!"#$% &'()*+ ,-&%..

"
!"#$"%&'(%"
!"# $%&' "( "))*+,-".-&( .%". .%+*/"0 +(+*12 -3 .*"(34+**+5 4*&/ " *+1-&( &4 %-1%+* .+/)+*".6*+ .& "
*+1-&( &4 0&'+* .+/)+*".6*+7

Besciiptively, when two bouies aie placeu in theimal contact, the waimei bouy becomes coolei while the
coolei bouy becomes waimei until a point is ieacheu aftei which no moie change occuis. When the theimal
changes have stoppeu, the two bouies aie saiu to be theimal equilibiium.
The bouies must theiefoie possess some piopeity, which ueteimines whethei they aie in theimal
equilibiium. The tempeiatuie of the bouies is uefineu as that piopeity.


Tempeiatuie is a quantitative expiession of the aveiage kinetic eneigy containeu in mattei. Tempeiatuie is a
measuie of the uegiee of hotness oi coluness expiesseu in teims of some aibitiaiy oi absolute scale to
inuicate the uiiection in which theimal eneigy will spontaneously flow, i.e. fiom hottei iegion to a coluei one.
Tempeiatuie is a measuie of the aveiage kinetic eneigy possesseu by the paiticles.


!8# 3%&' "( 6(5+*3."(5-(1 .%". *+1-&(3 &4 +96"0 .+/)+*".6*+ "*+ -( .%+*/"0 +96-0-8*-6/7

If two objects aie in contact anu theie is no net tiansfei of heat eneigy between them, the two objects aie saiu
to be in theimal equilibiium.
When eneigy is alloweu to flow fiom one substance into anothei in the foim of heat, the tempeiatuies tiy to
equalize. 0ltimately, if the eneigy tiansfei piocess is alloweu to continue foi a long enough time, the
tempeiatuies of the two objects will become the same, unless one of the substances is uiiven away (foi
example, steam boiling off of a kettle of watei). The kinetic eneigy of eveiything in the entiie univeise is
tiying to level off to a state of equilibiium.

!"#$%& '() $* +&"#,$-./(,012
If A is in theimal equilibiium with B, anu B is in theimal equilibiium with C, then A anu C must be in theimal
equilibiium.


!,#:"(5-5".+3 3%&605 8+ "80+ .& 3%&' "( 6(5+*3."(5-(1 .%". " )%23-,"0 )*&)+*.2 '%-,% ;"*-+3 '-.%
.+/)+*".6*+ /"2 8+ 63+5 4&* .%+ /+"36*+/+(. &4 .%+ .+/)+*".6*+ "(5 3.".+ +<"/)0+3 &4 36,%
)*&)+*.-+37

A theimometei is an instiument that measuies the tempeiatuie of a system in a quantitative way.
Theimometiic Piopeity: A theimometiic Piopeity is a physical quantity that monotonically incieases oi
uecieases with a iespective change in tempeiatuie. It is not necessaiy that the value of the physical quantity
changes lineaily with tempeiatuie. A theimometiic piopeity neeus only inciease with tempeiatuie oi
ueciease with tempeiatuie. Some piopeities aie listeu below.

Theimometiic Piopeities Types of theimometei
1. Length of liquiu in a capillaiy tube Liquiu in glass theimometei
2. Piessuie of a fixeu mass of gas at constant
volume
Constant volume gas theimometei
S. Resistance of a coil of wiie Resistance theimometei
4. E.m.f. of a theimocouple Theimoelectiic theimometei



Two bouies aie saiu to have the same tempeiatuie if they aie in theimal


!"#$% &'()*+ ,-&%.."
!"#$"%&'(%"
$&/+ 8"3-, :&(,+).3
!"#$"%&'(%"
uegiee of heat: the uegiee of heat as an inheient quality of objects expiesseu as hotness oi coluness ielative
to something else
)"&'
Beat is the aveiage kinetic eneigy of all the molecules of the gas oi substance unuei consiueiation. Theiefoie,
heat is a foim of eneigy.
!*"%#+#"'%,- .%+$"%'/
A theimometiic piopeity is a physical quantity that is monotonic incieasing oi monotonic uecieasing with
tempeiatuie. It is not necessaiy that the value of the physical quantity changes lineaily with tempeiatuie. A
theimometiic piopeity neeus only inciease with tempeiatuie oi ueciease with tempeiatuie. A physical
piopeity that incieases than uecieases oi vice veisa with inciease in tempeiatuie is not suitable as a
theimometiic piopeities useu in the vaiious theimometeis.
0-" .+,1' (lowei fixeu point). The tempeiatuie of puie melting ice at a piessuie of 76u mm Bg (i.e. 1
atmospheies). It is assigneu a stanuaiu value of zeio uegiees Celsius (u
o
C).
2'"&# .+,1' (uppei fixeu point). The tempeiatuie of uiy steam fiom puie watei at a piessuie of 76u mm Bg
(i.e. 1 atmospheies). It is assigneu a value of one-hunuieu uegiees Celsius (1uu
o
C).
2"13,',4,'/
The extent to which the physical piopeity of the substance change may change foi an inciemental change in
the tempeiatuie. This measuies the amount of change in theimometiic piopeity (e.g. length of meicuiy
column) pei unit change in tempeiatuie.
5&16"
This uenotes the minimum anu maximum tempeiatuies that the theimometei can measuie.
5"3$+13,4"1"33
This measuie how quickly the theimometei can iegistei changes in tempeiatuie.

7,1"&%,'/ +8 !*"%#+#"'"%3
This teim is useu foi theimometeis that exhibit a change in the physical piopeity of the substance in
PR0P0RTI0N to the change in the theimometiic piopeity of the theimometei (e.g. length of the meicuiy
column). Note: A theimometei is a uevice useu to measuie the uegiee of hotness oi coluness of a bouy.

)(


9+%#&: !




;:,1,-&: !

Neicuiy a
ABvANTA
1. It
the
tem
2. It
tub
S. It h
4. It e
S. It
ch
6. It h


*"
(+, -.'/ '/.0 1+&22
!*"%#+#"'"%
!*"%#+#"'"%
as a Theimom
AuES
is a goou
eiefoie the w
mpeiatuie of t
uoes not wet
be).
has a high boi
expanus unifo
iesponus q
anges.
has a visible m
"%3(%4
2 -&++
5
6
%
%
etiic Liquiu
conuuctoi o
whole liquiu
the suiiounui
t (cling to the
ling point (SS
oimly.
quickly to
meniscus.

53&+" (2(&++4 .0 78
697 8"1%"" :"+2.(2
of heat anu
ieaches the
ings quickly.
siues of the
S7 uegiee C).
tempeiatuie
8"1%"" 8.;.2.<0 ,(
<0 ;"%4 +<01 =>?@
BISABvANT
1. It is p
2. Its ex
S. It is e
4. It has
Note:
canno
temp
Queb
A+&22 5'"#
' 3&0 %"&8 ($ '<
@ ,<%" '(,"2
TAuES
poisonous.
xpansivity is ve
xpensive.
s a high fieezin
A high fieez
ot be useu
eiatuie is ve
ec, anu Poles e
=.0",<%"B
'(,"

eiy low.
ng point (-S9 u
zing point me
in places w
eiy low (e.g.
etc).
(0.C<%#B ";&3(&'
!"#$% &'()*+
!"#$"
uegiee C).
eans that it
wheie the
uieenlanu,
"8
D&01" C%<
'< 776 8"

,-&%.."
"%&'(%"
<# E 76 8"1%"" :"
1%"" :"+2.(2
"+2.(2


!"#$% &'()*+ ,-&%.."
!"#$"%&'(%"



Alcohol as a Theimometiic Liquiu
ABvANTAuES BISABvANTAuES
1. It expanus unifoimly. 1. It wets the tube (clings to the siues of the
tube).
2. It has a low fieezing point (-11S uegiee
Celsius).
2. It has a low boiling point i.e. 78 uegiee-C.
S. It has laige expansivity. S. It uoes not ieact quickly to changes in
tempeiatuie.
4. It is cheap. 4. It neeus to be uyeu since it is coloiless.
S. It is a safe liquiu.


The Noimal Theimometei
NAIN BESIuN FEAT0RES P0RP0SE 0F W0RKINu PRINCIPLE
1. The meicuiy is containeu in a thin-walleu
glass bulb.
1. The thin wall of the glass bulb allows
conuuction of heat quickly thiough the
glass (a pooi conuuctoi of heat) to the
liquiu.
2. The bulb is maue small to contain a small
amount of liquiu.
2. A small amount of liquiu iesponus moie
quickly to a change in tempeiatuie.
S. The boie of the capillaiy tube is fine anu
unifoim.
S. The fine tube allows a noticeable
movement of the liquiu column foi a small
change in tempeiatuie (i.e. goou
sensitivity). The unifoim tube ensuie even
expansion of the liquiu.
4. The walls of the long tube above the bulb
aie maue thick.
4. This acts as a magnifying glass foi easy
ieauing of the meicuiy thieau in the stem.
S. The size of the theimometei is ielatively
small.
S. The small size allows it to be poitable anu
also cheap to piouuce.


!"#$% &'()*+ ,-&%.."
!"#$"%&'(%"

1. The meicuiy is containeu in a thin-walleu
glass bulb.
1. The thin wall of the glass bulb allows
conuuction of heat quickly thiough the
glass (a pooi conuuctoi of heat) to the
liquiu.
2. The boie of the capillaiy tube is fine anu
unifoim.
2. The fine tube allows a noticeable
movement of the liquiu column foi a small
change in tempeiatuie (i.e. goou
sensitivity). The unifoim tube ensuies
even expansion of the liquiu.
S. The Scale is limiteu to a small iage of
between S4 - 42 uegiee Celsius.
S. Since the noimal bouy tempeiatuie is
noimally S6.9 uegiee Celsius, the shoit
iange allows foi gieatei accuiacy anu the
stem can be maue ieasonably shoit.
4. A Naiiow constiiction is founu in the
tube just above the bulb.
4. This ensuies that the maximum
tempeiatuie of the bouy is iecoiueu.
When the tempeiatuie iises, the meicuiy
in the bulb expanus anu foices its way past
the constiiction. When the theimometei is
taken fiom the patient's mouth, the
constiiction pievents the contiacting
meicuiy fiom flowing back into the bulb
by bieaking the meicuiy thieau at the
constiiction.
S. The cioss-section of the theimometei is
paii-shapeu.
S. This acts as a magnifying glass in one
uiiection foi easy ieauing of the meicuiy
thieau in the stem.

Examples of theimometiic piopeities incluue:
13 4$56,",
A liquiu in glass theimometei makes use of the inciease in the volume with incieasing tempeiatuie of a
column of liquiu helu in a capillaiy tube. ulass is useu because it is tianspaient anu has low theimal
expansivity. The liquiu useu is almost always meicuiy because it uoes not wet glass oi cling to it has a
unifoim volume expansion thioughout its liquiu iange anu is visible. The bimetallic stiip is simply two stiips
of uiffeient metals bonueu togethei anu helu at one enu.

2. 7"202%(/1",
A platinum iesistance theimometei makes use of the inciease in the electiical iesistance of platinum with
incieasing tempeiatuie.
A %&"#,02%"# theimometei makes use of the ueciease in the electiical iesistance of its semi-conuuctoi with
incieasing tempeiatuie.
The Clinical Theimometei
NAIN BESIuN FEAT0RES P0RP0SE 0F W0RKINu PRINCIPLE


!"#$% &'()*+ ,-&%.."
!"#$"%&'(%"
Examples of theimometiic piopeities (.contu.)

S. 8(9"5"/:%&;
The wavelength of pieuominant iauiation emitteu by a bouy is inveisely piopoitional to its tempeiatuie. A
pyiometei measuies the wavelength of this pieuominant iauiation emitteu by the bouy whose tempeiatuie
is to be measuieu.

43 <5"1%#$,$%09" =$#1",
A theimocouple consists of two wiies maue of uiffeient mateiials joineu togethei to one enu anu connecteu
two voltage measuiing uevice at the othei. Any tempeiatuie uiffeience between the two enus piouuces an
e.m.f that can be measuieu anu tianslateu into a measuie of the tempeiatuie.

S. >#"226#";
The piessuie of a low uensity gas is uiiectly piopoitional to its tempeiatuie. The constant volume gas
theimometei measuies the piessuie of a low uensity gas while keeping its volume constant.

6. ?(:/"%01 *56@ (/- 2$6/- "/"#:.;
Theie aie also some theimometeis that opeiate by magnetic conuitions oi sensing sounu waves associateu
with tempeiatuie changes.


!5# :&/)"*+ .%+ *+0".-;+ "5;"(."1+3 "(5 5-3"5;"(."1+3 &4 *+3-3."(,+ "(5 .%+*/&,&6)0+ .%+*/&/+.+*3
"3 )*+;-&6302 ,"0-8*".+5 -(3.*6/+(.37

Theimoelectiic Theimocouple:
The theimocouple theimometei consists of two wiies maue of uiffeient mateiials. The enus of the wiies aie
joineu togethei to foim two junctions. If the two junctions aie at uiffeient tempeiatuies, then a small e.m.f is
piouuceu. The gieatei the uiffeience in the tempeiatuie, the gieatei the e.m.f piouuceu acioss the enus of
two enus of the junctions. If one junction is kept at a fixeu colu tempeiatuie such asu
0
C, then the othei
junction may be useu as a tiny piobe to measuie tempeiatuies othei thanu
0
C. The e.m.f geneiateu can be
measuieu using a millivoltmetei oi a potentiometei foi accuiacy.


Tempeiatuie can be ieau fiom stanuaiu tables, oi the
measuiing uevice can be calibiateu to ieau tempeiatuie
uiiectly. Theimocouple theimometeis have a wiue #(/:" $*
(A$6% BC D %$ EFGC D3 H% &(2 ( 2&$#% #"2I$/2" %0," (/- 1(/ A"
0/%":#(%"- -0#"1%5. )0%& 1$,I6%"#2; A6% 0%2 (116#(1. 02
(9"#(:" 0* %&" "3,3* 02 ,"(26#"- with a milli-voltmetei. It is
most suitable foi ,"(26#0/: #(I0-5. 1&(/:0/: %",I"#(%6#"
$* 2,(55 bouies.

!*"%#+-+($:" <=4&1'&6"3
1. Laige Tempeiatuie Range (appiox -2uu
o
C to about +1Suu
o
C).
2. Since junctions aie veiy small, it is able to measuie tempeiatuies at a point ( i.e. localizeu
tempeiatuies).
S. Can measuie iapiuly changing tempeiatuies uue to low theimal capacity uue to its low mass anu
the fact that metals aie goou conuuctois of heat.
4. Robust.
S. 0utput is uigital (electiical signal), so uigital ieauouts may be obtaineu iapiuly.



F


!"#$% &'()*+ ,-&%.."
!"#$"%&'(%"
>+%" +1 '*" !*"%#+-+($:"
A theimocouple theimometei consists basically of two wiies maue of uiffeient metals (such as Cu anu Fe).
The enus of the wiies aie joineu togethei to foim two junctions. If the two junctions aie at two uiffeient
tempeiatuies i.e. if one junction is hot anu the othei is colu a small e.m.f. (voltage) is piouuceu. The gieatei
the uiffeience in tempeiatuie, the gieatei the e.m.f piouuceu acioss the two enus of the junctions. If one
junction is kept at a fixeu colu tempeiatuie such as u
o
C, then the othei junction may be useu as a tiny piobe
to measuie tempeiatuies othei than u
o
C.
The uefining equation foi a theimocouple theimometei is given by:
u c A
Wheie c = e.m.f. of the voltage piouuceu
u A = the tempeiatuie uiffeience between the two junctions
?@&#$:" A("3',+1







In a ceitain theimocouple theimometei anu e.m.f. of +4.uu mv was obtaineu with one junction in melting
ice anu the othei in boiling watei at 1 stu. atm. When the hot junction was taken out of the boiling watei
anu placeu in the boiling piopane the e.m.f. iegisteieu was -1.Su mv. Finu the tempeiatuie of the boiling
piopane on the theimocouple Celsius Scale
2+:(',+1
Foi the theimocouple theimometei e.m.f, c tempeiatuie uiffeience, u A
Theiefoie 4.uu mv (1uu - u)
o
C
-1.Sumv ( - u)
o
C wheie = tempeiatuie of boiling piopane
C
o
5 . 37 100
00 . 4
50 . 1
00 . 4
50 . 1
0 100
0
=
+

=
+

u
u



melting ice boiling water
0
o
C 100
o
C
+4.00 mV

melting ice boiling propane
0
o
C
o
C
-1.50 mV


!"#$% &'()*+ ,-&%.."
!"#$"%&'(%"
>5(%0/6, #"202%(/1" %&"#,$,"%"#2 usually use platinum anu opeiate on the piinciple that electiical
iesistance vaiies with changes in tempeiatuie. Platinum iesistance theimometeis have a wiue iange of
about 7S K to about 147u K. It has goou accuiacy anu can be integiateu uiiectly with computeis, but has
along iesponse time. It is most suitable foi measuiing steauy tempeiatuie accuiately.
!/$"3 +8 '*"%#+#"'"% <=4&1'&6"3 B,3&=4&1'&6"3
Resistance
-18u
0
C to 11Su
0
C
1. Accuiate
2. Wiue iange
S. Nost suitable foi
measuiing constant
tempeiatuies accuiately
4. 0seu as a stanuaiu
theimometei foi
tempeiatuies between -
18S
0
C anu 6Su
0
C
1. Not suitable foi
measuiing iapiu changes
in tempeiatuie because it
takes time to attain
theimal equilibiium with
the suiiounuings.
Theimocouple
-2Su
0
C to 11Su
0
C
1. Sensitive
2. wiue iange
S. most suitable foi iapiu
changes of tempeiatuie
4. able to measuie tempeiatuie
of small anu isolateu places
S. useu as a stanuaiu
theimometei foi
tempeiatuies between 6Su
0
C
anu 1u6S
0
C
1. Less accuiate if milli voltmetei
is useu to measuie e.m.f. A
potentiometei useu foi measuiing
e.m.f. woulu be moie accuiate.

!+ $%&' "( 6(5+*3."(5-(1 .%". .%+*+ -3 "( "83&06.+ 3,"0+ &4 .+/)+*".6*+ '%-,% 5&+3 (&. 5+)+(5 &(
.%+ )*&)+*.2 &4 "(2 )"*.-,60"* 3683."(,+ !-7+7 .%+ .%+*/&52("/-, 3,"0+ "(5 .%+ ,&(,+). &4 "83&06.+
=+*&#7


The centigiaue tempeiatuie scale is baseu on uiviuing the inteival between the ice point anu steam point into
1uu equal paits. The pioblem with the centigiaue scale is that the theimometiic piopeities uo not follow a
stiaight line between the two fixeu points. So centigiaue scales aie inaccuiate at all points except foi the fixeu
points. In fact, each theimometei has its own centigiaue scale that is slightly uiffeient fiom eveiy othei one.
Noimally this uoesn't mattei. But if you wish to compaie tempeiatuie accuiately between two uiffeient
expeiiments, you can't use the centigiaue scale.

So scientists have uevelopeu an iueal, peifect scale with an absolutely stiaight-line ielationship between
tempeiatuie anu the theimometiic piopeity. This scale is calleu the &C3+:('" 3-&:" oi the '*"%#+=/1&#,-
3-&:" of tempeiatuie. The pioblem is that it is a theoietical scale (although some constant volume gas
theimometeis can get close to its peifect behavioi.) But that uoesn't mean that it is any less useful.
It woiks on the piinciple that heat eneigy is actually E
k
when you get uown to atomic levels. Noie heat means
that the atom gains moie E
k
. Less heat anu it loses E
k
. So theie shoulu be a point wheie, if you iemove all E
k

fiom an atom you can achieve the lowest possible tempeiatuie.
This is calleu &C3+:('" D"%+. (It has nevei been ieacheu in piactice although we've come within a few
millionths of a uegiee).
Absolute zeio is one of the two fixeu points foi the <C3+:('" 3-&:" of tempeiatuie. The othei is the '%,$:"
$+,1' +8 E&'"% - a point at veiy low piessuie at which watei can exist as a soliu, liquiu anu gas all at the same
time - hence the name 'tiiple point'.


!"#$% &'()*+ ,-&%.."
!"#$"%&'(%"
J*K L$/9"#% %",I"#(%6#"2 ,"(26#"- 0/ D"590/ %$ -":#""2 L"52062M + N D O + N PL Q RFB3EG3

Two empiiical tempeiatuie scales aie in geneial use touay.

1. The Fahienheit (F) tempeiatuie scale is useu in the 0niteu States anu a few othei English speaking
countiies. Tempeiatuie measuieu o this scale aie uesignateu as uegiees Fahienheit (). 0n this scale, the ice
point is S2, the steam point is 212 anu theie aie 18u steps between the fixeu points.

2. The Celsius (C) tempeiatuie scale is employeu in viitually all countiies that have auopteu the metiic
system of measuie anu is also wiuely useu in the sciences. The ice point is uefineu as u anu the steam
point as 1uu, giving 1uu steps between the fixeu points.

! F
+
; G !FH I JKL



A theimometiic piopeity may be useu to measuie tempeiatuie on an empiiical scale, as follows:
The piopeity is measuieu at two fixeu points anu at the tempeiatuie to be ueteimineu. The piopeity is
assumeu to vaiy lineaily with tempeiatuie anu the tempeiatuie t is ueteimineu fiom the foimula





Two theimometeis measuiing tempeiatuie on theii empiiical scales uo not always agiee at all tempeiatuies.
This is because theii empiiical scales aie constiucteu assuming that the theimometiic piopeities vaiy
lineaily with tempeiatuie. In piactice, the theimometiic piopeities useu may not vaiy lineaily with
tempeiatuie anu the theimometeis agiee only at the two fixeu points.

At low piessuies, all gases behave like an iueal gas anu have a veiy simple ielation between theii piessuie p,
volume v anu tempeiatuie T as follows:
pv T

This tempeiatuie scale is calleu the .%+*/&52("/-, 3,"0+7

Theie is a natuially uefineu zeio on the theimouynamic scale- it is the point at which the piessuie of an iueal
gas is zeio, making the tempeiatuie also zeio. This point is calleu the absolute zeio.
0n the Celsius scale, the absolute zeio is -27S.1S.
0n the Fahienheit scale, it is -4S9.67.
Any tempeiatuie scale having absolute zeio foi its zeio point is teimeu an absolute tempeiatuie scale.

The absolute zeio is its zeio point. The othei fixeu point is the tiiple point of the watei, i.e. the tempeiatuie at
which the ice, watei anu watei vapoui co-exist in equilibiium, chosen because it is consiueieu invaiiant anu
iepiouucible.
Tempeiatuie Kelvin Scale Celsius Scale
Absolute Zeio u K -27S
o
C
Ice Point 27S K u
o
C
Steam Point S7S K +1uu
o
C
' G
x
t-x
0
x
100-x
0
H766I