Nixon 1

John Matthew Nixon

October 2, 2013
Dr. Campbell
English 1103

The Studies of Human Limb Regeneration
Introduction:
Human limb regeneration has been a thought in the minds of people as far back as anyone
can remember. It has appeared in numerous books and sci-fi comics; In 1818 Marry Shellys
Frankenstein, a mad scientist named Victor created life in a creature held together merely by
thread. It has also appeared in the form of a comic book hero most Americans recognize:
Wolverine, he appeared in X-men, and then starred in a comic book series of his own. For the
people who do not know, Wolverine has the ability to recover from any damage he receives.
Now these examples are a little too extreme for what human regeneration actually is but this
reference allows us to get the big picture of what it could potentially allow us to do. A more
down to earth realization is contained within the data that we have received from the study of
how salamanders regrow limbs. In the closing paragraph of an article from Scientific American,
Now, as we watch a salamander grow back an arm, we are no longer quite as mystified by how
it happens. Soon humans might be able to harness this truly awesome ability ourselves, replacing
damaged and diseased body parts at will, perhaps indefinitely.


Who would be used as human test subjects and why?
Comment [sm1]: For as far back as anyone can
remember?
Comment [sm2]: Incorporating these two
figures makes the piece more interesting and draws
the reader in.
Comment [sm3]: I really want to read the rest
to find out how close we are to reaching this point
Nixon 2


Who would receive such a grand opportunity? Here is the answer, a multitude. When it
comes to test subjects there are only two requirements; they must have an amputated limb, and of
course they must be willing to sign a liability waiver. There is literately no end to the variety of
participants that could be deemed worthy enough to become a human test subject. Military
personal, diabetic people and even people who have had cancer can all become test subjects.
What are the statistics of amputees in America?
There are a few ways that people can become amputees. Two of the highest causes of lost
limbs are from battle oriented combat and diabetic patients. Although battle oriented amputations
are not as common in modern day war, the numbers can still reach pretty high numbers. Hannah
Fischer, an Information Research Specialist, tells us that there was a total of 1,715 battle oriented
amputee cases that took place in the war against Iraq. If we were to divvy up the total number of
amputee cases 1,179 would belong to the Army, 473 would belong to the Marines, 37 would
belong to the Navy, and 26 would belong to the Air Force. These are mainly caused by IEDs or
improvised explosive devices, gun fire, or shrapnel. As one could imagine an IED could easily
blow off a persons hand or arm. A shot in the leg could shatter bones and sending them flying
into multiple directions. Shrapnel from an explosion would cause massive damage if it entered a
persons limb. It would also shred an individuals arm causing irreparable damage to the nerves
and eventually lead to amputation.
Diabetes is common throughout the entire United States; based off of the NILLC Staffs
research we know that the CDC estimates that 23.6 million Americans currently have diabetes
7 percent of the U.S. populationup from 18.2 million in 2003. And to make things worse more
than 30 percent of all Americans are obese, which is one of the main causes of diabetes along
with genetic disorders. Each year, over half of all amputations in the United States are caused by
Nixon 3


diabetes mellitus and subsequent complications, with most being lower-extremity amputations,
such as feet and legs.
What are the physiological detriments of amputation?
The main physiological dieses due to amputation are phantom limb pain, and depression.
Phantom Limb Pain occurs after when a patient clams that they can feel pain coming from where
their limb used to be. Flor Horta, a professor in the Department of Cognitive and Clinical
Neuroscience at The University of Heidelberg, says that About 30% of people with amputations
report the feeling of telescopingie, the retraction of the phantom towards the residual limb and
in many cases the disappearance of the phantom into the limb, which may be accompanied by a
shrinking of the limb. This basically means that when an individual loses a limb, they feel a
ghost like pain coming from where their limb used to be. The National Library of Medicine
defines depression as severe despondency and dejection, typically felt over a period of time and
accompanied by feelings of hopelessness and inadequacy. It can also make people have feelings
of worthlessness, sadness, and even anger. Amputation can cause depression because an
individual that is missing a limb is reminded of their loss each and every single day. This is not
in all cases though; some amputees have learned to overcome this adversity and live life as
though it never happened. One remarkable example of this Jessica Cox, she was born with no
arms. Despite this fact and everyones negativity she learned how to fly an airplane using only
her feet.
How can salamanders regenerate their limbs and we cannot?
Salamanders can re-grow their limbs due to the fact stated in the Scientific American
Magazine We now know that those muscle-associated cells are derived from stem cells that
normally reside in the muscle tissue and not from dedifferentiation of muscle(source). This
Comment [sm4]: This lets me know how
regerating limbs is beneficial, other than the fact
that the limb is regenerated
Nixon 4


basically means that when a salamanders limb is cut off, the cells around the stump (what was
once its leg) can turn into stem cells. Stem cells are vital because they are cells that have the
ability to become any type of cell that is needed in the regeneration process. This is what allows
the salamander to regrow bone and muscle tissue. The stem cells then form a blastema in the
center of the stump. And form this blastema a new limb can emerge. They are able to do this
thanks to their regenerative structure; (which is not too different from our own) when a limb is
lost their veins contract to reduce blood flow and epidermal cells converge to cover the wound
(much like our own body would). Salamanders diverge from humans in the fact that; after the
epidermal cells have covered the wound fibroblasts disconnect from the connective tissue (this
basically means that when the wound is covered their cells stop dividing) and merge in the center
of the wound, from there a mass of blastemas from to create a new limb.
Humans on the other hand do not have the ability to stop out cells from continuously
dividing after the wound has healed, this is what causes scars. Humans however do have the
protein that is necessary for limb regeneration, this is seen when the tips of our fingers are cut
off. Joseph Bennington states that after amputation, the Wnt pathway is activated in the
epithelium underlying the remaining nail and attracts nerves to the area. Through a protein called
FGF2, the nerves drive the growth of mesenchymal cells, which restore tissues such as bone,
tendons and muscle. Within five weeks, the digit is good as new. However the down side to this
is that if the finger is cut too far back we lose our ability to reactivate the FGF2 protein.
Where are we now?
The current issues scientists are dealing with is that, when human tissue repairs itself
using fibroblasts, it fails to stop reproducing cells when the wound is closed, which is also the
reason why we have scars. They need to find a way to stop the cells from dividing and they need
Nixon 5


to find a way to reactivate the FGF2 protein. Also, the most recent hurdle for scientists is to learn
how to create a blastema in the wound. They would also have to be aware of the challenges that
lie ahead in regenerating a whole digit instead of just the tip of a digit; this is because a whole
digit consists of more than just simple cells. Another an
What are the benefits?
. Some delightful benefits an amputee patient who successfully received the treatment
and obtained a new limb would go through are, happiness, the feeling of stability, and the feeling
of usefulness. Once injured soldiers could go back home with all of their digits. Giving them
their arms or legs back would also be the equivalent of being handed a second chance at life.
Workers who lost their job due to a traumatic accident can continue supporting their family. If
the research was taken even further it could be used to, repair human muscles and organs as well
as cure arthritis. It only takes the determination of some skilled people.
Who oppose it and Why?
Even though human limb regeneration has the power to change millions of lives there are
some people who oppose is indefinably. Yes, there are those religious fanatics that oppose
everything science related because it goes against what they were believe and how they were
raised. But, some of the people who oppose human limb regeneration have good reason to do so.
My close friend Chelsea, while not being an expert or PhD but still has some merit, says I
indulge in science every day because it makes our life better. I do not think anyone can disagree
that the invention of the IPhone was a bad thing. However, I do not trust experimental research
such as human limb regeneration because it is just that, experimental. Until they have concrete
evidence that this will not turn into a horrific catastrophe, I will continue to distrust it.
Comment [sm5]: Finish the thought.
Comment [sm6]: Some of your thoughts got
deleted
Comment [sm7]: Whose opposition is
inevitable or something of the like
Comment [sm8]: Remove or change
Comment [sm9]: Ph.D.
Comment [sm10]: Including a quote from a
normal, everyday citizen instead of a big scientist
helps reach out to the average reader
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Science has not always turned out perfect or as planned. In many inventions side effects
were not found until years later after it is far too late to correct them. Some widely known
examples of these mistakes are DDT and CFCs. DDT was a widely used pesticide throughout
America, when it first came out it seemed to be the perfect pesticide due to its low toxicity in
humans. However, DDT was found out to be the man causes for soft egg shells in birds.
Populations of birds including the bald eagle were going extinct because when the mother would
go to sit on top of the eggs, they would be crushed. CFCs in aerosol cans were found out to cause
Ozone depletion. The Ozone is one of the most important defense mechanisms that the Earth has
against solar radiation. Due to CFCs a hole was created in the Ozone above Antarctica.
Thanks to salamanders and the bountiful human test subjects, human limb regeneration
could one day be possible. Although there are some trying blockades, such as how to stop our
cells from continually dividing after a wound is closed, that scientists need to overcome it is still
possible. Even though war, genetic disorders, and diabetes are the entire root causes of limb loss
in amputee patients, there is still hope for those participants to gain back their limbs. The mental
and physical side effects of not having a limb, such as phantom limb pain, would be a thing of
the past. Once all of the minor details are worked out and the side effects fully known, human
limb regeneration could revolutionize the medical industry.






Comment [sm11]: Including the other side lets
the reader pick their own side of the argument.
Comment [sm12]: Main?
Comment [sm13]: Some sort of transition
would be nice. Going from ozone depletion back to
salamanders is a big jump.
Comment [sm14]: Revise what you were saying
Nixon 7


Citations:
Bennington, Joseph. "Could This Be the Secret to Limb Regrowth in Humans?"Io9. N.p., 13
June 2013. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
Flor, Herta. "Phantom Limb Pain." ScienceDirect. ScienceDirect, July 2002. Web. 2 Oct. 2013.
Fischer, Hannah. "U.S. Military Casualty Statistics." Congressional Research Service, 5 Feb.
2013. Web. 2 Oct. 2013.
Medicine, Library. "Depression - Google Search." Depression - Google Search. The National
Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
McHugh, Josh. "Wired Magazine: Drug Test Cowboys: The Secret World of Pharmaceutical
Trial Subjects." Wired.com. Conde Nast Digital, 24 Apr. 07. Web. 02 Oct. 2013.
Muneoka, Ken, Manjong Han, and David M. Gardiner. "Regrowing Limbs: Can People
Regenerate Body Parts?" Scientific American (2008): 1-5. Www.nature.com. Scientific
American, 17 Mar. 2008. Web. 13 Sept. 2013.
Staff, NLLIC. "Amputee Coalition / National Limb Loss Information Center Fact Sheet."Fact
Sheet: Diabetes and Lower Extremity Amputations. Amputation Coalition, 23 July 2012.
Web. 03 Oct. 2013.






Comment [sm15]: ABC ORDER