ntergranu|ar. Powever, Lhe energy for Lhe crack growLh comes from Lhe
elasLlc energy released and Lhls ls a funcLlon of Lhe growLh dlrecLlon of Lhe crack. ln Lhls
secLlon we calculaLe how Lhe energy release raLe varles wlLh dlrecLlon.


13
8LulC1lnC ul8LC1lCn lC8 A MCuL l C8ACk:

lf we know Lhe value of k for a crack under speclflc loadlng condlLlons Lhen we can calculaLe
C as a funcLlon of Lhe dlrecLlon of growLh and by dlfferenLlaLlng Lhls as a funcLlon of Lhe
growLh dlrecLlon flgure ouL Lhe paLh Lhe crack wlll Lake. 1hls calculaLlon also glves Lhe energy
penalLy a crack wlll pay for Laklng a dlfferenL paLh - a graln boundary or a cleavage plane for
lnsLance.

1ake a slmple Lhrough Lhlckness sharp crack of lengLh 2a. Add Lo Lhls a Llny vlrLual crack aL
an arblLrary angle $ Lo Lhe plane of Lhe maln crack. 1hls vlrLual crack ls Loo small Lo affecL
Lhe sLress sLaLe aL Lhe Llp, buL WesLergaard's equaLlons can be used Lo work ouL Lhe local
sLaLe of sLress.

! K
I
= !
""
#a ! K
II
= !
r"
#a and G=
! K
I
( )
2
E
+
! K
II
( )
2
E

uslng Lhe polar verslons of WesLergaard's equaLlons Lo glve Lhe local sLress sLaLe aL Lhe crack
Llp under Lhe MCuL l loadlng:

MCuL l:

!
"
rr
"
##
"
r#
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
=
K
I
2*r
( )
1 2
cos(# / 2)[1+sin
2
(# / 2)]
cos
3
(# / 2)
sin(# / 2) cos
2
(# / 2)
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)


14
! K
I
=
!
o
"a
o
2"r
cos
3
#
2
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
"a and ! K
II
=
!
o
"a
o
2"r
sin
#
2
"
#
$
%
&
'
cos
2
#
2
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
"a

Pence: G =
!
2
o
"a
o
2"r
cos
3
#
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
+ sin
#
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
cos
2
#
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
'
(
)
)
*
+
,
,
"a
E

1o predlcL Lhe angle we only need conslder Lhe $-dependenL Lerms ln Lhe cenLre:

loLLlng Lhese glves Lhe followlng graph:

!"#$
"
"#$
"#&
"#'
"#(
)
)#$
!)(" !*" " *" )("
+, +,, -


13
AnCLLu C8ACkS - uSL Cl 1PL SuL8CSl1lCn 8lnClLL

As an example of how Lhls applles we can look aL mlxed mode loadlng on an angled crack: (Lhe proof
of Lhls ls noL examlnable)

A crack lles aL & = 43 Lo Lhe prlnclpal sLress s
o
ln an effecLlvely lnflnlLe Lhln sheeL (l.e. ln plane sLress).
We wanL Lo flnd Lhe angle $ aL whlch Lhe crack wlll propagaLe under a sufflclenLly hlgh sLress !
o
.

9&#'% '+.' '+% $'5%$$ %,-.'/#0$ .$ . :-0!'/#0 #: !; .5% 5%".'/<% '# '+% :5.7% #: 5%:%5%0!% #: '+% 7./0
!5.!3 .5% 2%/04 -$%1 '# !."!-".'% '+% "#!." $'5%$$%$ .' . '/0= !5.!3 '.3/04 #:: .' .0 .04"% ! :5#7 '+%
%01 #: '+% 7./0 !5.!38 *+% $'5%$$ /0'%0$/'= > :#5 . !5.!3 !#0'/0-/04 /0 '+% $.7% 1/5%!'/#0 /$ 0#' .
:-0!'/#0 #: '+% .04"% !8?

8LSCLvL 1PL LCAulnC S18LSSLS
1he sLress on a crack lncllned aL 43 can be resolved lnLo a componenL acLlng perpendlcular Lo Lhe
crack, l.e. ln Mode l, and a componenL acLlng parallel Lo Lhe crack plane, l.e. ln Mode ll.

CALCuLA1L 1PL S18LSS ln1LnSl1lLS Cn 1PL 1l
1he sLress flelds from each are consldered separaLely Lo calculaLe k
l
and k
ll
and Lhese are squared and
added Lo glve Lhe overall energy release raLe for Lhe new crack.

CCM8lnL 1PL S18LSS ln1LnSl1lLS 1C ClvL 1PL LnL8C? 8LLLASL 8A1L:
1he paLh Lhe crack Lakes ln propagaLlng furLher wlll be LhaL whlch maxlmlzes Lhe LoLal energy
released. We can flnd Lhls by dlfferenLlaLlng Lhe energy release raLe wlLh respecL Lo Lhe angle $.


16

1hls Llme we need boLh Mode l and Mode ll sLresses ln polar co-ordlnaLes.

Mode l:

!
"
rr
"
##
"
r#
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
=
K
I
2*r
( )
1 2
cos(# / 2)[1+sin
2
(# / 2)]
cos
3
(# / 2)
sin(# / 2) cos
2
(# / 2)
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)

Mode ll:

!
"
rr
"
##
"
r#
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
=
K
II
2*r
( )
1 2
sin(# / 2)[1+3sin
2
(# / 2)]
+3sin(# / 2) cos
2
(# / 2)
cos(# / 2)[1+3sin
2
(# / 2)]
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)

1he axes for Lhe above equaLlons are locaLed ln llne wlLh Lhe exlsLlng crack. We have Lwo
lndependenL sLress flelds from Lhe mode l and ll sLresses on Lhls crack. We use Lhese sLresses Lo work
ouL whaL Lhe energy release raLe for a small (vlrLual) crack Laklng off aL an angle $ from Lhe end of Lhe
maln crack. lor Lhe crack conLlnulng ln Lhe same dlrecLlon $ would be zero eLc, see dlagram above.

We exLracL Lhe sLresses whlch wlll cause mode l openlng of Lhe vlrLual crack, Lhese are Lhe s$$ values
from each of Lhe sLress flelds.

lrom perpendlcular sLress:
!
""
=
!
o
2
!a
o
2!r
cos
3
!
2

where Lhe facLor 1/v2 = cos &

lrom parallel sLress: !
""
=
!
o
2
!a
o
2!r
!3sin
!
2
cos
2
!
2
"
#
$
%
&
'

!
""
=
!
o
2
!a
o
2!r
cos
2
!
2
cos
!
2
!3sin
!
2
"
#
$
%
&
'

Slmllarly Lhe sLress Lo cause mode ll openlng comes from Lhe !
r$ componenLs:

!
r!
=
"
o
2
!a
o
2!r
sin
!
2
cos
2
!
2
+cos
!
2
1!3sin
2
!
2
"
#
$
%
&
'
"
#
$
%
&
'

17
1hese sLresses glve Lhe k' values: ! K
I
!
( )
= !
""
#a and ! K
II
!
( )
= !
r"
#a

1he k relaLes Lo Lhe very small new crack growlng aL Lhe end of Lhe maln crack.
We now have Lo flnd Lhe value of $ for whlch Lhe energy release raLe wlll be a maxlmum, and do Lhls
by addlng Lhe C values for each of Lhe Lwo modes of openlng:

G(!) =
K
I
2
E
+
K
II
2
E
= !
""
2
#a+!
r"
2
#a

We are concerned wlLh Lhe angle $ and can ploL Lhe conLrlbuLlons for Mode l and Mode ll openlng
comblned, normallsed by Lhe values aL $ = 0.

0
0.3
1
1.3
2
2.3
3
3.3
-200 -130 -100 -30 0 30 100 130 200
C

/
C

Angle from crack (clockwlse posluve)
C/C agalnsL angle of propagauon:
C mode l
C modell
C

@"#' #: 0#57."/$%1 %0%54= 5%"%.$% 5.'% :#5 A5#A.4.'/#0 #: . !5.!3 .04"%$ .' BCD '# '+% A5/0!/A." $'5%$$
1/5%!'/#0( 8 C =
!
o
2
"a
2E
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&

1hese are ploLLed above, and lL can be seen LhaL Lhe mode l crack openlng mode has a very sLrong
maxlmum aL ~-33 correspondlng Lo a mlnlmum ln Lhe Mode ll crack. neverLheless, Lhe sum of Lhe
Lwo, denoLed by Lhe bold llne, ls domlnaLed by Lhe energy released from Mode l (as ls nearly always
Lhe case).

lL should be sLressed LhaL k sLlll remalns svna: Lhe lncluslon of Lhe angular funcLlon ln calculaLlng k ls
a resulL of uslng Lhe sLress fleld from Lhe maln crack Lo generaLe Lhe energy release raLe of Lhe new
crack golng off aL an angle $.

1hls lllusLraLes how Lhe prlnclple of superposlLlon works - boLh Mode l and Mode ll cracks could grow
glven sufflclenL sLress. 1he k
lC
and k
llC
values for a parLlcular maLerlal are dlfferenL and characLerlsLlc
of LhaL maLerlal. ln pracLlce nearly all cracks grow ln Mode l Lhls normally generaLlng Lhe hlghesL
energy release raLe as ls seen ln Lhe graphs.


18
LAS1lC ZCnL SlZL

1he equaLlons above lndlcaLe an lnflnlLe sLress aL Lhe crack Llp when r=0. 1hus a small volume aL Lhe
crack Llp wlll be above Lhe yleld sLress and Lhus ln a plasLlc sLaLe. 1hls has Lwo effecLs:

1. 1he deformaLlon occurrlng ln Lhe plasLlc zone as Lhe crack grows greaLly lncreases 8, Lhe
work Lo propagaLe Lhe crack.

2. 1he nomlnal elasLlc energy sLored ln Lhe plasLlc zone ls noL released as Lhe crack grows, buL,
provlded Lhe plasLlc zone remalns small, Lhls ls a small proporLlon of Lhe lnLegral evaluaLlng
Lhe energy release raLe. Pence, for small plasLlc zone slze llnear elasLlc fracLure mechanlcs
can be applled Lo ducLlle fallure.

Pow blg does Lhe plasLlc zone slze need Lo be before we need Lo modlfy Lhe energy release raLe
equaLlon? 1hls occurs when Lhe elasLlc energy noL sLored ln Lhe plasLlc zone represenLs a slzeable
proporLlon of Lhe LoLal energy release raLe C. CalculaLlng Lhe plasLlc zone slze ls noL easy, and we
rely on a couple of approxlmaLlons (uugdale and lrwln, see Lwalds page 36) Lo esLlmaLe Lhe effecL.
1hey glve slmllar resulLs and so we wlll look brlefly aL only one meLhod, LhaL due Lo lrwln.

1he slmplesL esLlmaLe ls made by assumlng LhaL Lhe area ahead of Lhe crack Llp where Lhe sLress
exceeds Lhe yleld sLress ls plasLlc, (see prevlous dlagram). 1hus lgnorlng Lhe remoLe sLress, Lhe slze of
Lhe plasLlc zone r
p
ls:

!
"
ys
=
K
I
2#r
y
hence

!
r
y
=
1
2"
K
I
#
ys
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
)
2

1hls, however, Lakes no accounL of Lhe redlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe sLress whlch would have been carrled by
Lhe maLerlal aL Lhe crack Llp whlch has ylelded and can only carry Lhe yleld sLress.

We can esLlmaLe Lhe error by assumlng a plasLlc zone, wldLh 2r
y
ahead of Lhe crack Llp. 1he effecL of
Lhe plasLlc flow ls Lo open Lhe crack more wldely Lhan Lhe purely elasLlc response would predlcL, Lhus
Lhe elasLlc fleld of Lhe crack behaves as lf lL were ua longer Lhan lL really ls. 1he Llp of Lhe vlrLual
crack" acLs as Lhe nomlnal cenLre for Lhe sLress and sLraln flelds resulLlng from Lhe crack .01 for Lhe
assoclaLed plasLlc zone.

ulagram showlng elasLlc sLress
redlsLrlbuLlon as a resulL of yleldlng
- lrwln model.
1he exLenL of Lhe exLended plasLlc
zone ls deflned by Lhe yleld sLress.

!
r
y
=
1
2"
K
I
#
ys
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
)
2
=
#
2
2#
ys
2
a+ *a
( )

!

19
Where

!
K
I
= " # a+ $a
( )
and Lhe new plasLlc zone slze ls:

!
r
p
= "a+ r
y

lrwln deLermlned ua on Lhe basls LhaL Lhe average of Lhe nomlnal sLress ln Lhe plasLlc zone ln Lhe
plane perpendlcular Lo Lhe sLress axls should equal Lhe real sLress, l.e. Lhe yleld sLress. 1hen Lhe load ls
belng supporLed by Lhe cracked componenL remalns Lhe same wlLh and wlLhouL Lhe plasLlc zone. ln
effecL Lhe area under Lhe sLress graph, A, ls seL equal Lo s
ys
ua.

!
"
ys
#a =
" $ a+ #a
( )
2$r
dr %"
y
r
y
0
r
y
&
r

!
"
ys
#a+ r
y
( )
=
" $ a+ #a
( )
2$r
dr
0
r
y
%

!
"
ys
#a+ r
y
( )
=
2" a+ #a
2
r
y
buL

!
"
ys
2r
y
= " a+ #a
( )
from above

!
"
ys
#a+ r
y
( )
=
2"
ys
2r
y
2
r
y
r

!
"a = r
y
and

!
"a =
1
2#
K
I
$
ys
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
2

and

!
r
p
=
1
"
K
I
#
ys
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
)
2
= 2r
y

1hus Lhe vlrLual crack Llp deLermlnlng Lhe elasLlc sLress/sLraln fleld ends aL Lhe cenLre of Lhe plasLlc
zone.

uugdale's analysls ls raLher more sophlsLlcaLed buL also assumes LhaL Lhe crack ls longer Lhan lL really
ls and superlmposes polnL closure forces onLo each end of Lhe crack onLo Lhe overall elasLlc soluLlon
for Lhe enlarged crack. 1he crlLerlon for Lhe lmposed closure sLress ls LhaL Lhe sum of Lhe closure and
remoLe sLresses cancel aL Lhe crack Llp removlng Lhe slngularlLy. (see Anderson page 77)

uugdale's analysls glves a sllghLly larger plasLlc zone slze:

r
p
= 0.392
K
I
!
ys
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
lnsLead of r
p
= 0.318
K
I
!
ys
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
from lrwln.

lL ls noL worLh worrylng Loo much abouL Lhese facLors as boLh analysls are predlcaLed on perfecL
plasLlc behavlor, l.e no work hardenlng. ln facL maLerlals wlll work harden Lo dlfferenL exLenLs and
would Lhus be able Lo susLaln hlgher loads ln Lhe plasLlc zone Lhan Lhese analyses predlcL. lL analysls
provldes a beLLer meLhod of assesslng Lhe plasLlc zone slze for each maLerlal from lLs parLlcular
plasLlclLy characLerlsLlcs.


20
8LAL LAS1lC ZCnL SlZLS

We can use Lhls Lo esLlmaLe Lhe error lnLroduced by Lhe plasLlclLy aL varlous raLlos of Lhe sLress Lo
Lhe yleld sLress.

s
ys
Ma k
lC
Mam
1/2
ASM
CrlL.
r
p
plane
sLress
r
p
lane
sLraln
Plgh sLrengLh SLeel 1200 60
SLrucLural sLeel

400 130
Alumlna

3000 1

erspex

30 1

lor mosL componenLs Lhe slze of Lhe plasLlc zone ls falrly small buL concerns musL be ralsed for Lhe
valldlLy of LLlM ln Lhe case of sLrucLural sLeels. ln pracLlce Lhe ASM sLandard requlres LhaL Lhe crack
lengLh a, Lhe speclmen Lhlckness 8, and Lhe resldual speclmen wldLh of a LesL-plece are all greaLer
Lhan 2.5
K
I
!
ys
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
.

1hls means LhaL, ln effecL, r
p
< a/8 for LLlM Lo apply. 1he plasLlc zone should be less Lhan 20 of Lhe
area domlnaLed by Lhe crack Llp sLresses (raLher Lhan Lhe remoLe sLresses) whlch ls abouL 10 of Lhe
crack lengLh.

AlLernaLlvely we can look aL Lhe effecL of Lhe plasLlc zone on Lhe fracLure sLress

!
f
=
EG
crit
! a+ r
y
( )
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
or
!
f
=
EG
crit
! a+!
f
2
a / 2!
ys
2
( )
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&

1he plasLlc zone has Lhe effecL of dlvldlng by Lhe facLor
1+
!
f
2
2!
ys
2
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&

lor
!
f
!
ys
= 0.4 Lhe error ls 4, for 0.6 Lhe error ls 8.3 and for 0.8 Lhe error reaches 13.

Pence Lhe closer Lhe fracLure sLress geLs Lo Lhe yleld sLress Lhe more ducLlle Lhe fallure and Lhe
greaLer Lhe lnfluence of Lhe plasLlc zone.


21
8LAL SPAL Cl LAS1lC ZCnL

1he plasLlc zone ls noL golng Lo be clrcular slnce Lhe largesL shear sLresses occur aL 43 Lo Lhe crack
(equaLlons page 10). 1he exacL shape ls Lrlcky Lo calculaLe and depends on Lhe yleld crlLerlon used.
uslng Lhe von Mlses crlLerlon for yleld :

!
ys
=
1
2
!
1
!!
2
( )
2
+ !
1
!!
3
( )
2
+ !
2
!!
3
( )
2
"
#
$
%
&
'
1
2

and subsLlLuLlng Lhe Mode l prlnclpal sLresses ln polar co-ordlnaLes:

!
1
=
K
I
2!r
cos
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
1+ sin
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,

!
2
=
K
I
2!r
cos
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
1' sin
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
(
)
*
+
,
-

!
3
= 0 for plane sLress, and !
3
=
2"K
I
2!r
cos
!
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
for plane sLraln

we are able Lo solve for r
p
and obLaln Lhe llmlLs of Lhe plasLlc zone:

r
p
!
( )
=
1
4!
K
I
"
ys
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
1+cos# +
3
2
sin
2
#
'
(
)
*
+
,
lor plane sLress

r
p
!
( )
=
1
4!
K
I
"
ys
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
1' 2#
( )
2
1+cos!
( )
+
3
2
sin
2
!
(
)
*
+
,
-
lor plane sLraln

ploLLlng Lhls glves Lhe shapes for Lhe plasLlc zone. noLe Lhe value for plane sLraln wlll be smaller by
some (1-2()
2
whlch ls 0.16 for ( = 0.3. 1hus Lhe plasLlc zone ls of a sllghLly dlfferenL shape and
smaller ln slze for Lhe consLralned cenLral parL of Lhe crack.

ulagram of Lhe plasLlc zone and Lhe effecL of Lhrough Lhlckness crack.

lane sLress aL ouLslde edge

lane sLraln ln cenLre

22

@".$'/! E#0% $+.A% :#5 F#1% G; GG .01 GGG !5.!3 #A%0/04; !."!-".'%1 :5#7 <#0 F/$%$ =/%"1
!5/'%5/#08

Slmllarly Lhe plasLlc zone slze and shape can be derlved for Lhe oLher crack openlng modes and Lhese
are shown ln Lhe above llgure. ln general Lhe mosL llkely cause of crack growLh ls mode l openlng,
and conslderaLlon of Lhls ls able Lo solve mosL problems.

Agaln lL musL be emphaslzed LhaL Lhe exacL soluLlon depends on Lhe plasLlclLy of Lhe maLerlal and LhaL
Lhere ls a gradual LranslLlon from plane sLress Lo plane sLraln. A hlgh work-hardenlng raLe reduces Lhe
plasLlc zone slze as more sLress can be susLalned by Lhe plasLlc maLerlal. When Lhe plasLlc zone slze
becomes comparable wlLh Lhe Lhlckness of Lhe speclmen, plaln sLraln ls noL achleved aL Lhe cenLre of
Lhe crack. Powever, provlded Lhe plasLlc zone slze ls small compared Lo Lhe Lhlckness Lhe sLress
lnLenslLy facLor >
G!
provldes a reasonable fracLure crlLerlon.

As Lhe Lhlckness decreases Lhe measured >
G!
lncreases from a plane sLraln plaLeau value Lo a hlgher
value characLerlsLlc of plane sLress. 1hus Lo deflne >
G!
a small plasLlc zone slze and plane sLraln
condlLlons are requlred. 8uL use can be made of LLlM ln slLuaLlons of plane sLress l.e. Lhln plaLes,
provlded Lhe values of >
G!
LhaL are used are found ln maLerlal of slmllar Lhlckness, ln Lhese
clrcumsLances >
G!
ls noL a maLerlal consLanL as lL varles wlLh Lhe dlmenslons of Lhe speclmen.


23
KIc
Specimen Thickness
Plane strain Plane stress

*+% %::%!' #: $A%!/7%0 '+/!30%$$ #0 '+% !5/'/!." $'5%$$ /0'%0$/'=8

1he consLralnL aL Lhe cenLre of a Lhlck sample causes Lhe crack Lo progress Lhe furLhesL aL Lhe cenLre
of Lhe crack and Lhe sldes fall by plasLlc shear formlng Lwo llps whlch wlll polnL up or down randomly
as ln Lhe cup and cone fracLure. 1he cenLre parL of Lhe crack wlll be normal Lo Lhe Lenslle axls on
average, (Lhls masks valleys and rldges on a smaller scale). As Lhe load on Lhe sample lncreases Lhe
plasLlc zone slze lncreases and Lhe wldLh ln plane sLraln decreases. LvenLually Lhe plane sLress
condlLlons exLend across Lhe sample and a dlagonal shear fallure resulLs.

1hls leads Lo Lhe klnd of fracLure surface seen below where Lhe crack sLarLs aL a noLch propagaLlng by
ducLlle cleavage aL rlghL angles Lo Lhe sLress . 1wo 'shear llps' develop: ln Lhls case one sloplng up and
Lhe oLher down.


24
8 Anu C Cu8vLS:

1he maLerlal reslsLance Lo crack exLenslon, 8, conslsLs of Lhe energy Lo creaLe Lwo new surfaces, 2g
s

LogeLher wlLh any mechanlsm whlch absorbs energy as Lhe crack grows. ln Lhe case of brlLLle fracLure
8 does noL depend on Lhe slze of Lhe crack, buL where plasLlc work ls done developlng a plasLlc zone 8
may well vary wlLh Lhe crack slze, lncreaslng or decreaslng. 1he lncrease could resulL from an lncrease
ln Lhe plasLlc zone slze as we saw on Lhe prevlous page. lnlLlally Lhe consLralnL due Lo Lhe Lhlckness of
Lhe speclmen lnhlblLs plasLlc flow, resLrlcLs Lhe slze of Lhe plasLlc zone and keeps 8 low. As a plasLlc
zone develops aL Lhe sldes of Lhe sample 8 lncreases reduclng Lhe area of 'ducLlle cleavage' unLll Lhe
enLlre crack falls by shear. AL Lhls polnL 8 reaches a maxlmum value.

[AlLernaLlvely, a decrease could resulL from Lhe sLraln raLe senslLlvlLy of Lhe flow sLress reduclng Lhe
plasLlc zone slze as Lhe crack grows fasLer.]

C varles wlLh Lhe slze of Lhe crack and Lhe geomeLry of loadlng. lor flxed grlps Lhe load drops as Lhe
crack exLends and Lhus Lhe energy release raLe, C, wlll drop. 8uL for Lhe same speclmen aL flxed load,
C lncreases as Lhe crack grows.

G
a
LOAD CONTROL
STRAIN CONTROL
FIXED GRIPS


23
MLASu8lnC C:

Conslder Lwo slmple slLuaLlons, a flxed sLraln where a growlng crack reduces Lhe load (sLraln conLrol)
and a flxed load where Lhe crack growLh lncreases Lhe lengLh of Lhe speclmen (load conLrol).

G = !
1
B
dU
da
"
#
$
%
&
'
u
for sLraln conLrol and G= !
1
B
dU
da
"
#
$
%
&
'
P
for load conLrol.

*noLe u = poLenLlal energy and u = dlsplacemenL and = load.

Conslder a plaLe, Lhlckness 8, loaded wlLh a force . 1hls conLalns a crack lengLh a and as a resulL of
Lhe crack Lhe plaLe has exLended a dlsLance u. 1he crack exLends by da. under load conLrol Lhe
speclmen lengLhens by du, and Lhe work done by Lhe exLernal force ls du
l
= - )u. 1he exLra work
sLored elasLlcally by vlrLue of Lhe change ln crack lengLh and Lhe consequenL change ln speclmen
lengLh du
L
= 1/2)u. 1hus half Lhe work done ls sLored ln Lhe regular way as ln an un-cracked body
and Lhe resL ls released as Lhe elasLlc response of Lhe body changes as a resulL of Lhe crack growLh.
under sLraln conLrol Lhe load ls reduced by d and Lhe energy released: du
l
= -1/2u) as no exLernal
work ls done (d ls negaLlve).

LC: dU
E
=
1
2
Pdu!Pdu = !
1
2
Pdu SC: dU
E
=
1
2
udP
LC: GB!a = +
1
2
P!u SC: GB!a = !
1
2
u!P

We now lnLroduce Lhe Compllance: Lhe lnverse sLlffness C = u/.

LC: G = +
P
2B
du
da
!
"
#
$
%
&
P
= +
P
2B
du
dC
!
"
#
$
%
&
P
dC
da
!
"
#
$
%
&
p
=
P
2
2B
dC
da
!
"
#
$
%
&
p

SC: G= !
u
2B
dP
da
"
#
$
%
&
'
u
= !
u
2B
dP
dC
"
#
$
%
&
'
u
dC
da
"
#
$
%
&
'
u
=
P
2
2B
dC
da
"
#
$
%
&
'
u

1he expresslon for C ls Lhe same ln boLh cases.

1he compllance depends on Lhe speclmen shape, ln parLlcular on Lhe crack geomeLry and lengLh,
remember Lhe sample ls assumed Lo be elasLlc aL all polnLs.

8y measurlng Lhe compllance as a funcLlon of Lhe crack lengLh Lhe energy release raLe can be
calculaLed from Lhe load .


26
LeL's look aL Lhls graphlcally: for a speclmen under sLraln conLrol (Lhe grlps are flxed) Lhe crack growLh
causes a fall ln Lhe exLernal force whlch ls equal Lo Lhe energy released by Lhe crack ln growlng )a.
1hls ls equal Lo Lhe area of Lhe shaded Lrlangle CAC.

a
P
P
u
Pdu
du
dUE = 1/2Pdu
a
a+da
Fixed Load
A B
O
C

lor Load conLrol, Lhe speclmen exLends aL flxed load and Lhe energy released ls Lhe area of Lhe
Lrlangle CA8. 1hus Lhe only dlfference beLween Lhe Lwo cases ls Lhe area of Lhe Lrlangle A8C whlch ls
of Lhe order 1/2))u and approaches zero ln Lhe llmlL.

1hus Lhe value of C depends only on Lhe geomeLry of Lhe sample: shape, crack lengLh eLc, and Lhe
loadlng, .
-
-
-

27
MLASu8lnC 8:

lor brlLLle maLerlals 8 does noL change as Lhe crack grows and fallure occurs when Lhe sLress
rlses Lo Lhe polnL where C equals 8.

1he 8 curve can be measured from a ploL of load agalnsL exLenslon u, uslng Lhe gradlenL of Lhe
'unloadlng llne' aL any polnL Lo glve Lhe compllance as Lhe crack exLends. G=
P
2
2B
dC
da
!
"
#
$
%
&
u

lor a rlslng 8 curve C musL exceed 8 aL any crack lengLh, buL as Lhe crack grows 8 can exceed C.
Pence, for fasL fracLure, C musL lncrease wlLh Lhe crack lengLh :.$'%5 Lhan Lhe reslsLance Lo crack
growLh. lasL fracLure wlll occur when dC/da > d8/da. lf dC/da = d8/da Lhe crack wlll conLlnue
growlng ln a conLrolled manner (so-called sLable crack growLh).


28
MLASu8lnC k
lc

ln prlnclple k can be measured from Lhe load aL fallure and Lhe crack lengLh ln a sLandard slzed
speclmen conLalnlng a sharp crack grown usually by faLlgue. Powever, for Lhe LesL Lo be valld Lhree
crlLerla musL be saLlsfled:

Lhe speclmen musL be large enough for Lhe plasLlc zone slze Lo be a small proporLlon of Lhe
sample and we have Lhe crlLerlon for Lhe dlmenslons a, 8 and W dlscussed earller:
o a, 8 and H > 2.5
K
I
!
ys
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2

1he maxlmum faLlgue sLress lnLenslLy k ls less Lhan 80 of k
lc

Lhe crack ls sLlll roughly ln Lhe mlddle of Lhe sample, 0.43< a/W < 0.33.

lf Lhe LesLplece were enLlrely elasLlc and Lhe load dlsplacemenL curve would be llnear, lL ls generally
noL as Lhe Llp of Lhe crack beglns Lo yleld. 1he value of Lhe load,
C
, Lo be used Lo assess k
lC
ls Laken as
Lhe polnL aL whlch Lhe curve crosses a llne drawn wlLh a gradlenL 93 of Lhe lnlLlal LangeanL.
SomeLlmes Lhere ls a small amounL of unsLable crack growLh prlor Lo fallure aL a hlgher load, 'pop-ln'
behavlour. ln Lhls case or lf Lhe sample falls before a 3 devlaLlon from llnearlLy, Lhe pop-ln sLress or
Lhe ulLlmaLe sLress prlor Lo fallure are used.

1he provlslonal value of k
lc
, k
C
can Lhen be calculaLed from Lhe equaLlon:

K
Q
=
P
Q
B W
f a / W
( )

where f(a/W) ls a dlmenslonless funcLlon of Lhe speclmen dlmenslons speclflc Lo Lhe LesLplece deslgn.
1hese are all seL ouL ln Lhe AS1M sLandard L399.

29
As an example, for Lhe mosL common 'compacL speclmen' LesLplece Lhe equaLlon ls:

f a / W
( )
=
2+a / W
1!a / W
( )
3/2
0.866+ 4.64 a / W
( )
!13.32 a / W
( )
2
+14.72 a / W
( )
3
!5.6 a / W
( )
4
"
#
$
%
&
'


30
LLAS1lC LAS1lC l8AC1u8L MLCPAnlCS

1he requlremenLs for Lhe mlnlmum speclmen LesL-plece slze for LLlM Lo be valld are very sLrlngenL
for ducLlle maLerlals. ln facL Lhe slze of LesL-plece needed Lo produce a valld and represenLaLlve value
of >
G!
are such LhaL large amounLs of maLerlal and huge machlnes are requlred for LesLlng. More
lmporLanLly, Lhe scale could well exceed Lhe slze of Lhe componenL Lhe resulLs are Lo be applled Lo.
under Lhese clrcumsLances we sLlll need a measure of Lhe fracLure Loughness of Lhese maLerlals ln
order Lo predlcL and avold posslble fallure. 1wo meLhods have been developed whlch enable small
scale LesLlng Lo be applled Lo Lhe fallure of ducLlle maLerlals. 1hese are Lhe Crack Cpenlng
ulsplacemenL and Lhe ! lnLegral meLhod.

C8ACk 1l CLnlnC ulSLACLMLn1

8ack ln 1961 Wells had been Lrylng unsuccessfully Lo obLaln rellable >
G!
measuremenLs for ducLlle
sLeels, when he noLlced LhaL Lhe crack Llps showed conslderable blunLlng whlch lncreased wlLh Lhe
Loughness of Lhe maLerlal. Pe proposed measurlng Lhe crlLlcal dlameLer of Lhe crack Llp and uslng Lhls
dlrecLly as a measure of Lhe Loughness. We wlll see LhaL for llmlLed plasLlc zone slze Lhe crack Llp
openlng ls relaLed dlrecLly and slmply Lo Lhe LLlM energy release raLe, buL Lhe really useful exLenslon
of Lhls Lo a much larger plasLlc zone slze was aL LhaL polnL purely emplrlcal. lL has slnce been
demonsLraLed rlgorously LhaL Lhe use of Lhe C1Cu ls valld even for very exLenslve plasLlclLy and Lhe
meLhod ls now wldely used Lo LesL and deslgn componenLs.

I11/'/#0." !5.!3 #A%0/04 .$ . 5%$-"' #: A".$'/!/'= .' !5.!3 '/A8

We saw earller LhaL Lhe effecL of a plasLlc zone aL Lhe crack Llp ls Lo exLend Lhe effecLlve lengLh of Lhe
crack by 5
=
~ half Lhe dlameLer of Lhe plasLlc zone. Pence Lhe openlng of Lhe crack aL lL's real Llp can
be approxlmaLed from Lhe calculaLed elasLlc dlsplacemenLs of Lhe vlrLual (exLended) crack evaluaLed
aL a polnL some r
y
from Lhe vlrLual crack Llp. See llgure above.


31
1he C1Cu ) ls glven by double Lhe dlsplacemenL u
yy
ln Lhe Lenslle dlrecLlon, for plane sLress Lhls ls
glven by Lhe equaLlon:

u
yy
=
K
I
2
r
2!
sin
"
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
# +1' 2cos
2
"
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
(
)
*
+
,
-where ! =
3!"
1+"
for plane sLress

evaluaLlng Lhls aL r
y
from Lhe crack Llp $ = 180:

u
yy
=
K
I
! +1
( )
2
r
y
2"

and subsLlLuLlng for Lhe plasLlc zone slze from Lhe lrwln value (second esLlmaLe, page 18):

r
y
=
1
2!
K
I
"
ys
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
glves: u
yy
=
! +1
( )
2
K
I
2
2!"
ys

where
! +1
( )
2
=
4
1+!
( )
!
1+!
( )
E
=
4
E

and hence ! = 2u
yy
=
4
E
K
I
2
"#
ys
=
4
"
G
#
ys
where C ls Lhe energy release raLe.

Agaln Lhe uugdale model glves a slmllar resulL:

! =
G
m"
ys

where m ls a consLanL 1 for plane sLress and 2 for plane sLraln.

8emember LhaL Lhls ls all derlved from Lhe elasLlc soluLlon surroundlng a small plasLlc zone (page 10)
buL lL has slnce been demonsLraLed from plasLlclLy Lheory LhaL Lhls ls generally Lrue even lf Lhe plasLlc
zone ls exLenslve. 1he crlLlcal value of Lhe C1Cu Lhus glves a rellable measure of Lhe fracLure
Loughness of Lhe maLerlal. Clearly Lhls wlll be a funcLlon of Lhe speclmen Lhlckness buL provlded Lhe
Lhlckness of Lhe LesL-plece ls slmllar Lo Lhe componenL Lhe LesL resulL can be used.


32
MLASu8lnC C1Cu

1hls ls very dlfflculL Lo measure dlrecLly and ls usually lnferred from Lhe wldLh of Lhe crack openlng v
of a Lhree polnL bendlng speclmen. lL ls assumed LhaL Lhe speclmen behaves as a rlgld hlnge plvoLlng
abouL some polnL ln Lhe uncracked llgamenL of Lhe speclmen Lhe dlsplacemenL ) ls Lhen proporLlonal
Lo v:

!
" W !a
( )
=
V
! W !a
( )
+a

where * ls a dlmenslonless consLanL beLween 0 and 1.

!
W
V
a
r(W-a)
P

J*KL 7%.$-5%1 :5#7 . '+5%% A#/0' 2%01 $A%!/7%08

alnsLaklng experlmenLs measurlng Lhe value of v and Lhen ) by secLlonlng Lhe crack esLabllshed Lhls
relaLlonshlp. 8uL beware - lL depends on Lhe speclmen Lhlckness and Lhe wldLh of Lhe sloL and Lhe
lengLh of Lhe crack.

1here are four values of ) recognlsed by Lhe AS1M sLandards:

)
l
Lhe C1Cu aL Lhe onseL of sLable ducLlle crack growLh.
)
c
Lhe C1Cu aL Lhe onseL of unsLable cleavage fallure,
)
u
Lhe C1Cu aL Lhe onseL of unsLable crack growLh followlng exLenslve ducLlle sLable crack
growLh
)
m
Lhe C1Cu aL maxlmum load where Lhe speclmen does noL break.

1he flrsL ls hard Lo deLecL, Lhe only clue ln Lhe load curve belng a sllghL change ln gradlenL. 1he nexL
Lwo are ldenLlfled by Lhe fallure of Lhe sample and Lhe lasL by a maxlmum ln Lhe load curve wlLhouL
Lhe fallure of Lhe sample.

* (W-a)

33
V
LOAD
P
Vc Vi
Vm
Vi
Vu
cleavage
stable crack
growth +
cleavage
stable crack
growth +
plastic
collapse

F#-'+ KA%0/04 L/$A".!%7%0' < M#.1 !-5<%$8

! ln1LC8ALS

1he ! lnLegral ls Lhe equlvalenL of Lhe C for Lhe elasLlc-plasLlc case. lL ls Lhe raLe of energy absorbed
per unlL area as Lhe crack grows, lL ls noL however Lhe energy release raLe because Lhe plasLlc energy
ls noL recoverable as lL would be ln Lhe elasLlc case. 1he deflnlLlon ls:
J = !
dU
dA

where u ls Lhe poLenLlal energy of Lhe sysLem and A Lhe area of Lhe crack.

P
P
a
a + da
dU
Displacement
!
dP
d!
Load

Lnergy release raLe for non-llnear deformaLlon.

An analogy wlLh Lhe Llnear elasLlc case can be made, compare Lhe llgure above wlLh Lhose on page
23. 1he sLress sLraln curve ls no longer llnear, buL Lhe area under Lhe curve represenLs Lhe work done
ln exLendlng Lhe cracked body (wlLhouL exLendlng Lhe crack).


34
loLLlng Lwo curves for speclmens dlfferlng only ln Lhe lengLh of Lhe crack, a and a++a, Lhe energy
requlred Lo grow Lhe crack ls Lhe dlfference ln Lhe areas under Lhe Lwo graphs shaded ln Lhe llgures
on page 23. Slnce Lhe area decreases as Lhe crack grows du/da ls negaLlve and ! =-du/da aL unlL
Lhlckness. AlLhough Lhls ls Lhe same as Lhe deflnlLlon of Lhe energy release raLe we used earller, Lhe !
lnLegral for Lhe plasLlc case does noL represenL Lhe energy released as Lhe crack grows because much
of Lhe energy used performs plasLlc deformaLlon. 1hls ls flne so long as you are [usL loadlng Lhe
speclmen buL becomes Lrlcky lf you Lry and reverse Lhe sLress.

1he Lerm '! lnLegral' comes from Lhe properLy of ! whlch can be expressed and evaluaLed as a closed
llne lnLegral around Lhe crack Llp. ! ls Lhe sLraln energy denslLy wlLhln Lhe llne mlnus Lhe surface
lnLegral of Lhe normal LracLlon sLress forces normal Lo Lhe surface deflned and ls lndependenL of Lhe
paLh Lhe lnLegral Lakes.

y
x

L/.45.7 $+#6/04 '+% "/0% /0'%45." .5#-01 '+% !5.!3 '/A N O /0'%45."8

lL can be evaluaLed experlmenLally by measurlng Lhe sLress sLraln curves for a number of ldenLlcal
speclmens conLalnlng cracks of dlfferenL lengLhs and ploLLlng Lhe area under Lhe graph u for each
speclmen as a funcLlon of Lhe crack lengLh and Lhus evaluaLlng du/dA and hence !. 1here are also
speclflc speclmen geomeLrles (deeply double noLched and noLched Lhree polnL bendlng speclmens)
LhaL allow ! Lo be measured from a slngle speclmen.

1hese experlmenLs allow ! Lo be ploLLed as a funcLlon of Lhe crack exLenslon. 1hus alLhough ! ls
deflned ln slmllar Lerms Lo Lhe energy release raLe C, and lndeed reduces Lo C for llnear elasLlc
behavlor, ! for elasLlc-plasLlc maLerlals ls closer Lo 8, Lhe reslsLance Lo crack growLh, ln boLh
lnLerpreLaLlon and form. 1he curve ploLLed agalnsL Lhe crack growLh from Lhe orlglnal crack lengLh
a, shows Lhree dlsLlncL reglons, an lnlLlal zone where Lhe orlglnal crack blunLs buL does noL grow and
Lhe curve rlses sLeeply, a secondary reglon lnlLlaLlng aL !
lc
, where a new crack nucleaLes and grows
developlng Lhe elasLlc-plasLlc zone aL Lhe crack Llp, unLll flnally sLeady sLaLe crack Llp condlLlons are
achleved and Lhe crack propagaLes aL a consLanL value of Lhe ! reslsLance !
8
.


33
JR
Crack
blunting
Fracture
Initiation
Steady
state
crack
growth
!a
A
C
B
A B C

L/.45.7 /01/!.'/04 '+% O !-5<% 1-5/04 !5.!3 45#6'+8

1he valldlLy of Lhls approach has llmlLs, [usL as Lhe LLlM has. 1hese are reached, ln general Lerms,
when Lhe exLenL of plasLlc yleldlng becomes a large proporLlon of Lhe remalnlng llgamenL lengLh. AL
Lhls polnL a slngle parameLer for crack growLh ls noL sufflclenL and even more compllcaLed analysls ls
necessary.


36
l8AC1u8L MC8PCLCC?

uuC1lLL lAlLu8L:

uucLlle fallure ln unl-axlal speclmen ls characLerlsed macroscoplcally by cup and cone fallure, and on a
mlcroscoplc scale by Lhe formaLlon and coalescence of volds generally nucleaLed aL second phase
parLlcles. 1hls occurs afLer Lhe polnL of plasLlc lnsLablllLy has been reached when Lhe raLe of work
hardenlng can no longer compensaLe for Lhe lncrease ln Lhe sLress as Lhe secLlon decreases. volds
nucleaLe and grow mosL rapldly ln Lhe cenLre of Lhe sample where Lhe sLaLe of Lrlaxlal sLress exlsLs.
1hese grow and coalesce Lo produce a clrcular lnLernal crack whlch grows, and flnally falls by shear ln
Lhe plane sLress ouLer reglons of Lhe sample. Where vold formaLlon ls dlfflculL, (for example ln pure
meLals) much more ducLlllLy ls observed and Lhe sample can Lhln almosL Lo a polnL before fallure
occurs.

ulagram showlng cup and cone fallure ln Lenslle speclmen

volds almosL always nucleaLe aL second-phase parLlcles elLher by decoheslon aL Lhe lnLerface or by
fracLure of Lhe second phase or lncluslon. A number of models have been developed whlch look aL
Lhe effecL of dlslocaLlon plle-ups aL second-phase preclplLaLes formed durlng plasLlc flow as Lhe
Lrlgger Lo vold nucleaLlon buL fall Lo predlcL Lhe observaLlon LhaL volds appear Lo nucleaLe mosL
readlly aL larger parLlcles. 1hls ls noL enLlrely surprlslng because Lhe largesL preclplLaLes are llkely Lo
be Lhose wlLh Lhe hlghesL lnLerface energy and Lhus Lhe largesL lncenLlve Lo reduce surface Lo volume
raLlo, and, ln addlLlon, are also Lhose mosL llkely Lo crack under exLenslve plasLlc flow ln Lhe
surroundlng maLrlx. 1hls laLLer process ls Lhe mosL llkely Lo occur where large preclplLaLes are presenL
and can be readlly observed.

1he 43 sldes of Lhe cone fall lasL as Lhe cenLral crack propagaLes ouLwards. ln Lhe absence of general
yleldlng across Lhe full remalnlng secLlon of Lhe sample Lhe progress of a crack by ducLlle means relles
upon Lhe nucleaLlon and growLh of volds ahead of Lhe crack Llp. 1he sLress ahead of Lhe crack Llp ls
ralsed Lo abouL 4 Llmes Lhe sLress aL approxlmaLely Lwo Llmes Lhe 'crack Llp openlng dlsplacemenL' or
C1Cu from Lhe Llp. volds form ln Lhls area of ralsed sLress ahead of Lhe crack Llp.


37

Cnce formed, Lhe volds grow, becomlng elllpLlcal and undergolng exLenslve plasLlc flow aL Lhe sldes.
1he llgamenLs beLween Lhe volds fall by shear on Lhe plane of hlghesL shear sLress aL 43 Lo Lhe
Lenslle axls.

CLLAvACL l8AC1u8L ln uuC1lLL MA1L8lALS.

1he cleavage fracLure surface ls characLerlsed by a planar lnLer-granular crack whlch changes plane by
Lhe formaLlon of dlscreLe sLeps. laceLs correspond Lo Lhe lndlvldual gralns and ln slngle crysLals an
enLlre sllp plane can conslsL of one faceL.

laceLLed brlLLle fallure showlng rlver llnes.

1he sLeps or rlver llnes on Lhe faceLs converge and evenLually dlsappear ln Lhe dlrecLlon of crack
growLh. 1hey are formed aL a graln boundary where Lhe cleavage plane ln one graln ls noL parallel Lo
Lhe plane ln Lhe ad[acenL graln, Lhe dlfference belng accommodaLed by a serles of sLeps. 1hese
gradually dlmlnlsh as Lhe crack propagaLes adopLlng Lhe cleavage plane of Lhe new graln before belng
re-formed aL Lhe nexL graln boundary.

lf a cleavage crack ls Lo propagaLe across a graln boundary dlsLlncL new cracks musL be nucleaLed
ahead of Lhe lnLerface before sufflclenL plasLlclLy ln Lhe maLerlal ls achleved Lo relleve Lhose sLresses.

38
olycrysLalllne nl-8ased
superalloy 881000, laLlgue
fallure aL 8oom
LemperaLure showlng
Lransgranular cleavage

uucLlle fallure aL hlgh
LemperaLure ln ln 738
showlng gross Learlng.

AlMg Sl alloy falled by
mlcrovold coalescence


39
CondlLlons favorlng brlLLle fracLure are:
hlgh yleld sLress,
reduced sllp sysLems (PC and 8CC meLals, low LemperaLure),
hlgh consLralnL (plane sLraln) and rapld deformaLlon.

Powever, for meLals, ln parLlcular for lron , lL has been shown LhaL Lhe fracLure sLress follows Lhe
value of yleld sLress measured ln compresslon (even Lhough ln Lenslon Lhe maLerlal demonsLraLes
brlLLle fallure). lor small gralns slzes yleldlng precedes fallure, aL larger gralns slzes Lhe Lwo occur
LogeLher.

AL Lhe Llp, Lhe crack becomes blunLed Lhrough plasLlclLy and Lhus Lhe poLenLlally very hlgh sLresses
are reduced (see nexL secLlon). As a resulL Lhe sLresses achleved ahead of Lhe crack Llp do noL ln
effecL exceed 3-4 Llmes Lhe yleld sLress. 1hls ls way below Lhe LheoreLlcal sLrengLh of mosL maLerlals:

!
" #
E
c

Pence Lhe crack cannoL slmply propagaLe as lL would ln a brlLLle ceramlc. (e.g. Lhe wedglng dlscussed
on page 3. 1here musL be a crack or defecL ahead of Lhe crack Lo furLher ralse Lhe sLress and
propagaLe Lhe crack lf cleavage ls Lo occur.
under condlLlons of plane sLraln l.e. consLralnL, Lhe crlLlcal lengLh for a crack from Lhe CrlfflLh's
crlLerlon ls:

a
crit
=
2E!
s
" 1!#
2
( )
!
f
2
= 0.3m

where, for example ln lron, !
f
= 1Cnm
-2
and L = 200Cnm
-2
, and "
s
= 2!m
-2
.

Pence some plasLlclLy aL Lhe crack Llp ls necessary Lo form cracks of roughly Lhls slze ln order Lo
propagaLe Lhe crack furLher. A number of mechanlsms by whlch mlcro-cracks can form have been
proposed and are lllusLraLed on Lhe nexL page.

1he mlcro-crack ls llmlLed Lo a slngle graln due Lo Lhe dlfflculLy ln propagaLlng across Lhe boundary.
Pence Lhe sLress lnLenslLy ahead of a mlcro-crack ls llmlLed by Lhe v(graln slze), Lhls llmlLs Lhe sLress Lo
nucleaLe furLher cracks and propagaLe Lhe fallure. 1hls resulLs ln a Pall-eLch Lype relaLlonshlp
beLween Lhe fallure sLress and Lhe graln slze:
!
f
!
!E!
gb
1"!
2
#
$
%
&
d
'
(
)
)
*
+
,
,
1
2

where "
gb
ls Lhe plasLlc work Lo propagaLe across Lhe graln boundary and generally exceeds Lhe usual
"
p
Lerm.

1here are oLher mechanlsms by whlch graln reflnemenL Lo affecL Lhe fracLure sLress, ln mlld sLeels Lhe
cleavage fracLure ls conLrolled by Lhe fracLure of graln boundary carbldes, and an lncrease ln Lhe
overall graln boundary area wlLh smaller graln slze leads Lo smaller carbldes and Lhus a hlgher fracLure
sLress. Craln slze ls hence Lhe one of Lhe besL sLrengLhenlng mechanlsms as lL lncreases boLh sLrengLh
and ducLlllLy.


40


41
88l11LL uuC1lLL 18AnSl1lCn.

Macrosca|e:
1he brlLLle ducLlle LranslLlon represenLs Lhe change from general plasLlc yleldlng Lo Lhe propagaLlon of
a dlsLlncL crack - Lhls so-called brlLLle fallure !.0 be very ducLlle and Lhe fracLure surface show
evldence of exLenslve plasLlclLy.

1he brlLLle ducLlle LranslLlon ls governed by Lhe macroscop|c y|e|d ln Lhe speclmen, noL whaL ls golng
on aL Lhe crack Llp. Pence values depend, wlLhln llmlLs, on Lhe parLlcular geomeLry of Lhe speclmens.
1esLs such as Lhe lmpacL LesL of whlch Lhere are several sLandards (Charpy, lzod eLc) provlde relaLlve
raLher Lhan quanLlLaLlve daLa. 1hey are neverLheless exLremely useful as Lhey are qulck and slmple Lo
perform can be compared wlLh reference daLa Lo provlde excellenL quallLy conLrol.

lf Lhe energy absorbed by rapld fallure ls ploLLed agalnsL Lhe LemperaLure for sLeels a LranslLlon ls
observed from a hlgh Lo a low value over a llmlLed LemperaLure range.
Temperature
E
n
e
r
g
y

a
b
s
o
r
b
e
d

% Cleavage failure
Energy absorbed
FATT
NDT

1wo of Lhe LranslLlon LemperaLure deflned are: Lhe nll ducLlllLy LemperaLure where Lhe curve [usL
beglns Lo rlse, and Lhe fracLure-surface appearance LranslLlon LemperaLure, lA11, based on 30 of
Lhe surface belng cleavage fallure. 1he former corresponds Lo Lhe polnL aL whlch general yleld occurs
LhroughouL Lhe remalnlng wldLh of Lhe sample.

lacLors promoLlng cleavage fallure are:
1 hlgh yleld sLress - large amounL of sLored elasLlc energy
2 large graln slze - large bulld up of sLress from plle-ups
3 coarse carbldes - can crack
4 deep noLches - consLralnL
3 Lhlck speclmens (plane sLraln).

42
At the nano-m|cro sca|e:

lracLure of very small componenLs ls cruclal Lo Lhe developmenL of small devlces and lL ls here LhaL
much lnLeresL ln fracLure ls currenLly focused. Pere plasLlclLy ls also cruclal, parLlcularly ln maLerlals
wlLh llmlLed dlslocaLlon moblllLy (Sl, Ce, le, Cr, Al
2
C
3
, and lnLer-meLalllcs) - essenLlally everyLhlng
oLher Lhan fcc meLals. All Lhese maLerlals dlsplay very brlLLle behavlour aL low LemperaLures and a
LranslLlon Lo a more ducLlle behavlour as LemperaLure rlses.

8lce lnLroduced Lhe concepL LhaL brlLLleness was deLermlned by Lhe compeLlLlon aL Lhe crack Llp
beLween Lhe generaLlon of dlslocaLlons ln Lhe very hlgh sLress fleld aL Lhe crack Llp and cleavage. Pls
paper of 1974 explalns Lhe lssue very lucldly (sklp Lhe maLhemaLlcs ln Lhe mlddle) O8P8 P/!% .01 P
*+#7$#0; @+/" F.4 QR; S; ATU; VSRTBW, wlLh a more modern lnLerpreLaLlon glven by !.8. 8lce, !ournal
of Lhe Mechanlcs and hyslcs of Sollds, v.40, lss.2 p.239-271 (1992).

1hls ls demonsLraLed by a serles of experlmenLs performed by rof SLeve 8oberLs on pure lron slngle
crysLals. (AcLa. MaL. 36 (2008) 3123)

4L bendlng wlLh pre-cracked slngle crysLals of speclflc orlenLaLlon (2 sllp planes aL 43 Lo Lhe
crack Llp)
SLraln raLe varled from 4 x 10
-3
Lo 4 x 10
-3
s
-1

k
lc
calculaLed from fallure sLress and geomeLrlcal facLors
u81 lndenLlfled from examlnaLlon of Lhe fracLure surface and evldence of sllp bands
loLLlng 1/1
u81
agalnsL sLraln raLe shows an Arhenlus relaLlonshlp
AcLlvaLlon energy correlaLes very well wlLh LhaL for dlslocaLlon movemenL
1he u81 decreases from 130k aL Lhe lowesL sLraln raLe Lo 134k aL Lhe hlghesL.
1he observed behavlour can be modeled very accuraLely by 'dlslocaLlon dynamlcs'. 1hls means
calculaLlng Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon and movemenL of dlslocaLlons durlng Lhe LesL from Lhelr lnlLlal poslLlons,
Lhe compleLe sLress fleld and an exponenLlal equaLlon for dlslocaLlon veloclLy.
LssenLlally Lhe u81 occurs when Lhe 'shleldlng effecL' of Lhe dlslocaLlons on Lhe Lwo sllp planes (l.e.
Lhe elasLlc sLress flelds from Lhose generaLed) reduces Lhe sLress aL Lhe crack Llp sufflclenLly rapldly Lo
prevenL Lhe sLress aL Lhe Llp reachlng Lhe cleavage sLress.
arL ll LenL 2013 l8AC1u8L Anu lA1lCuL 43

"#$%&'(

laLlgue ls damage (usually fallure) caused by osclllaLlng sLress below Lhe fracLure sLress. 90 of all
mechanlcal fallures can be aLLrlbuLed Lo faLlgue. aradoxlcally, alLhough Lhe sLress ls below Lhe yleld
sLress, faLlgue ls essenLlally concerned wlLh Lhe generaLlon of defecLs by plasLlc flow and Lhe
movemenL of dlslocaLlons.

Time
Stress
!max
!m
!min
0
"!
!m
!a

1he dlagram above deflnes some of Lhe varlables used Lo descrlbe a faLlgue LesL run under sLress
conLrol: Lhe sLress range us, sLress ampllLude !
a
, mean sLress !
m
. Lhe 8 raLlo 8 = !
mln
/!
max
.

Slmllar deflnlLlons apply Lo LesLs where Lhe sLraln on Lhe sample ls conLrolled and Lhe maxlmum sLress
may vary Lhrough Lhe LesL.

8eal faLlgue slLuaLlons cover a baffllng range of varlables, examples lnclude hlgh frequency
mechanlcal faLlgue for example ln a crankshafL, Lo low frequency poundlng of a norLh-sea oll rlg
sLrucLure ln a hlghly corroslve envlronmenL, Lo Lhermal faLlgue caused by Lhe perlodlc heaLlng and
coollng ln Lhe Lurblne of a LransaLlanLlc [eL englne. We need Lo undersLand faLlgue so LhaL we are able
Lo:

l) predlcL Lhe englneerlng llfe of Lhese componenLs,
ll) deslgn sLrucLures and maLerlals whlch maxlmlse economlc llfe.

lacLors affecLlng faLlgue whlch we wlll conslder ln varylng degrees of deLall are:

Mean sLress !
m

SLress ampllLude A!
lrequency
Waveform
1emperaLure
1emperaLure varlaLlon
LnvlronmenL - corroslon and oxldaLlon
Surface flnlsh
CoaLlngs
MlcrosLrucLure


1esL procedures have been developed whlch address Lhese varlables and by Lhe use of a number of
mosLly emplrlcal laws Lhese are able Lo provlde some degree of predlcLablllLy ln mosL slLuaLlons.
laLlgue condlLlons fall lnLo a number of reglmes:

)*+, -./01 "23*+41 )-"5 Low ampllLude sLresses lnduce prlmarlly elasLlc sLralns whlch resulLs ln long
llfe, l.e. endurance ln excess of 10,000cycles

678 -./01 "23*+41 6-"5 Conslderable plasLlc deformaLlon durlng cycllc loadlng resulLs ln an endurance
llmlL below 10,000 cycles and behavlor domlnaLed by plasLlc deformaLlon.

$,19:7;:1/,2<*/20 "23*+41 $="5 varylng boLh sLress and LemperaLure Lo glve sLraln cycles ln phase,
ouL of phase (and all Lhlngs ln beLween) wlLh Lhe LemperaLure cycle.

A8CACPLS 1C lA1lCuL

We can break laLlgue ln ducLlle maLerlals lnLo several sLages:

1. lnlLlal mlcro-sLrucLural changes leadlng Lo Lhe nucleaLlon of permanenL damage
2. nucleaLlon of Lhe flrsL mlcro-cracks
3. CrowLh and coalescence of Lhese flaws Lo produce a domlnanL crack.
4. SLable propagaLlon of Lhe domlnanL crack.
3. lallure

Macroscoplcally Lhere are amblgulLles ln deflnlng Lhe lnlLlaLlon and growLh sLages of cracks -
dependlng on Lhe resoluLlon of Lhe Lechnlques belng used Lo lnvesLlgaLe. Cenerally sLages 1-3
consLlLuLe crack lnlLlaLlon and sLages 4-3 crack growLh.

uependlng on Lhe condlLlons, Lhese sLages occupy wldely dlfferlng fracLlons of Lhe sample llfe and
Lhus requlre dlfferenL sLraLegles Lo deLermlne llfe. 1he meLhod adopLed also depends on Lhe
consequences of fallure.

1C1AL-LllL C8 SAlL-LllL:

1hls sLraLegy ls Lo predlcL Lhe LoLal llfe and reLlre Lhe componenL aL a flxed proporLlon of Lhls, Lo
lnclude a conslderable margln for error. 1he alm ls Lo reLlre Lhe componenL before a crack forms and
lL ls used where faLlgue fallure would resulL ln componenL fallure. 1oLal-llfe can be wasLeful as much
useful llfe remalns unused where Lhe scaLLer ln Lhe daLa ls large.

1hls approach focuses on predlcLlng Lhe number of cycles Lo fallure, n for an lnlLlally un-cracked
speclmen. 1hls ls mosL approprlaLe where Lhe lnlLlaLlon of Lhe domlnanL crack occuples Lhe ma[orlLy
of Lhe LoLal llfe (as much as 90). lor PCl where Lhe sLress range ls low and Lhe sLresses prlnclpally
elasLlc, Lhe sLress range ls used Lo characLerlse Lhe componenL and produce a reference S-n curve.
lor hlgher sLresses resulLlng ln LCl plasLlc sLraln ls exLenslve and Lhe sLraln range ls Lyplcally (buL noL
always) used.

uAMACL-1CLL8An1 C8 lAlL-SAlL:

1hls approach recognlses LhaL all sLrucLures conLaln defecLs and LhaL Lhese grow aL sLable and
predlcLable raLes. 1he sLraLegy lnvolves perlodlc lnspecLlon of Lhe sLrucLure and repalrs or replaces
componenLs as cracks are found. 1hls ls generally used where fallure would noL resulL ln componenL
fallure due Lo sLrucLural redundancy. A greaLer proporLlon of Lhe useful llfe ls used and Lhe rlsk of
wrong assumpLlons ln Lhe predlcLlve process are dlmlshed.

1hus lf Lhe maxlmum slze of Lhe lnlLlal defecLs ln Lhe sLrucLure ls known (a
max
) Lhe lnLerval beLween
lnspecLlons ls deLermlned by Lhe Llme predlcLed for Lhls crack Lo achleve crlLlcal slze (L
1
). 1he
componenL may survlve several lLeraLlons (Lwo ln Lhe case below) before belng replaced.

lollowlng Lhe developmenL of fracLure mechanlcs for monoLonlc deformaLlon arls recognlsed ln Lhe
1960's LhaL Lhe same concepLs of sLress lnLenslLy could be applled Lo faLlgue Lo esLlmaLe Lhe faLlgue
crack growLh raLe and Lhus predlcL Lhe Llme Laken for Lhe crack Lo reach an unsLable slze.


A8lS LAW

lf Lhe raLe of crack growLh ls measured and ploLLed agalnsL Lhe "k on a log-log ploL Lhe curve Lakes
Lhe general slgmoldal form shown below.

l: Crack lnlLlaLlon, crack aL
43 followlng sllp planes

ll: Crack propagaLes aL
90 Lo Lenslle axls,
sLrlaLlons formed

lll: llnal rupLure

1here are Lhree dlsLlncL reglons, an lnlLlal sLage usually showlng a Lhreshold value for "k, a 2nd sLage
where Lhe crack growLh raLe shows a power law dependence on "k only, and a flnal sLage where Lhe
crack growLh raLe approaches lnflnlLy as Lhe "k reaches "k
lc
. 1he cenLral reglon ls Lhe mosL useful as
lL allows Lhe CC8 for Lhe ma[or parL of Lhe llfe Lo be predlcLed from a knowledge of Lhe condlLlons aL
Lhe crack Llp. 1hls equaLlon ls known as Lhe >29*? (@423*7<.

m
K C
dN
da
! =

where m # 4 buL can vary from 2-7 for varlous maLerlals.

1hls lmplles LhaL da/dn does noL depend on Lhe value of 8. 1hls ls noL sLrlcLly Lhe case parLlcularly for
low values of 8 where Lhe crack closes durlng Lhe cycle (see p39).

noLe: Mlnor's Law follows dlrecLly from Lhe arls Law - see quesLlon sheeL 2

LLAk 8LlC8L 88LAk:

A speclal case of Lhe fall-safe approach wldely used for pressure vessels and plpes. 1he Lhlckness and
properLles of Lhe vessel are arranged so LhaL a Lhrough-Lhlckness crack does noL propagaLe
caLasLrophlcally. 1hls means LhaL Lhe crack wlll be below Lhe crlLlcal slze for Lhe sLress on Lhe vessel.
Such a leak can be deLecLed and repalred wlLhouL Lhe severe consequences of Lhe rupLure of Lhe
vessel.
l
o
g
(
d
a
/
d
N
)

log !K
Fracture

I II III
m
K
Ic

1C1AL LllL A8CACP

lf we perform a serles of LesLs aL varylng sLress ranges and ploL Lhe number of cycles Lo fallure Lhe llfe
lncreases as Lhe sLress range decreases. Some maLerlals (Lyplcally low alloy sLeels and 1lLanlum
alloys) show an asympLoLe Lo a faLlgue llmlL, oLherwlse (hlgh alloy sLeels and alumlnlum), an
endurance llmlL ls seL.

!"
ln N
Fatigue limit
10 Endurance limit

S-N curve
7

8ASCuln'S LAW

1he curve can be approxlmaLed by an emplrlcal expresslon due Lo 8asquln:

!!
2
= !
a
= " !
f
2N
f
( )
b
n
f
ls Lhe number of compleLe cycles Lo fallure.
where !
f
' ls Lhe faLlgue sLrengLh coefflclenL = !
f
Lhe sLaLlc fracLure sLrengLh and b Lakes Lhe value -
0.03 Lo -0.12 for meLals.

CCllln MAnSCn LAW.

under condlLlons of hlgh plasLlc deformaLlon we have low cycle faLlgue condlLlons and for sLraln
conLrolled LesLs, Coffln and Manson lndependenLly noLed an emplrlcal relaLlon very slmllar Lo
8asquln's law.

1he LoLal sLraln ampllLude can be spllL lnLo plasLlc and elasLlc componenLs:

2 2 2
p
e
! "
+
! "
=
! "

where Lhe plasLlc componenL ls llnear when ploLLed agalnsL Lhe log (number of load reversals), 2n
f
:

!!
p
2
= " !
f
2N
f
( )
c

Pere $
f
' ls Lhe faLlgue ducLlllLy componenL and roughly equal Lo Lhe fallure ducLlllLy ln Lenslon, and c
Lakes Lhe value -0.3 Lo -0.7 for meLals.

Addlng ln Lhe 8asquln's law for Lhe 'elasLlc' (hlgh cycle faLlgue) componenL we have:
!!
2
=
" "
f
E
2N
f
( )
b
+ " !
f
2N
f
( )
c

loLLlng log("$) agalnsL log (2n
f
) glves Lwo dlsLlncL reglmes, aL low sLraln and long llfe Lhe gradlenL b

(-0.1) domlnaLes, PCl condlLlons, and aL hlgh sLraln and shorL llfe Lhe gradlenL ls c (-0.3). 1he
LranslLlon ls gradual buL exLrapolaLlng Lhe asympLoLes allows a LranslLlon number of cycles, 2n
L
, Lo be
ldenLlfled.
log 2Nf
log!"
c
b
"f
2Nt

noLe: faLlgue ls lnherenLly varlable varlaLlon ln llfe of 100 ls noL unusual for nomlnally Lhe same LesL.
1hls ls masked by Lhe wldespread use of log ploLs.

1he lnLercepLs of Lhe Lwo 'parLs' of Lhe curve correspond roughly Lo:

1. LCl: Lhe LoLal sLraln, plasLlc and elasLlc, aL fallure.
2. PCl: Lhe elasLlc componenL of Lhe sLraln aL fallure

LeL's puL some flgures ln here:

L !
f
' $
f
' b c
Alumlnlum 7073 72Ca 193Ma 1.8 -0.106 -0.690
SLeel 0.13C 210Ca 827Ma 0.93 -0.110 -0.640

Alumlnlum:
!!
2
=
193
72000
2N
f
( )
"0.106
+1.8 2N
f
( )
"0.69

(PCl lnLercepL 666 Llmes less Lhan Lhe LCl lnLercepL - noLe log scale)

SLeel:
!!
2
=
827
210000
2N
f
( )
"0.11
+0.95 2N
f
( )
"0.64

(PCl lnLercepL 240 Llmes less Lhan LCl)


1C1AL LllL A8CACP - CClnC Wl1P lA1lCuL vA8lA8LLS

1here ls a huge number of varlables ln faLlgue - far Lo many Lo consLrucL S/n curves for all
comblnaLlons even lf Lhey dld noL change durlng Lhe llfeLlme of Lhe componenL. 1he challenge ls Lo
undersLand how Lhe damage produced by faLlgue varles wlLh Lhese parameLers and adds LogeLher
over a complex llfe cycle.

1he effecL of lncreaslng Lhe mean sLress ls Lo decrease Lhe faLlgue llfe. Several relaLlons exlsL Lo llnk
Lhe sLress range and Lhe mean sLress for a glven llfe. 1he slmplesL are llnear exLrapolaLlons lndlcaLlng
LhaL Lhe sample wlll fall aL Lhe sLaLlc yleld sLress ln Lhe absence of a sLress range and aL Lhe faLlgue
sLraln aL zero mean sLraln.

!
"
a
= "
a
|
"
m
=0
1#
"
m
"
y
$
%
&
'
(
)
A7B19C19+5 orlglnal and mosL conservaLlve

!
"
a
= "
a
|
"
m
=0
1#
"
m
"
TS
$
%
&
'
(
)
&77B:2< 91023*7<5 good for 8rlLLle maLerlals
conservaLlve for meLals

(CLher expresslons exlsL glvlng non-llnear exLrapolaLlons


CCCuMAn ulAC8AM

1he effecL of mean sLress and 8 value can be expressed on a 'Coodman dlagram' shown below:
!
min
!
max

MLAn S18LSS: 1PL 8CLL Cl 8LSluuAL S18LSS

SLresses formed lnLernally ln a maLerlal, for example durlng quenchlng or by ShoL peenlng can have a
profound lnfluence on Lhe faLlgue llfe - boLh poslLlve and negaLlve. LffecLlvely Lhls seLs up a mean
sLress varylng LhroughouL Lhe mlcrosLrucLure whlch can exLend Lhe llfe when compresslve and
shorLen lL when Lenslle. lor example, bombardlng Lhe surface wlLh ball bearlngs la wldely used Lo
exLend faLlgue llfe by seLLlng up compresslve sLresses ln Lhe surface layers. Conversely, Lenslle
sLresses deep wlLhln a quenched componenL can lead Lo acceleraLed faLlgue crack growLh and
premaLure fallure. Pence a greaL deal of efforL and resources are devoLed Lo measurlng resldual
sLress and rellevlng lL where necessary.

D1?*B420 ?391?? /2< C1 :12?491B C. 3,1 E70078*<+ :13,7B?

x-ray dlffracLlon -usually uslng hlgh lnLenslLy synchroLron sources Lo reach Lhe Lhlck secLlons as Lhls
has Lo be done ln-slLu. 1he sLress can be measured dlrecLly from Lhe change ln Lhe laLLlce parameLer
from Lhe elasLlc sLraln.

Pole drllllng - by drllllng holes Lhe dlsLorLlon ln Lhe vlclnlLy can be measured as Lhe sLress relaxes by
Lhe use of sLraln gauges or dlrecL measuremenL.

Modellng: lncreaslngly accuraLe models of Lhe elasLlc and plasLlc deformaLlon occurrlng durlng
processlng allow us Lo esLlmaLe resldual sLress.

1LML8A1u8L

1emperaLure has envlronmenLal effecLs on faLlgue developed laLer. lL ls posslble Lo ad[usL for Lhe
slmple effecL on yleld sLress where Lhe naLure of faLlgue does noL change by normallzlng Lhe applled
sLress wlLh Lhe yleld sLress. loLLlng agalnsL !/!
y
ofLen collapses daLaseLs Lo Lhe same curve.

CClnC Wl1P vA8lA8LL S18LSS - MlnL8S LAW:

ln real slLuaLlons componenLs very rarely experlence consLanL regular damage. 1he level of sLress or
sLraln can vary LhroughouL llfe and Lhe slmplesL way of deallng wlLh Lhls ls by Lhe use of Mlners law.
1hls proposes LhaL Lhe llfe of a componenL experlenclng faLlgue aL varlous sLress ampllLudes can be
assessed by expresslng Lhe number of cycles aL each ampllLude as a proporLlon of LoLal llfe and
summlng Lhe fracLlons. When Lhe fracLlon reaches 1, Lhe faLlgue llfe ls exhausLed. 1he order of
exposure ls noL Laken lnLo accounL.

!
time

n
i
N
fi
=1
i =1
m
!
Mlner's Law

1hls ls useful as a flrsL approxlmaLlon buL has serlous shorLcomlngs. 1he mosL lmporLanL belng LhaL
no accounL can be Laken of Lhe lmpacL of prlor damage on Lhe laLer exposure aL a dlfferenL sLress (or
sLraln) ampllLude. ln parLlcular Lhe balance beLween crack lnlLlaLlon and crack growLh can vary
conslderably wlLh sLress, Lhus brlef exposure Lo hlgh ampllLude may nucleaLe damage whlch aL a
lower sLress would noL occur unLll a much laLer sLage and Lhus acceleraLe Lhe damage raLe aL a
subsequenL lower sLress. Conversely, early exposure Lo low sLress ampllLude may sLraln harden Lhe
maLerlal and Lhus prolong llfe durlng laLer hlgh ampllLude exposure. 1hls emphaslzes Lhe lmporLance
of looklng aL Lhe speclflc mechanlsms of damage and how lL accumulaLes ln Lhe maLerlal.


uLvLLCMLn1 Cl ln1L8nAL MlC8CS18uC1u8L uu8lnC lA1lCuL

lor some slLuaLlons Lhe loadlng condlLlons are conLrolled by Lhe ampllLude of Lhe sLraln raLher Lhan
Lhe sLress. 1hls ls reflecLed ln Lhe LesLs whlch are done under sLraln conLrol. 1hese are also mosL llkely
Lo be Lhe condlLlons where plasLlc deformaLlon forms a conslderable proporLlon of Lhe sLraln, LCl.

Where Lhe sLraln ls kepL consLanL Lhe sLress can elLher lncrease (cycllc hardenlng) decrease (cycllc
sofLenlng) or sLay Lhe same.

1yplcally maLerlals harden lf
!
UTS
!
ys
>1.4 and sofLen lf
!
UTS
!
ys
<1.2

1o undersLand why Lhls occurs we need Lo conslder dlslocaLlon mlcrosLrucLure of Lhe maLerlal.

lrom Lhe above maLerlals where Lhe lnlLlal sLaLe ls hlghly work hardened Lhe dlslocaLlon
denslLy ls hlgh, Lhe effecL of Lhe cycllc sLraln ls Lo allow Lhe rearrangemenL of Lhe dlslocaLlons
lnLo sLable neLworks, reduclng Lhe sLress aL whlch Lhe plasLlc componenL occurs, and Lhus
Lhe effecLlve sLress.

Conversely where Lhe lnlLlal dlslocaLlon denslLy ls low, (sofL maLerlal) Lhe cycllc sLraln
lncreases Lhe dlslocaLlon denslLy lncreaslng Lhe amounL of elasLlc sLraln and Lhe sLress on Lhe
maLerlal.

lor a glven alloy boLh hard and sofL maLerlals Lend Lo a sLable dlslocaLlon conflguraLlon. lor example,
deLalled work on Lhe developmenL of dlslocaLlon conflguraLlons ln copper and shows LhaL a sLable
'LabyrlnLh' sLrucLure develops (see Lhe flgure on page 32 from Suresh, chapLer 2)

!t
!c
"t
"c
!c <!t
!t
!c
"t
"c
!c <!t
!
!
Cyclic hardening Cyclic softening

As Lhe faLlgue esLabllshes a sLable mlcrosLrucLure Lhe hysLeresls loop becomes sLable aL some polnL
durlng Lhe LesL. When Lhls 'sLable loop' ls ploLLed as a funcLlon of lncreaslng sLress (or sLraln) Lhe
locus of Lhe maxlmum values from a serles of LesLs deflnes a 'cycllc sLress sLraln curve'.


8AuSCPlnCL8 LllLC1

SLraln conLrol flrsL cycle showlng Lhe 8auschlnger effecL.

uurlng cycllc deformaLlon Lhe maLerlal can reLaln a 'memory' of Lhe lnlLlal plasLlc sLraln whlch !"#$%"&
Lhe sLress aL whlch plasLlc yleld occurs ln Lhe reverse cycle.

1hls effecL can perslsL for many cycles and ls known as Lhe 8AuSCPlnCL8 LllLC1. 1hls reverslble buL
plasLlc deformaLlon can occur by dlslocaLlon plle-ups aL, for example, lncoherenL or seml-coherenL
preclplLaLes exerLlng a back-sLress whlch asslsLs plasLlc yleld ln compresslon. 1hls reduces Lhe yleld
sLress ln compresslon.

!t
!c
"t
"c
!c <!t
!t
!c
"t
"c
!c <!t
#!b

1he plcLure above shows a slngle crysLal superalloy CMSx-4 faLlgued ln LCl aL 730C and lnLerrupLed
aL abouL half Lhe expecLed llfe. ln Lhls secLlon cuL on Lhe prlmary sllp plane dlslocaLlon loop enLer Lhe
%' phase preclplLaLes Lralllng AnLl-hase 8oundary faulLs - under max sLress Lhe loops expand
conLracLlng as Lhe sLress decreases.


1PL LllLC1 Cl S1ACklnC lAuL1 LnL8C?:

1he maLerlal response ls closely llnked Lo Lhe sLacklng faulL energy slnce Lhls governs Lhe ablllLy of Lhe
dlslocaLlon Lo cross-sllp beLween planes and Lhus form sLable cell sLrucLures.

Plgh SlL & easy cross-sllp & rapld formaLlon of sLable cell sLrucLure.

lor hlgh SlL maLerlals Lhe cell slze ls a decreaslng funcLlon of Lhe sLraln range and ulLlmaLely does noL
depend on Lhe sLarLlng mlcrosLrucLure. very low SlL e.g. Cu 7.3 Al, maLerlals do noL form sLable
cell sLrucLures, Lhe hlghly dlssoclaLed dlslocaLlons belng arranged ln planar arrays where Lhe spaclng
depends on Lhe lnlLlal sLaLe. 1he mlcrosLrucLures and llves are Lhus very senslLlve Lo Lhe prlor
deformaLlon sLaLe.


C?CLlC SCl1LnlnC Cl 8LCll1A1lCn PA8uLnLu ALLC?S:

AnoLher cause of cycllc sofLenlng of ma[or lmporLance ls Lhe cuLLlng of coherenL preclplLaLes ln
preclplLaLlon-hardened alloys. Small coherenL preclplLaLes provlde very effecLlve hardenlng ln
alumlnlum alloys and ln nlckel based superalloys. 1he small slze maxlmlses Lhe cuLLlng/bowlng sLress
for dlslocaLlons ln Lhe maLrlx and Lhe coherency enhances Lhe sLablllLy of Lhese small preclplLaLes.
Powever when a dlslocaLlon does cuL Lhe preclplLaLe Lhe faulL produced ln Lhe preclplLaLes decreases
Lhe sLress for Lhe followlng dlslocaLlon slnce Lhe energy penalLy of Lhe faulL no longer applles and
lndeed may be negaLlve. 1hus sllp ls concenLraLed ln narrow sllp bands cuLLlng Lhe preclplLaLes ln
Lwo. 1hese smaller preclplLaLes may dlssolve ln Lhese areas leavlng Lhe un-sLrengLhened maLrlx
vulnerable Lo hlgh plasLlc deformaLlon and early crack formaLlon.

Pere cuLLlng of preclplLaLes early ln Lhls LesL (1Ml of nlmonlc 90) has caused Lhe %' Lo dlssolve leavlng
preclplLaLe free channels ln Lhe alloy. 1he preclplLaLes are vlslble from Lhe dlslocaLlons wrapped
around Lhem
(a) OP (0.4)

C8ACk MC8PCLCC?

1he Lhree reglons can be ldenLlfled from Lhe morphology of Lhe fracLure surface.

l. lnlLlaLlon, crack lnlLlaLes aL lnLruslons and follows sllp plane aL approxlmaLely 43 Lo
prlnclple sLress dlrecLlon. When Lhe lengLh ls sufflclenL for Lhe sLress fleld aL Lhe Llp Lo
become domlnanL Lhe overall crack plane becomes perpendlcular Lo Lhe prlnclple sLress
and Lhe crack enLers sLage ll.

ll. CrowLh Lyplcally showlng sLrlaLlons for each cycle and beach marks aL polnLs where
condlLlons changed. SLrlaLlons may be obscured by closure damage or by oxlde
formaLlon aL hlgh LemperaLures.

lll. llnal fallure - ducLlle or brlLLle rupLure assoclaLed wlLh fasL fracLure.

Intrusions and
extrusions
Crack -
Stage I
Crack
Stage II

Crack sLage l growLh aL 43 Lo sLress axls, followlng perslsLenL sllp bands, durlng sLage ll
Lurns Lo growLh normal Lo sLress axls.

lormaLlon of sLrlaLlons by ducLlle flow durlng crack growLh

WA8nlnC: Crack morphologles can dlffer from Lhls slmple formula havlng more or fewer sLages. noL
all faLlgue fallures show sLrlaLlons or a clear sLage l. 1here may also be dlfferenL morphologles as "k
or Lhe mlcrosLrucLure change.


S18uC1u8AL lLA1u8LS Cl lA1lCuL C8ACk lnl1lA1lCn:

Pere we look brlefly aL Lhe effecL of surface condlLlon, Lhe evoluLlon of damage, and Lhe effecL of
coaLlngs and surface LreaLmenLs on Lhe lnlLlaLlon and propagaLlon of faLlgue cracks.

lnl1lA1lCn 8? uLlC8MA1lCn

laLlgue fallures can occur aL sLress of 1/3 Lhe Lenslle yleld sLress, yeL Lhe nucleaLlon of cracks requlres
LhaL Lhere be local yleldlng. We Lhus need heLerogeneous nucleaLlon slLes for cracks wlLhln Lhe
sLrucLure.

re-exlsLlng defecLs such as lncluslons, poroslLy, surface damage
uefecLs generaLed durlng cycllc sLralnlng for example aL sLress concenLraLlons: perslsLenL sllp
bands, lracLure of carbldes, oxldaLlon of carbldes.

ln pure meLals Lhe ma[or source of faLlgue cracks ls Lhe perslsLenL sllp bands or S8s: so called
because Lraces of Lhe bands perslsL even afLer surface damage ls pollshed away. 1he plasLlc sLraln ln
Lhe S8 ls 100 Llmes greaLer Lhan LhaL ln Lhe surroundlng maLerlal and resulLs from speclflc
arrangemenLs of dlslocaLlons as parallel walls wlLh relaLlvely low dlslocaLlon denslLy beLween. An
equlllbrlum ls malnLalned beLween nucleaLlon and annlhllaLlon of moblle edge dlslocaLlons bowlng
ouL from Lhe walls. 1hus Lhe cycllc sLraln ls concenLraLed ln Lhese zones leadlng Lo Lhelr perslsLence.
AlLhough Lhe sLraln ls reversed wlLhln Lhe S8 Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon ls noL even and Lhls leads Lo Lhe
formaLlon of lnLruslons and exLruslons where S8s lnLersecL Lhe surface. 1hese may acL as nucleaLlon
slLes for cracks. 1he lnlLlal sLages of crack growLh Lherefore ofLen follow Lhe sllp planes and lle aL 43
Lo Lhe Lenslle axls (see laLer).

ulagram showlng Lhe formaLlon of lnLruslons and exLruslons aL a perslsLenL sllp band.

ln Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of cases faLlgue lnlLlaLes on Lhe surface, however cracks can someLlmes lnlLlaLe
lnLernally aL defecLs cracked preclplLaLes of lnLernal poroslLy. 1he crack Lhen grows under vacuum
unLll lL reaches an exLernal surface. 1hls glves a characLerlsLlc clrcular area on Lhe fracLure surface.
Cnce Lhe crack becomes a surface crack and alr ls admlLLed and Lhe sLress lnLenslLy lncreases and Lhe
growLh raLe lncreases. 1hls someLlmes leads Lo lmmedlaLe fallure.


LllLC1S Cl CxluA1lCn Anu CC88CSlCn

1he absence of a faLlgue llmlL ls normally and lndlcaLlon of maLerlal whlch ls lmmune from corroslon
or oxldaLlon effecLs - oLherwlse Lhe mere passage of Llme wlll evenLually allow Lhe lnlLlaLlon and
propagaLlon of cracks even aL very low sLress.

AL hlgh LemperaLures oxldaLlon aL graln boundarles, Carbldes or as ln Lhe slngle crysLal above, ln areas
where Lhe composlLlon varles sllghLly, resulLs ln crack lnlLlaLlon. 1he oxlde layer cracks and Lhe crack
propagaLes lnLo Lhe subsLraLe Lhus allowlng furLher oxldaLlon.

CCA1lnCS Anu Su8lACL LA?L8S

CoaLlngs wlLh dlfferenL mechanlcal properLles Lo Lhe subsLraLe can acceleraLe cracklng by promoLlng
rapld lnlLlaLlon.

ConlCrAl? coaLlng on ln738 1esLed ln
1Ml 300C - 830C

uLSlCn ACAlnS1 lnl1lA1lCn

Where lnlLlaLlon occuples mosL of Lhe llfe of Lhe sample, lnlLlaLlon conLrol, any measure whlch
reduces crack nucleaLlon wlll exLend llfe.

Surface damage, even scraLches can acL as sLress concenLraLors and lead Lo local plasLlc deformaLlon
and crack lnlLlaLlon. Plgh cycle faLlgue ls very senslLlve Lo surface flnlsh and can be exLended by
pollshed surface flnlsh.

Corroslon proLecLlon Lo suppress Lhe formaLlon of cracks aL lnLerfaces by preferenLlal aLLack

1reaLmenLs whlch lnduce a resldual compresslve sLress ln Lhe surface layer wlll exLend llfe by reduclng
Lhe mean sLress aL Lhe surface and delaylng Lhe onseL of cracklng. Carburlslng, nlLrldlng, shoL
peenlng.

CoaLlngs have dlfferenL sLress and/or Lhermal response Lo Lhe lmposed sLress may crack. 1he crack
can acL as a sLress concenLraLor and promoLe early cracklng. 1hermal barrler coaLlngs acceleraLe PCl
fallure.

ores acL as sLress concenLraLors and a ma[or source of faLlgue cracks ln slngle crysLal superalloys:
remove by PllnC.

As wlLh fracLure plasLlc deformaLlon ln Lhe maLrlx can cause cracklng of carbldes and Lhe nucleaLlon of
cracks.


lAC1C8S LllLC1lnC C8ACk C8CW1P 8A1LS

ln predlcLlng Lhe llfe of a componenL we have Lo conslder Lhe posslblllLy LhaL Lhe maLerlal ls
sub[ecL Lo oLher degradaLlon processes such as corroslon, oxldaLlon or creep whlch affecL
Lhe crack growLh. uamage usually acceleraLes crack growLh, buL can repalr and mlLlgaLe Lhe
effecLs of Lhe oLher process.

1esLs lnvesLlgaLlng Lhese effecLs compare behavlour ln vacuum wlLh LhaL ln alr or oLher
damaglng envlronmenLs. AlLernaLlvely, lnLroduclng a dwell Llme aL maxlmum and or
mlnlmum sLress can change Lhe crack growLh raLe. 1he hlgher Lhe LesL frequency Lhe smaller
Lhe posslble conLrlbuLlon from creep/corroslon wlll be and a sLrong dependence of llfe on
Lhe frequency can lndlcaLe some oLher conLrlbuLlon. (1hls may also show up as a mlsmaLch
beLween PCl and LCl daLa when ploLLed on Lhe same graph as on page 47.)

C8LL

Creep can lncrease or decrease faLlgue llfe: posslble mechanlsms of lnLeracLlon are:
An lncrease ln dlslocaLlon denslLy due Lo faLlgue can lncrease creep raLe Lhrough
dlslocaLlon movemenL and /or enhanced dlffuslon.
lncreaslng dlslocaLlon denslLy can also decrease prlmary creep (see earller).
CuLLlng of graln boundary poroslLy lncreaslng Lhe growLh raLe of Lhe pores
8lunLlng of crack Llp by creep can reduce crack growLh raLe and hence faLlgue
damage raLe.

Craph of a consLanL sLraln faLlgue LesL wlLh a dwell aL boLh Lhe upper and lower LemperaLures. uurlng
Lhe dwell Lhe speclmen creeps Lo reduce Lhe sLress.


CxluA1lCn:

Allvac 718lus: laLlgue of Lhls nl-based alloy deformed wlLh 3s cycle (3S) and same plus 100 s dwell
(3S+100) aL 630C. Pere Lhe effecLs are due Lo oxldaLlon aL Lhe crack Llp. 1he Lwo heaL LreaLmenLs A1
and A3 respond dlfferenLly Lo Lhe 3 s cycle buL Lhe dwell removes Lhls dlfference.

Lnvl8CnMLn1AL LllLC1S - WA1L8 vACu8

AL low LemperaLures waLer can have a profound effecL on Lhe crack growLh raLe. Pydrogen
embrlLLlemenL ln sLeels ls a good example. 1he elecLrochemlcal cell seL up wlLhln Lhe crack allows P
Lo enLer Lhe meLal and dlffuse ahead of Lhe crack Llp. 1he resulLlng hardenlng enhances crack growLh.
1he apparenL acLlvaLlon energles for Lhe crack growLh raLe maLch Lhose for P dlffuslon.


Al alloy faLlgue LesLed ln Argon and damp alr - Lhe waLer vapour acceleraLes crack growLh
above a Lhreshold of ~ 2.0 a buL Lhe effecL becomes saLuraLed aL 6.9 a. SLudles analyslng
Lhe surface show a slmllar Lrend ln Lhe oxldes formed aL Lhe newly exposed crack Llps.

C8ACk CLCSu8L

1he plasLlc deformaLlon aL Lhe fracLure surface, dlsLorLlon or oxlde growLh durlng exposure can all acL
Lo cause Lhe crack faces Lo Louch before Lhe elasLlc deformaLlons of Lhe sample would predlcL. 1hls
means LhaL Lhe sLress lnLenslLy range ls effecLlvely reduced. Clearly Lhls wlll have a greaLer effecL Lhe
closer Lhe mlnlmum sLress lnLenslLy ls Lo zero.
Kmax
Kop
Kmin
Time
!Keff
Closure

Crack Closure: LffecLlve sLress range where crack does noL fully close.

1he arls equaLlon can be modlfled Lo use a reduced value of Lhe sLress lnLenslLy facLor "k
eff
.

( )
m
m
eff
K U C K C
dN
da
! = ! = where
K
K
U
eff
!
!
=


Mechanlsms proposed Lo cause crack closure:
Pl asti city Stress induced transformation
Mode II displacement Oxide debris

uslng crack closure Lo ad[usL for 8 raLlo:

1he crack growLh raLe curves below have been measured aL dlfferenL 8 raLlos - Lhls glves rlse Lo
dlfferenL amounLs of crack closure. All Lhe daLa can by condensed onLo a slngle llne by [udlclous use
of Ak
eff
. usually sulLable u values are flLLed experlmenLally.

!"#$ && '()$ *+,- .,/ 012.3415 267 023&845 945:3&;6 :<553:

QUESTION SHEET 1 (Lectures 1-6)

1. (a)
The singular terms in the equation for the elastic stress field around the tip of a
sharp crack under Mode I loading in plane stress are:

!
"
11
=
"
o
#a
2#r
cos
$
2
%
&
'
(
)
*
1+ sin
$
2
%
&
'
(
)
*
sin
3$
2
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
-
.
/
0

!
"
22
=
"
o
#a
2#r
cos
$
2
%
&
'
(
)
*
1+sin
$
2
%
&
'
(
)
*
sin
3$
2
%
&
'
(
)
*
,
-
.
/
0
1

!
"
12
=
#
o
$a
2$r
sin
%
2
&
'
(
)
*
+
cos
%
2
&
'
(
)
*
+
cos
3%
2
&
'
(
)
*
+

where the crack lies in the x
2
direction along the x
2
x
3
plane. Convince yourself
that at a general position (r, q) the shear stress !
12
is finite, where is the shear
stress zero?

Assuming a state of plane stress, i.e. "
3
= 0, find the expressions for the principal
stresses "
1
and "
2
, i.e. the maximum values of the normal stresses when the shear
stresses are zero. This can be done by diagonalising the stress tensor or more
simply by using Mohrs circle, (# is the angle between the direction vector and
the y axis 2).

For conditions of plane strain write down an estimate for the out-of-plane
principal stress "
3
("
3
= $ ["
1
+ "
2
]) and thus demonstrate that it is non-zero.
Hence demonstrate that the hydrostatic component of the stress tensor is larger in
plane strain that in plane stress.

(b) Using the result from (a) for the principal stresses combine these using the
Tresca yield criteria (!
max
!
min
) = !
y
. Hence plot out the shapes and relative
sizes of the plastic zone in the x
1
x
2
plane under conditions of (i) plane stress and,
(if time and patience allow) (ii) plane strain, for a non-work-hardening material.
On which planes does the plastic deformation occur in the two cases?

The Tresca yield criterion looks at the maximum difference between the principal
stresses and assumes that yield occurs when this reaches the tensile yield stress.
Take Poissons ratio as 0.3. For a reminder on the use of Mohrs circle try the
DoITPoMS site:
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/metal-forming-1/index.php

1
2
3
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2. A directionally solidified inter-metallic has a grain structure which can be
modelled as a series of hexagonal prisms separated by high angle grain
boundaries. The material has limited ductility and fails in a brittle manner. By
considering the value of G, the energy release rate and R, the energy of fracture,
evaluate whether the intermetallic will fail in an inter-granular of a trans-granular
manner for the two different orientations of the grain structure below loaded in
pure mode I opening.

You can assume that the energy of fracture R is reduced by the grain boundary
energy for intergranular failure. The grain boundary energy is half the surface
energy of the material and equal for all the boundaries. The variation of the
energy release rate, G, as the fracture plane deviates from the plane normal to the
loading axis, is given by the graphs on page 16 of the handout.

Would there be any difference for propagation parallel to the grain axes?

Following your conclusions from the above, describe the fracture path you would
expect in a more realistic structure where the grains were not so regular.

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3 a) A wedge driven into a pre-existing crack along the grain of piece of wood
opens up the crack and eventually causes the wood to split along the grain.
Sketch how the stored elastic energy varies as the wedge is driven in both before
and after the crack starts to grow. Plot U against x. Assume that the crack lies very
close and parallel to the straight edge of the wood and that all the strain is in the
thinner layer of wood.

The elastic energy stored, U
E
, in a cantilevered beam of depth d opened by a
wedge of height h is given by:

!
U
E
=
Ed
3
h
2
B
8a
3
(B is the width into the page)

b) Derive an expression for the energy release rate as the crack grows. Will the
crack grow in a stable or unstable manner as the wedge is driven in at a steady
rate?

It is found that the crack starts to grow when the wedge is on average 100 mm
from the crack tip, i.e. a = 100 mm. If the modulus of the wood along the grain is
10 GPa, d = 5 mm and h = 3 mm estimate the resistance to crack growth R of the
wood along the grain. Hence estimate the toughness.
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c) A manufacturer of disposable chopsticks makes them from the same wood
leaving a small section of wood joining the pair for the user to break. He wants to
ensure that the two sticks will be easy to separate along the grain.

Show that the force required to pull the two sticks apart as shown in the diagram
is given by the expression

If the length of the cut between the two sticks is 200 mm and the sticks are a
square section of 5 mm calculate the force.

4. a) A cylindrical pressure vessel of diameter 1 m is made from a steel of
toughness 70 MPa m
1/2
and with a yield strength of 440 MPa. What is the
maximum possible thickness that the vessel can be made if it were to leak before
break? The internal pressure is 10 MPa.

Design criteria specify a safety margin of 10% for the thickness what thickness
would you specify to ensure leak before break?

What is the maximum stress and does this exceed the yield stress?

b) The inside of the vessel is given a proprietary laser treatment to double the
hardness and improve the resistance to chemical attack. This coating reaches a
depth of 2 mm. Unfortunately it also decreases the toughness to 35 MPa m
1/2
.

What is the critical crack size in the laser treated material?

Describe what will happen to a crack propagating from the inside through the
hardened layer and into the untreated steel of the pressure vessel. Does the layer
affect the safety of the vessel? Consider the effects of the coating on both static
loading and fatigue.

Estimate the plastic zone size i) in the coating and ii) in the main body of the vessel
and explain the basis of your calculation.

!
F
max
=
Ed
3
R
4 "3
#
$
%
&
'
(
1/ 2
B
a
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QUESTION SHEET 2 (LECTURES 7-9)

1. In a thermal expansion joint a component is subjected to a large plastic strain
range and fails after 2000 cycles. If the plastic strain range is halved, by how
many cycles is the life of the component increased. Assume a Coffin Manson
exponent, c, of -0.5.

2. An aeroplane fuselage is subjected to fluctuating stresses of range (minimum to
maximum) 150 MNm
-2
, with a maximum tensile stress of 200 MNm
-2
. If
ultrasonic NDT techniques can only be guaranteed to detect internal defects
greater than 1 mm in total length, recommend appropriate periods for major
inspection of the fuselage. Clearly state any assumptions.

[The material has a fracture toughness of 32 MPam
1/2
for this thickness of
fuselage. The growth of a fatigue crack of length a metres with respect to the
number of cycles, N, is given by the expression:

!
da
dN
= 4.08 "10
#11
$K
4
1#R
( )
0.7

Where %& is given by ( K
max
- K
min
) and is in MPam
1/2
.
The correction (1 - R)
0.7
is an empirical expression for converting data obtained at
different R values.]

3. In a structural steel the fatigue-crack growth per cycle da/dN, is given by:

!
da
dN
=10
"13
#K
3
m/cycle

Where %& is the alternating stress intensity in MPam
1/2
. The initial crack size
(half length) a = 2mm and the critical size at which failure occurs a
crit
= 10mm.
By integrating the expression between fixed limits show that the S-N curve is
given by:

logN = -3log%" + 13.647

A component of this steel containing initial cracks of half length 2mm is
subjected to 5 ' 10
5
cycles at an alternating tensile stress, %", of 354 MNm
-2
and
to 5 ' 10
6
cycles at 164.3 MNm
-2
. Given a critical crack length of 10 mm show,
by integration of the crack growth rate or otherwise, that Miners law is satisfied
regardless of the order in which the fatigue cycles occur.

(You might like to try proving Minors law generally for any combination of
stresses)

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4. As a general rule the fatigue tolerance of a material scales with the yield stress.

A new alloy Wondalloy is available for turbine disks with a higher yield stress
which will allow a maximum cyclic stress range of 1000 MPa , increased from
the value of 800 MPa for the existing alloy Mundalloy (for this application R =
0). The fatigue crack growth rates for both alloys is given by the equation:

!
da
dN
= A"K
4

where the constant A = 2.5 x 10
-14
for Mundalloy

The fracture toughness of both alloys is 100 MPa m
1/2

i) What is the constant A for Wondalloy if the fatigue performance is improved in
proportion to the yield stress; conditions of stress and the initial defect size
remaining the same?

ii) If Wondalloy is to be used with an increased stress range but with the same
service interval of 5,000 cycles what are the implications for the detection of the
minimum flaw size? Use the value for A calculated above.

iii) If the inspection technique used for defect detection in Wondalloy is the
same as that used for Mundalloy, what would be the maximum interval between
inspection services operating Wonderalloy at the higher stress rating?

iv) As an interim measure it is decided to use Wondalloy assessing the defect size
with the same accuracy as Mundalloy. What would be the maximum stress range
that could be used?

Quantify your conclusions and state any assumptions you have made.

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Natural Sciences Tripos Part II

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