Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

Islamic Approaches to Peace and Conflict Resolution Introduction

By Abdul Aziz Said, Nathan C. Funk, and Ayse S. Kadayifci (su ary by Nayla SA!!"#$ SA%A&A' In a (orld (here boundaries bet(een cultures, reli)ions and ci*ilizations ha*e colla+sed, there is a +rofound need for cross,cultural and ulti,reli)ious studies of +eace. Non,(estern a++roaches to +eace and conflict resolution are i +ortant not only for the de*elo+ ent and refine ent of e-istin) theories deri*ed in the %estern cultural conte-t, but also for the +ro otion of cross, cultural dialo)ue and understandin). %.S/.$N AN0 IS1A!IC A22$"AC3.S /" 2.AC. In the do inant (estern conce+tion, +eace is associated (ith the absence of (ar or or)anized *iolence and 4ustice (ith an absence of )ross *iolations of hu an ri)hts. 2eace is aintained throu)h the threat of coercion and the institutionalization of re)ulations and decision, akin) +rocedures. 2eace and conflict resolution are thou)ht about in ter s of rational order or +roble sol*in) +redicated u+on reason. 2eace occu+ies a central +osition a on) Isla ic +rece+ts, (here it is closely linked to 4ustice and hu an flourishin). Indeed, +eace si)nifies an additional +resence of hu an di)nity, econo ic (ell,bein) and ecolo)ical balance. 2eace in Isla be)ins (ith 5od6 5od is +eace, for +eace (al-salam' is one of the 7 ost beautiful na es8 of 5od. A C"!!#NA11& .!B.00.0 A22$"AC3 /" C"NF1IC/ $.S"1#/I"N Fro (estern +ers+ecti*e, conflict is *ie(ed as natural and +otentially +ositi*e, and not erely as a source of instability and threat6 atte +ts to erely su++ress conflict throu)h coerci*e +o(er and authoritati*e rules are *ie(ed (ith disfa*our in contrast to atte +ts to broker durable, utually beneficial resolutions to +roble s, satisfyin) the interests of co +etin) +arties in a 7(in,(in8 solution. !usli a++roaches to conflict resolution dra( on reli)ious *alues, traditional rituals of reconciliation and historical +ractices of co unal and inter,co unal coe-istence. /hese echanis s ai to e +o(er fa ily )rou+s and co unity e bers to +artici+ate in atters of co on concern, stron) e +hasis is +laced on linka)es bet(een +ersonal and )rou+ identity. 2$"B1.!S "F $.2$.S.N/A/I"N %hile !usli (riters assert that Isla can contribute to international +eace and hu an di)nity, Isla has been *ie(ed as an actual or +otential +roble , and research 9uestions ha*e been fra ed around threat +erce+tions rather than +otentially +ositi*e as+ects of intercultural encounter. 5i*en the e-tent to (hich narrati*es of confrontation ha*e defined the +ara eters of +o+ular as (ell as acade ic literature on Isla , uch conte +orary debate about Isla re*ol*es around issues of re+resentation and isre+resentation. Karl !ar- and !a- %eber both studied non,%estern cultures and +resu ed that because of the uni9ue +o(er of %estern inno*ations in technolo)y, social or)anization and +roduction, the %est (as una bi)uously on the cuttin) ed)e of history and that to study Isla (as to study the hu an +ast. /hus, it is assu ed fro the nineteenth century that the se+aration of reli)ious and +olitical authority is )ood not only for both reli)ion and +olitics but also that +ublic dialo)ue about atters of s+iritual or reli)ious si)nificance is either dan)erous or si +ly unacce+table. "+eratin) (ithin the fra e(ork of such assu +tions, social science has tended to i)nore the *i)orous Isla ic re*i*alist o*e ents, to e-+lain the a(ay, or to identify the as ata*istic reactions to odernization. /he focus has been lar)ely on the ore ilitant e-+ressions of Isla ic identity, and on the e-tent to (hich they constitute a threat to %estern interests. /he do inant fra e of reference is the 7confrontation *s. co +atibility8. /he future de*elo+ ent of cross,cultural in9uiry is of considerable i +ortance in so far as it can hel+ to +ro*ide both fresh contributions to theories of conflict resolution and constructi*e channels for the +erennial

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

reli)ious i +ulse. Studies of Isla ic a++roaches to +eace and conflict resolution +ro*ide ne( an)les of insi)ht into uni*ersal hu an dile as, as (ell as i +ortant su++le entation to studies to reco)nize conte +orary Isla ic acti*is not as back(ard,lookin) re4ection of the odern (orld, but as dee+ly felt e-+ression of cultural identity and a criti9ue of do estic as (ell as international +olitical orders. FI:. IS1A!IC A22$"AC3.S /" 2.AC. - 2o(er 2olitics; 2eace throu)h Coerci*e 2o(er Based on +essi istic readin) of hu an nature, Isla is used as a lan)ua)e for le)iti ation of +o(er and authority and for the +reser*ation or social order6 threats to a )i*en +olitical order are often fra ed as a threat to Isla . /he +o(er,+olitical a++roach *ie(s +eace as an absence of (ar, and underscores +olitical necessities created by the restlessness of +olitical sub4ects and the threatenin) +osture of e-ternal ene ies. - %orld "rder; 2eace throu)h the 2o(er of 1a( 2eace is a condition of order defined by the +resence of such core Isla ic *alues as 4ustice, hu an di)nity, cultural coe-istence and ecolo)ical stability, and not erely by an absence of direct *iolence. A situation in (hich these *alues are not +resent ay be characterized as disorderly, unstable and un,Isla ic. - Conflict $esolution; 2eace throu)h the 2o(er of Co unication /raditional Isla ic a++roaches are e-+lored; reconciliation, ethods of ediation and arbitration. /hese ethods affir a restorati*e conce+tion of +eace and 4ustice, enco +assin) notions of co +ensations for losses, attenti*eness to issues of 7face8 or social estee , renunciation for the sake of the (hole and for)i*eness. - Non,:iolence; 2eace throu)h %ill 2o(er Adherence to Isla re9uires non,*iolent solidarity a)ainst o++ression, the +ro otion of rene(al throu)h broad,based social o*e ents and trainin) for +ro)ra s of direct non,*iolent action. "nly a linka)e of 4ust ends (ith 4ust eans can secure authentic 4ustice, +eace and hu an di)nity. - /ransfor ation; 2eace throu)h the 2o(er of 1o*e /his a++roach defines +eace as a condition of all e bracin) har ony +ercei*ed throu)h the in(ard rene(al and transfor ation of hu an consciousness. /he cultural co unity is the conte-t and the rece+tacle of hu an realization6 rene(al takes +lace (ithin each +erson throu)h in(ard cleansin) and lo*in) surrender to the di*ine. /he +ur+ose of this study is to su))est ne( (ays of or)anizin) kno(led)e about Isla , (ithin the conte-t of e er)in) )lobal +ers+ecti*es on the +ro otion of hu an solidarity and the full utilization of cultural and s+iritual resources for the ad*ance ent of +eace.

Theory of the State Cha+ter <

By !a4id Khadduri (su ary by %ioletta S/"2A' S"CI./& AN0 /3. S/A/. !usli thinkers, ins+ired by 5reek +redecessors belie*e that 7 an is a social ani al8; he can li*e only as a e ber of society. No indi*idual, e-ce+t 5od , Allahu ahad , can li*e alone6 en (ere created to li*e to)ether. /o !usli thinkers, fro the 2ro+het !uha ed to Ibn Khaldu , the indi*idual=s ri)hts and obli)ations (ere al(ays defined in ter s of the co unity interests. In the >ur=an it is often referred to as a distinct 7nation8 (umma' or a 7brotherhood8, bound by co on obli)ation to a su+erior, di*ine authority. /he conce+tion of the umma or brotherhood constituted the basis of

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

the Isla ic co unity. /he )reater e +hasis see ed to ha*e been attached to the )rou+6 the indi*idual counted for little by hi self. "nly throu)h the fa ily, clan or cavitas, to (hich the indi*iduals belon)ed, could they clai the ri)ht to +rotection by eans of custo or social ores. Not only is Society re)arded as indis+ensable for the sur*i*al of an, but also inherent in it is the conce+t of authority. /he Isla ic conce+tion of u a +resu++oses the e-istence of a set of di*ine co ands, endo(ed by a Su+re e 1e)islator, constitutin) its 7funda ental la(8 or 7constitution8. /his is re)arded as absolutely necessary since society (ithout authority (as i +ossible. /3. ?#$I0ICA1 BASIS "F /3. S/A/. /he foundation of the Isla ic social +olity (as ade on the basis of a co +act of a)ree ent, bein) understood that this a)ree ent (as by no eans one bet(een t(o e9uals. It (as a co +act of sub ission (hich reflects the nature of Allah=s co*enant (ith an. %as the Isla ic state based on a sin)le,contract theory or t(o contracts@ Accordin) to al,Farabi and 3obbes, the isolated indi*iduals a)reed on a uni*ersal contract of sub ission to a ruler (ho is *ested at once (ith e-clusi*e +o(er. "nly the +ossession of so*erei)nty resided (ith Allah, (hile its e-ercise (as instructed to rule (ith 4ustice. Allah accordin)ly (as the titular head of the state and its source of )o*ernin) authority6 !uha ad (as its head of )o*ern ent. /he +osition of !uha ad as the e-ecuti*e head of the )o*ernin) authority (as filled by a cali+h, but not his +ro+hetic function of co unication and +ro ul)atin) the di*ine la(. /he cali+h declared that he (as erely to ad inister and enforce the di*ine la(. /he cali+h=s +o(ers (ere deri*ed fro and li ited by the di*ine la(6 only his a++oint ent (as ade by the +eo+le. /3. 0I:IN. #NI:.$SA1 N"!"C$AC& It is to be noted that in ?udais , Christianity, and Isla )od ne*er had been re)arded as the i ediate ruler of this sub4ects6 only his re+resentati*es on earth (ere the real e-ecuti*es. 3ence the di*ine la(, re)arded as the source of )o*ernin) authority, (as the essential feature in the +rocess of control under these syste s. Accordin) to the definition of no ocracy (hich is defined as 7a syste of )o*ern ent based on a le)al code6 the rule of la( in a co unity8, Israelite, Christian and Isla ic states, (hich (ere based on di*ine le)al orders, can be called no ocracies. /he uni*ersal no ocracy of Isla , like the Republica Christiana in the %est, assu ed that ankind constituted one su+ra,national co unity, bound by one la( and )o*erned by one ruler. %hile Isla tolerated Christianity and ?udais as reli)ion, Isla do and Christendo , as t(o uni*ersal states, could not +eacefully coe-ist.

Foundations and Purposes of Political Authority A Cha+ter B

by Ibn Khaldun (su ary by Sotirios 2./$":AS'
/he article is an arran)e ent fro An Arab philosophy of History: Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn haldun of !unis "#$$%-#&'()* It is a series of political theory considerations

S/A/. AN0 S"CI./& 7State is to society as for is to atter8. State and society cannot e-ist (ithout one another. Any disturbance of either of the (ill cause a disturbance in the other (e.).; do(nfall of e +ires6 the chan)e of ruler is not disturbin), for each successor rese bles his +redecessor. /he true force (hich o+erates on society is solidarity and +o(er, both +ersist throu)h successi*e rulers. If solidarity *anishes, the (hole rulin) class disa++ears. S"CIA1 S"1I0A$I/& IS BAS.0 "N KINS3I2 Solidarity is based on blood ties or other relationshi+ that has the sa e effect6 indeed, all en are concerned by the in4ury inflicted on their ne-t of kin, and resent the o++ression of their relati*e. .*en (ith a distant de)ree of kinshi+, there is a (ides+read +no,ledge of kinshi+. -3-

Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

S"1I0A$I/& IN /$IB.S Characteristics of en; a))ressi*eness and lust for +o(er. /he state or the rulers restrain their sub4ects fro attackin) each other and +reser*e the fro o++ression, unless it be the o++ression of the state itself. .-ternal a))ression is (arded off by a defence (hich can succeed only (hen en are united by a stron) solidarity arisin) out of kinshi+. S"1I0A$I/& IS /3. BASIS "F S":.$.I5N/& /he end of solidarity is sovereignty. Solidarity is (hat akes en unite their efforts and defend the sel*es. But e*ery society needs a restraint, a chief (ho (ill kee+ en fro in4urin) each other A the chief ust ha*e a +o(erful su++ort, other(ise he (ill not be able to carry out his function. /his do ination is called so*erei)nty, (hich e-ceeds the +o(er of a si +le leader follo(ed by others (ho he cannot co +el. /he so*erei)n ruler has such +o(er. A leader (ill al(ays to try to turn his rule into so*erei)nty, as +o(er is the desire of en=s souls. S"1I0A$I/& IS /3. BASIS "F KIN5S3I2 Kin)shi+ and dynasties can only be founded u+on solidarity6 *ictory )oes indeed to the side (ith the ost solidarity and (hose e bers are ost ready to die for each other. But kin)shi+ is fou)ht o*er (ith uch co +etition, (ar occurs. And the asses are not a(are of this stru))le as they ha*e for)otten the ori)in of their ruler, (hose +o(er is consolidated and no lon)er based u+on social solidarity. NA/#$. "F KIN5S3I2 It is a +osition natural to ankind. !an can only sur*i*e in )rou+s, and if they co,o+erate A it is therefore i +ossible to sur*i*e in a state of anarchy, (ithout a sanction (hich restrains the fro utual a))ression. /his sanction is +ro*ided by a stron) kin). C"NC.N/$A/I"N "F A#/3"$I/& It is in the nature of states that authority beco es concentrated in one +erson. %hy@ Because of solidarity, for ed by the union of any )rou+s, fro (hich e er)es a leadin) fa ily. A +ro inent indi*idual is at the head of this fa ily. 3e (ill then ha*e +ride and soon think hi self as a )od. %ere there any rulers, the result (ould be chaos. /.$$I/"$IA1 1I!I/S "F /3. S/A/. .ach state has a++ointed territories that it cannot e-ceed6 its functions thereon are to +rotect a)ainst ene ies, enforce orders, raise ta-es, a(e the +o+ulation, etc. /he state is stron)er at the centre than at the +eri+hery, the centre bein) like a heart, if it is defeated, all +ro*inces (ill be (i+ed out. $.1I5I"N AS /3. BASIS "F /3. .!2I$. A do inion can only be secured by *ictory, and *ictory )oes to the side (ith ore unity of +ur+ose and solidarity. $eli)ious fer*our can +ut aside the co +etiti*eness and 4ealousy felt by the e bers of the )rou+ by turnin) the to(ards the truth, a truth they are +re+ared to die for. In*ersely, (hen reli)ious fer*our (eakens and )ets corru+ted, reli)ion ceases to +lay a role and *ictory belon)s to the ore cohesi*e side. S2I$I/#A1 AN0 /.!2"$A1 2"%.$S Kin)shi+ arises out of the necessary association of hu an bein)s and is based on coercion, (hich is an ani al tendency. Ste in) fro his ai s and desires, the orders of the kin) ay soon beco e unbearable burdens for the sub4ects, (ho (ill feel the need to rebel the sel*es. It is therefore i +erati*e to i +ose +olitical laws. /he state cannot establish or consolidate itself (ithout the . 1a(s are founded on reason. /he la(s laid do(n by 5od are useful for both this and for the after life, for en are not created for this (orld of *anity and e*il (hose end is death and annihilation. $eli)ion leads to ha++iness in the afterlife and di*ine la(s seek to +rescribe the conduct of en in all affairs. /he state is therefore +atterned on reli)ion. As+ects that arise fro the sole re9uire ents of statecraft are bla e(orthy as they lack the li)ht of 5od.

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

2olitical la( reflect a++arent, (orldly interests, (hereas 5od=s ai is the sal*ation of ankind. It is therefore i +erati*e to ha*e the +eo+le confor the sel*es to reli)ious la(s in atters concernin) both (orlds. /hus Kingship is founded on reason for the +ro+ortion of (orldly interests. /he Caliphate is the rulin) of the +eo+le accordin) to the insi)ht of religious dictates and worldly matters derived from them. /he cali+hate is thus a )uardian of reli)ion and a director of (orldly affairs in the li)ht of that reli)ion. S2I$I/#A1 AN0 /.!2"$A1 2"%.$S IN IS1A! AN0 C3$IS/IANI/& A chief is needed to lead en to(ards ad*anta)eous thin)s and kee+ a(ay fro har ful ones. /his is the Kin)=s ob4ecti*e. Isla , as all,inclusi*e, calls for the -ihad, (hich is obli)atory for infidels. In other reli)ions, holy (ar is +er issible for self defence only, and reli)ious leaders do not concern the sel*es (ith (orldly affairs. /hese reli)ions do not de and do inion o*er other +eo+les, but erely the establishin) of their faith a on) the sel*es.

The Ottoman Jihad Fatwa of o!em"er ##$ #%#& ' Cha+ter C

By (su ary by Sene &ADAK'

In <E<F, the "tto an . +ire entered %orld %ar I on the side of the central +o(ers and to le)iti ate this effort en4oin !usli su++ort beyond the boundaries of the . +ire, the official ufti +ronounced a 4ihad fat(a. /he 4ihad fat(a (as a le)al rulin) declarin) that the "tto an (ar +olicy (as consistent (ith Sharia=s rules definin) the +ara eters of ri)hteous ilitary stru))le and that the su++ort for the . +ire=s 4ihad (as incu bent (obli)atory' u+on all !usli s (hether they li*ed under the "tto an rule or under the rule of the Allied +o(ers. /his illustration of the use of Isla to ad*ance the interests of a state created fear in .uro+e.

Islamic Jurisprudence and (odern eeds) the Challen*e of Renewal ' Cha+ter F
By Abdul3a id, A.AbuSulay an (su ary by Farida "!A$' Before, the !usli (orld (as the center and aster of the ci*ilized (orld. /oday, the !usli (orld is (eak, relati*ely back(ard, frustrated, sufferin) fro internal tensions, full of conflicts, and controlled and abused by forei)n +o(ers. !usli s are often re)arded as a +roble in (orld +olitics. >uestion; 3o( did such a state of affairs co e about@ 3o( can the !usli s alter this condition@ 3IS/"$ICA1 BACK5$"#N0 AN0 0.FINI/I"NS Isla a++eared in the early Gth century. /he 2ro+het is the descendant of Ish ael (son of Abraha '. /he 2ro+het !uha ad recie*ed the (ahy (the re*elation' that he has been a++ointed !essen)er of Allah. /he (ahy recorded in the >u=ran constitutes the first source of the Shari=ah. Shari=ah H the re*ealed %ill of Allah throu)h the 2ro+het re)ardin) the conduct of all hu an life on earth. Sunnah ((ay' H re+orted sayin)s, actions Fi9h H !usli 4uris+rudence (syste atic deduction of la('. #sul H source and ethods of !usli 4uris+rudence. By the end of the <Ith century, the nu ber of reco)nized schools of 4uris+rudence had been reduced to F. Since then, !usli thou)ht has been H /a9lid. <Eth century odernists introduce the I4tihad H use of hu an reason in the elaboration of Isla ic 1a(. -5-

Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

/$A0I/I"NA1IS! AN0 %.S/$.NIDA/I"N %ith /a9lid !usli thou)ht, technolo)y, social syste is sta)nant. .uro+e de*elo+s ne( ideas and ethods. Gth century .uro+e had sur+assed the !usli s. Closer contact (ith .uro+e !usli authorities a(are of the need to learn and ada+t .uro+ean technolo)y coo+eration in the ilitary sectorJeducation in .uro+e. +roble s; reli)ious sector of the society *ersus secular sector +olarization of education bet(een reli)ious and secular areas. #la a !usli theolo)ician and learned an. $eli)ious education sy bol of a ri)id set of historical reli)ious traditions Secular education absorbed .uro+ean ideas and attitudes. Conse9uences of this dichoto y; isolation of the #la a, se+aration of the bureaucracy and )o*ern ent fro the +eo+le, +olarisation of the traditionalists and secularists. SI&A$; A S"#$C. "F 1A% Isla ic Shari=ah H the di*ine (ill re*ealed to the 2ro+het +ertainin) to the conduct of hu an life in this (orld. #sul al,fi9h H the science of deductin) and e-tra+olatin) rules and in4unctions fro their sources in the data of re*elation. Fi9h H body of rules and in4unctions deduced fro the >u=ran total su of le)al decisions and o+inions (ritten by !usli 4urists. Siyar H conduct of the !usli s in their relations (ith the non,belie*ers. (e.).; (ith the 0hi is, the non, !usli sub4ect of a !usli state'. 0efinition of 1a(; Isla ic sense; set of *alue,oriented )uidelines to(ard the di*ine +ur+oses of Allah. Isla ic la( is nor ati*e rather than +rescri+ti*e and is desi)ned for oral education and le)al enforce ent. %estern sense; body of rules and directions acce+ted and a++ro*ed for enforce ent by nations. ..); treaties, le)islation, custo , oral and reli)ious co it ent. C"NC1#SI"N Conte +orary !usli s feel the ur)e to ree-a ine the (orks of fi9h in the li)ht of odern needs and challen)es in confor ity (ith (ith the s+irit and )oals of the Shari=ah. "+inions of 4urists H not la( but 4ust a source of la(. %ith res+ect to international relations, the Isla ic (orks of fi9h and siyar concernin) ?ihad ust be analysed.

Islam as an +thical Tradition of international relations ' Cha+ter K

By !oha ed !u9tedar Khan (su ary by Sarra S.F$I"#I' /his article e-+lores the ethical traditions of Isla in order to e-a ine its +otential as a source that (ould hel+ +reci+itate ethical and +eaceful, as o++osed to +olitical and conflictual, relations bet(een nations, faiths, and cultural )rou+s. %hile usin) +hiloso+hical and ethical cate)ories borro(ed fro the %estern e+iste es, this +a+er in a (ay reintroduces Isla as an ethical tradition. 5i*en the si)nificance that Isla ic senti ents and Isla ic sy bolis ha*e for a billion +eo+le and o*er fifty nation states, this +a+er reco ends the inclusion of Isla ic traditions in discourses (hose concern is the +roliferation of ethical consideration in international and intercultural relations. 3a*in) said that, the +a+er +roceeds to elaborate foundations for an Isla ic ethic of international relations.

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

/he conte +orary resur)ence of isla has focus attention on +olitical and re*olutionary di ensions of Isla in the +ost cold (ar era, as theorists of international relations e-+loit the o++ortunity to de*elo+ the ethnical di ensions of international thou)ht, Isla ic contributions to this +ro4ect are not in the +ro+ortion to its +otential as a source of ethical tradition and an influence of the beha*iour of states in the international arena. States in the international syste can be construed as Isla ic states, not on the basis of their +olitical or)anization but on the reli)ious beliefs on their +o+ulation. Isla +lays a a4or role in deter inin) the +olitical le)iti acy of leadershi+ and +olicies in !usli societies ((hether they are absolute onarchies; !orocco, Saudi ArabiaL'. Accordin) to the author=s o+inion, the conce+t of 7reli)ion8 re9uires a so+histicated treat ent. $eli)ion (as defined in o++osition to the secular in a (ay that +ri*ile)es the secular as for(ard lookin) and liberatin) and under ines the reli)ion as back(ard, traditional and incarceratin). Isla is a *alue syste (hich co*ers co +rehensi*ely the scared and the secular. It is not a *alue that a++lies to the +ersonal and s+iritual s+here of hu an e-istence. Isla clai s to ha*e its o(n fra e(ork that offers +rocedures and +rocesses for de*elo+in) institutions that can cater to the secular s+here. /erry Nardin has elaborate a syste atic study of ethical in*ol*in) both the authority of traditional beliefs in the >ur=an and Sunna and allo(in) sufficient roo for inde+endence 4ud)e ent and reasonin); i.tihad that o++ose ethical ar)u ents such as those of the !u=tazilities and Ash=arites. It is difficult to define Isla as a (ay of life that )i*es eanin) and +ur+ose to life, or as a ci*ilization. Considerin) 7Isla as ethical tradition8 is a useful (ay of understandin) Isla , it is constituted by the Shari=a (the constitution of Isla ' and ethics. the >ur=an is the book in (hich uslu s belie*e (as re*ealed to the +ro+het uha ed, and the sunna is the collection of sayin)s, deeds and sanctions ade by the +ro+het hi self. /3. NA/#$. "F IS1A!IC ./3ICA1 /$A0I/I"N /here are three broad cate)ories of ethical traditions; 0eontolo)ical ethics; +ri*ile)e rules, eans duties and obli)ations. #tilitarian ethics; )i*e +ri acy to ends and conse9uences. Aristotelian; character and oti*e. /here are central debates about authority and li its of hu an a)ency to e-ercise inde+endent reasonin) in inter+retin) reli)ious authority. It is a debat about the role of reason in understandin) Isla ic obli)ations. Challen)in) the !u=tazilites ain ethical thesis that an is the creator of this actions, the ash=arites contended that 5od (as the author of all action and nothin) ha++ened (ithout his consent. /he lar)ely utilitarian inter+retation and a++lication of Isla ic ethical considerations can be seen in the +olitical discourse of conte +orary Isla ic resur)ence. /heir focus is to realize Isla ic la( and social ethics in !usli states. In odern (orld, of nation states, (ith its )lobal interde+endence, se+aration of +olitics and ethics, it (ould be e-tre ely difficult unilaterally ethical in +olitical +ursuits. Also, Isla ic terroris and ilitancy is a res+onse to a (estern hy+ocrisy. IS1A!IC ./3ICS AN0 IN/.$NA/I"NA1 /$A0I/I"NS Schaybany, is the articulator of the theory of international relations. At the ti e of the Arabic do ination of S+ain, !orocco, .)y+t and /urkey. /he sources of Isla ic la( eans that la(, akin) (as not only based on inter+retation of the authoritati*e te-ts, but had beca e a ore co +le- +rocess in*ol*in) an e +irical reality and necessities besides traditionalis .

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

/he ediae*al Isla ic conce+tion of the international arena looks *ery si ilar to the realist, neorealist and neorealiberal *isions of international relations, but there are se*eral differences. For the realists, anarchy i +lies co +lete absence of any central authority. Shaybani=s theory is the only syste atic theory of international relations ad*anced fro an Isla ic +ers+ecti*e te +red by the +olitical conditions and also by the needs of e +ire, for by the ti e Isla (as not 4ust an idea or a +hiloso+hy but an e +ire and a ci*ilization. In the li)ht of the odern de*elo+ ent in international relations, (e do need a odern Isla ic theory of international +olitics. C"NC1#SI"N It is in the analysis of conte +orary international relations that the hiatus bet(een the +roliferation of nor ati*e discourses and the +aucity of e +irical analysis beco es a++arent in the Isla ic scholarshi+. !ost scholar in the international relations treat the treaty of %est+halia as the o ent that arks chan)es in the character of hu an ci*ilization this startin) +oint of international relations as (e kno( it today is )enerally acce+ted. In fact the current syste of nation states and international relations based on the +rinci+al of the state so*erei)nty did not beco e )lobalize until after the +rocess of decolonization (as co +lete. /he author at the end e-+resses that it is ho+efully initiate a +ractice (hich (ill hold !usli states accountable to the +rinci+les of Isla ic ethics to +rotect both !usli s and non !usli s. Criticis and o++osition (ill be the first ste+ to(ard the de*elo+ ent of an Isla ic ethical tradition in the conte +orary international relations.

Islamic +thics in International Society - Cha+ter M

By Sohail 3ash i (su ary by Sene &ADAK' 3ash i=s article obser*es a *ery i +ortant sub4ect (hich is hi)hly debated no(adays. 3e talks about the +lace of Isla ic ethics in international society and tries to refute the (estern a++roach to Isla ic la( and ethics. 3e starts by ar)uin) that %estern and Isla ic ci*ilizations ha*e co on ori)ins and history althou)h their relations are do inated by confrontation. 3e su))ests there is a need to 7disentan)le Isla ic ethics fro edie*al Isla ic la( (shari=ah'8 this +lea runs throu)hout his cha+ter. /his is necessary for %esterners to understand the role of Isla ic ethics in international society. International +olitics focus on ci*ilizations and 3ash i ar)ues that international society consists of ci*ilizations that clash rather than coo+erate. Isla ic ci*ilization is the bi))est threat to international order. But he finds necessary to e +hasize the fact that Isla ic ci*ilization is not a onolithic force6 it is in a state of flu- and the current Isla ic re*i*al is a res+onse to a (orld order sha+ed by the %est. 3ash i=s ain concern and strate)y in brid)in) the )a+ bet(een classical Isla ic le)al tradition and odern international la( is to take the >ur=anic essa)e as a 7 oral code u+on (hich a le)al syste can be constructed8. /he author re inds us that the >ur=an is the source of Isla ic ethics and that its ethical fra e(ork is +resented as of uni*ersal a++licability. /o describe better ho( ethics take +lace in Isla , he talks about t(o a++roaches; ethical ob4ecti*is fa*ored by !utazillites and ethical *oluntaris as ar)ued by Asharites. /he !utazillites re+resent the earliest school of Isla ic 4uris+rudence (here le)al 4ud) ent (as based on reason, na ely ethical ob4ecti*is . Accordin) to this a++roach, re*elation should be su++le ented by reason6 ri)ht and (ron) are inde+endent of 5od=s (ill /hen, there is another a++roach (here le)al inter+retation is based on analo)y. /he 4urist should deduce la( throu)h analo)y (ith cases of the >ur=an. /hese are the Asharites (ho defend that 5od=s +o(er can=t be sub4ect to any ob4ecti*e ethical *alues. For the Asharites, the e +hasis is on the +articular as+ect of >ur=anic re*elation rather than uni*ersalistic. 3u an bein)s could )ain true kno(led)e of ri)ht and (ron) throu)h strict adherence to 5od=s re*ealed (ill.

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

/o enforce the analo)y bet(een the !utazillites and the Asharites, 3ash i talk about the difference bet(een the odernist and funda entalist a++roach. Althou)h they are both based u+on clai s of >ur=anic authenticity, there e-ist si)nificant differences bet(een the . /he odernist a++roach is the rationalist one to Isla ic refor , ar)uin) that >ur=anic essa)es should be seen as a oral code u+on (hich a le)al syste can be constructed. /he funda entalist a++roach on the other hand, is the inter+retation sayin) that the >ur=an ends (ith the confir ation of di*ine la(. /he duty of the !usli co unity is to a++ly this la(. /here is one Isla and there is no other eanin) of Isla 3ash i also analyzes the challen)es that the odern international (orld syste +oses to conte +orary Isla ic thou)ht and ar)ues that the international nor s acce+ted by !usli states ha*e not been addressed in odern Isla ic +olitical thou)ht. 3e also e-a ines such key issues as 4ustice, hu an ri)hts, de ocracy, distributi*e 4ustice, and di*ersity fro the +oint of *ie( of an Isla ic +olitical body. For e-a +le in the field of hu an ri)hts, he +oses the 9uestion; 7is there a conce+tion of hu an ri)hts in Isla @8 and ans(ers that the discri inatory +ro*isions of Sharia are based u+on s+ecific *erses that (ere held by 4urists to be le)al in4unctions. 3e adds that odern !usli s ust return to the full ethical conte-t of the >ur=an in order to deri*e ne( le)al in4unctions. For hi the full ethical conte-t leads us to the +rinci+le of e9uity and reci+rocity. In the do ain of de ocracy, althou)h the %est ar)ues that de ocratic institutions lack in !usli countries, the idea of the author is that !usli societies are influenced by the s+read of de ocracy throu)hout the (orld and or)anizations ado+tin) de ocracy s+read in !usli countries too. 2ointin) to the disillusion ent of !usli intellectuals and leaders (ith %estern +olitical ideals and their disturbin)ly +oor i +le entation and failure in the Isla ic (orld, 3ash i concludes by e +hasizin) the +ositi*e role that reli)ion has +layed in buildin) a 4ust and oral hu an habitat. 3e ar)ues that reli)ion has been the ost unitin) force for hu an bein)s in oral co unity for oti*atin) the to(ards constructi*e beha*ior. Althou)h reli)ion can ake international order difficult6 it can contribute to the e*olution of a uni*ersal, re+resentati*e, 4ust society.

Conflict Resolution in an Islamic Conte,t) Some Conceptual -uestions , Cha+ter G

By !oha ed Abu,Ni er (su ary by 1ouis 0.NIS/&' Since the <EEIs, scholars and +ractitioners ha*e a++lied %estern conflict resolution theories and other inter*ention odels like cultural di*ersity or coe-istence to !iddle .astern countries. /his study seeks to ask so e basic 9uestions re)ardin) conflict resolution in an Isla ic conte-t. /hree ob4ecti*es can be identified in the a++lication of %estern conflict resolution odels; ,/eachin) and e-+ortin) %estern +erce+tions of conflict resolution to !iddle .astern and Isla ic )rou+s, assu in) that they are ore de*elo+ed and effecti*e. ,.-+lorin) alternati*es to learn ho( to control radical )rou+s (ithin the e-istin) conflict ana)e ent fra e(orks of their countries. ,Ac9uirin) ore kno(led)e of the back)round of Isla ic o*e ents, utilizin) it to le)iti ize ne( tools of conflict ana)e ent and settlin) +olitical and reli)ious differences a on) +olitical, social and reli)ious )rou+s. /o i +le ent %estern a++roaches, (e ust first re e ber that Isla ic societies ha*e beliefs, custo s and a history that are the bases of conflict resolution +rocesses. /o study and understand the Isla ic societies= a++roach i +lies that the researcher (ill not i)nore or i +ose his cultural basis. 3e (ill inte)rate social +atterns to the a++ro+riate conce+t and to his e-+erience. %e also ust ackno(led)e that there are so e techni9ues of the %est that cannot be a++lied in the !iddle .ast. As a field of study, conflict resolution is )rounded in a %estern conte-t, and (as sti ulated by ana)e ent techni9ues deri*ed fro the study of or)anizations, the introduction of +roble ,sol*in) (orksho+s, interest,based ne)otiation and ediation, the redirection of reli)ious leaders to 7+eace akin)8, the e er)ence of A0$ (Alternati*e 0is+ute $esolution' and of inter+ersonal dis+ute +ractices.

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

/he ain +rocesses of conflict resolution are conciliation, facilitation, ediation, ne)otiation, arbitration and +roble ,sol*in). !iddle .astern +rocedures are not defined as disci+linary a++roaches but those techni9ues are +racticed as traditional +rocesses, to settle inter+ersonal, co unity and inter,reli)ious dis+utes for hundreds years. Ne)otiation is an inte)ral +art of the indi*idual=s life (souk' but also of the social or)anization (the adi is also a ediator and arbitrator'. /here is no basis for i +le entin) %estern strate)ies in an Isla ic conte-t (ithout ad4ustin) such +rocesses accordin) to local e-+erience. %e can describe three cate)ories of conflict resolution. /he actual a++lication of each of these +rocesses is )enerally different; ,Conflict resolution le*els and +rocesses i +le ented in both cultures. /he assu +tion, +ractices and roles of the third +arty are totally different6 in their definition but also in the as+ects of life concerned, (ider in the %est, in areas like labor and or)anizational ana)e ent or en*iron ental concerns. /he %est has a distincti*e and +rofessional a++roach that does not e-ist in Isla ic societies (here conflict resolution is used only (here traditional nor s le)iti ize such actions. It +oints out that +ractices fro the %est could enrich the +rocess of +rofessionalization and institutionalization of the conflict resolution field in Isla ic societies. ,Basic assu +tions in conflict resolution %estern and !iddle .astern a++roaches to conflict resolution illustrate the so eti es +rofound differences bet(een the t(o cultures. In the %estern conte-t, conflict is nor al, +ositi*e, and can brin) )ro(th and creati*ity, based on coo+erati*e fra e(orks. Any conflict is ana)ed throu)h rational +lannin), (ith le)al for ality and +rocedures, leadin) to a (ritten a)ree ent that is task,oriented. In the !iddle .astern conte-t, conflict is ne)ati*e and dan)erous, and brin)s destruction. 5rou+ affiliation is the ost central identity, in a +rocess in (hich social nor s and hierarchical +rocedures +re*ail o*er le)al for s, characterized by e otion and s+ontaneity, leadin) to a relationshi+,oriented outco e. ,/hird +arty roles /he ain features in the %est of a third +arty are +rofessionalis , i +artiality, a focus on the indi*iduals= interests, needs and ri)hts, confor ity to le)al +rocedures and the ob4ecti*e of achie*in) a fair deal for both +arties. /he distincti*e features in the !iddle .astern conte-t are the a)e of the inter*ener, the +olitical and ilitary +o(er, reli)ious affiliation, the kno(led)e of the custo s and nor s. /he ediator can ha*e a direct or indirect interest in the dis+ute. /his contributes to his credibility, (hich is *ery i +ortant. /he teachin) of conflict resolution in the !iddle .ast ust be +erfor ed by +eo+le (ho kno( the history, social *alues and local nor s of Isla ic societies. /here are *arious obstacles to this i +le entation. %estern fra e(orks assu e a different a++roach to +o(er relations. Stress is +laced ore on co on interests and i +lies a desire to li*e alon)side the other +arty and ana)e interactions +eacefully. /he %estern a++roach is based on ackno(led)in) the le)iti acy or differences in beliefs and interests. It is not co +atible (ith the funda entalist )rou+s (ho see the sel*es as su+re e in their beliefs and (ishes. Such an a++roach to conflict resolution could be re4ected as ha*e been other e-+orted %estern ideas, es+ecially (ithout any ada+tation. %e ust also e-a ine conflict resolution considerin) the reli)ious and historical te-ts such as the >ur=an, Shar=ia and 3adith. Arabi also deal (ith +o(er dis+arity bet(een the +arties in*ol*ed in a conflict. $esearchers should also consider Isla ic society itself. It is i +ortant to distin)uish +rocesses at the inter+ersonal or co unity le*el and those in*ol*in) +olicy akin) and +olitical )rou+s= interactions. "ne of the li itation of scholars is that they ainly focus on the second le*el. /he indi)enous +rocesses could be used to brid)e )a+s on the local le*el but also bet(een !iddle .asterners and %esterners.

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

3a*in) looked at all the obstacles to i +osin) a %estern odel of conflict resolution in the !iddle .ast, (e can see the +ressin) need to first e-a ine the +rinci+les and +rocedures that e-ist (ithin the Isla ic society.

An Islamic model for political conflict resolution) Tah.im /Ar"itration0 ' Cha+ter N
By Ah ad S. !oussalli (su ary by Federica 5A11I'

/he +ractice of arbitration is still (ides+read in !iddle .astern and !usli historically rooted in the +re,Isla ic +eriod.

societies and indeed it is

Concei*ed as an instru ent of dis+ute resolution in a re)ion that continues to be one of the ost troubled s+ots on earth, the !ah+im e er)ed as a chea+ echanis e +loyed a on) tribes to +ut an end to their conflicts. /he arbitrator, (hose ost i +ortant 9ualifyin) erit (as 4ustice, (as +resu ed to be a (ise and fair +erson a++reciated for his or her su+erior oral 9ualities and (ith a (ide kno(led)e of tribal custo s. Arbitration, ho(e*er, (as not a 4ob and this ade it de+endent on +eo+le the sel*es (ho (ere free to decide (hether to recur to it or not in case of dis+ute. %hen Isla finally )ained a central role in the fra e(ork of )o*ern ent, any +ractices related to +re, Isla ic arbitration beca e +art of the Isla ic la( as custo ary la(, +ro*ided that no contradiction (ould rise and althou)h no e-ecuti*e +o(er (as reco)nized to arbitrators, sub ission to their arbitration (as considered as a oral i +erati*e that *ery often led to the e-ecution of arbitral settle ents. !uha ad )ained le)iti acy both as a +olitical leader and a final arbitrator, the latter bein) a role that he started e-ertin) e*en before his +ro+hethood. As dis+osed by the Constitution that both !usli s and non, !usli s si)ned, he (as desi)nated as the chief +olitical ad inistrator and le)al authority that had to be referred to in case of conflicts that could not be handled other(ise. Bein) reco)nized as the +olitical leader by the entire co unity, (hich did not 4ust include !usli s, !uha ad dis+osed that +olitical 4ud)e ents be sub4ect to le)al enforce ent, ho(e*er, (hen it ca e to arbitration on reli)ious affairs, his arbitrations (ere ne*er sub4ect to le)al enforce ent. Non,!usli s (ere allo(ed to choose the ethod of arbitration in their le)al, social and reli)ious affairs, !usli s (ere not. /he 2ro+het=s authority (as therefore restricted (ith re)ard to the reli)ious di ension, but definitely (ide (hen considerin) his +olitical role. !ah+im ho(e*er (as not li ited to econo ic, social, reli)ious and +olitical affairs but it could be a++lied to +ri*ate la( as (ell. !uha ad=s arbitration (as reinforced by (hat 5od re*ealed to hi , (ith re*elation bein) dee ed as the final and di*ine arbitrator. After !uha ad=s death, arbitration did not lose its le)iti acy and it (as transferred to the entire co unity, ummah, (hich (as to confer it to the ne( leader, the cali+h6 a ne( +olitical institution (hich ade !ah+im one of its characteristics. !oreo*er, the co unity also had reli)ious +o(er in the sense that it could inter+ret the di*ine te-t, a +rero)ati*e that (as rooted in the need to unify the different inter+retations of the >ur=an that (ere e*entually leadin) to the s+lit of the ummah. No one in the co unity clai ed to be the inheritor of !uha ad=s +o(er. !e bers of the ummah consulted first (ith the cali+h and then decisions beca e bindin) as soon as they )ot the a++ro*al of the +eo+le throu)h consensus. All the +rocess (as based on arbitration. Arbitration thus continued to be e-erted, but its results (ere far fro bein) un9uestioned to the +oint of creatin) serious frictions. /he ha,ari., co +arable to no(adays funda entalists, for instance, refused arbitration by de andin) the +ure a++lication of the >ur=an. /hey did not acce+t any hu an inter+retation,

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

and their +osition (as dee+ly 9uestioned by those (ho, on the contrary, ar)ued that althou)h the >ur=an (as to be considered the hi)hest arbitrator it did not s+eak for itself and therefore needed a hu an inter+reter. /he arbitrators s+oke for the >ur=an. In the years that follo(ed arbitration ke+t on bein) e-erted thou)h doubts arose on (hether to consider its results as bindin) or not. 1ater on, arbitration beca e ore +oliticized and +ro)ressi*ely started +layin) a less rele*ant role. Arbitration had therefore +ro*en to be effecti*e as lon) as no reli)ious i +lications inter*ened. /he difference bet(een the first Isla ic state and the +eriod that follo(ed the 2ro+het=s death, lay e-actly in !uha ad=s ca+acity to act both as a national arbitrator and as a reli)ious authority. /his ade it +ossible for hi to sol*e dis+utes and arbitrate althou)h his reli)ious authority (as not unani ously acce+ted, (ith the ?e(s bein) +art of the co unity as (ell. /his eans that (hen dealin) (ith conflict resolution in*ol*in) reli)ious )rou+s, the 7di*ine8 ele ent of the conflict ust be taken into account and then deconstructed into its +olitical co +onents. "n this basis arbitration can later (ork as a ethod to sol*e conflicts. No(adays +olitical rule does not re+resent the di*ine (ill because the le)islati*e +o(er is )i*en to the co unity throu)h arbitration. /he ummah is the so*erei)n (hose a++lication of the di*ine (ill is not li ited to an indi*idual or a )rou+=s inter+retation. No indi*idual or )rou+ can clai e-clusi*e ri)hts to inter+retation, )o*ern ent or arbitration e-ce+t by (ay of dele)ation. Arbitration rests on the contractual authority of the +eo+le (ith the )o*ern ent. /he le)iti acy of arbitration could be restored to deal (ith an e*en (ider set of issues both at the internal as (ell as at the international le*el.

Rituals of Reconciliation) Ara"'Islamic Perspecti!es , Cha+ter E

By 5eor)e .. Irani and Nathan C. Funk (su ary by 0iana CAK#1.' Can (e use %estern conflict resolution techni9ues in the !iddle .ast@ /his techni9ue (as usually )reeted (ith distrust in 1ebanon, ?ordan, .)y+t etc. At the sa e ti e the #S odel of conflict resolution is acce+ted +ri arily for facilitation of the +rocess of +eace and situation nor alisation bet(een Israel and its Arab nei)hbours. In the !iddle .ast, still, the +eace +rocess is a su+erficial +heno enon and di+lo atic a)ree ents are linked to ca+itulation or 7+acification8. As a result theoreticians and +ractitioners started focusin) on cultural differences, rituals and reconciliation +rocesses. In +articular, ediators can inte)rate so e +rinci+les and sy bolic +ractices in !iddle .ast reconciliations ethodolo)ies such as sulh (settle ent' and musalaha (reconciliation'. /he basic assu +tion ade by %estern conflict resolution theorists is that conflicts can and should be fully resol*ed. Arab,Isla ic culture is less o+ti istic, sayin) that conflicts ay be intractable. #S,based a++roaches es+ouse that conflict eru+ts either because of different inter+retations re)ardin) data, issues, *alues, interests and relationshi+s or because of unsatisfied hu an needs it eans that there is a +ositi*e and also a ne)ati*e di ension. Non,%estern cultures often consider %estern assu +tions about conflict resolution +ro*ocati*e and they ay find the difficult to acce+t and a++ly to their o(n circu stances. /hey are likely to be sensiti*e to the lack of corres+ondence bet(een the +rinci+les and +ractices +ro oted by %estern conflict resolution +rofessionals and the actual conduct of %estern nation states in the international syste .

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

In conflict resolution, co unication skills are *ery i +ortant. In any conflicts, the art of listenin) is dro(ned out by ar)u ents and the ne*er,endin) stru))le to )et one=s o(n +oint across first. 1istenin) is not e9ui*alent to i)norin), it is +re+arin) to res+ond it is a %estern a++roachO But can (e use it in the !iddle .ast@ In 7heart,to,heart8 con*ersations, for e-a +le in 1ebanon, +eo+le fre9uently interru+t each other (ith e-+ressions of e +athy, of su++ort. It is not a rude interru+tion6 it si +ly eans that +eo+le are *ery e-+ressi*e. In another e-a +le, in so e rural areas of 1ebanon, if you don=t talk, it eans you are dull6 the ore you talk, the ore it is assu ed you kno(. Also, (e ha*e to note another difference bet(een %estern and non,%estern a++roaches. 1ebanese re+resentati*es think that conflict ana)e ent is better than conflict resolution. It is i +ossible to co +letely sol*e conflicts6 the e-istence of conflicts )oes to)ether (ith hu an e-istence. %estern techni9ues in Arab,Isla ic societies are ado+ted by business en, bankers and en)ineers. But still, for ost +eo+le, conflict resolution is handled by the state controlled courts. Another as+ect of cultural difference is the role of )ender in society. For e-a +le, in 1ebanon, the a4ority of social (orkers are (o en. But in conflicts in*ol*in) cou+les, en refuse to deal (ith social (orkers. Also, in the case of di*orce children stay (ith their father. Arab states don=t ha*e indi*iduals (ith ri)hts and duties, they ha*e indi*iduals belon)in) to co unities. In resol*in) conflicts (e ha*e to take in account the to(nsJ*illa)es as+ect. /3. $"1. "F $I/#A1S $ituals, cere onies, custo s are a +art of the culture. /here is a close connection bet(een rituals and co unicati*e beha*iour, es+ecially concernin) efforts to control, reduce and resol*e conflict. /he lar)est contrast bet(een %estern and non,(estern conflict resolution is that the %estern a++roach underscores the +ri acy of individual choices in facilitation of the +rocess, (hilst the traditional Arab,Isla ic +rocess is communally oriented. In %estern ediation, the +ractitioner is a neutral, unaffiliated outsider, but in the Arab,Isla ic a++roach the 7third +arty8 has connections to the a4or dis+utants, as (ell as )ood relations (ith the co unity (a)e, e-+erience, status, leadershi+'. Si ilarly, in %estern life the res+onsibility lies (ith the +artici+ants, but in Arab,Isla ic (orld it is )uaranteed by the co unal leader. /he %estern third +arty relies on )uidelines, e-+erience and le)al te-ts but in Arab,Isla ic situations it is based on sacred te-ts, reli)ious ideals, history and traditions. /he )oals of the %estern +rocess are +ra) atic, tryin) to achie*e a (in,to,(in scenario that (ill delete the +ast and co ence a ne( +a)e in history. In contrast, the Arab,Isla ic +rocess is continuity,oriented6 history is the source of stability, it sha+es the future. Also in the %estern (orld (e sol*e our o(n +roble s, (hilst the Arab,Isla a++roach inte)rates fa ily and co unity in this atter. /he %estern +rocess includes *ery structured +roble resolution (7se+arate the +erson fro the +roble 8' (hich leads to a for al, (ritten a)ree ent. In contrast, the Arab,Isla ic a++roach +rioritizes the issues har ony, solidarity, di)nity and +resti)e. Sulh and musalaha "ne of the ost i +ortant unofficial res+onses to conflict in !iddle .astern societies is sulh and musalaha, (hich are often si +ly called 7 sulh8. Suhl and musalaha has its ori)ins in tribal and *illa)e conte-ts, althou)h not le)iti ated by !iddle .aster states. /oday it is used in so e rural areas of 1ebanon (here state control is not *ery stron). In ?ordan ho(e*er, the ritual of sulh is officially reco)nised. /he +ur+ose of sulh is to end conflict and hostility, so that +arties can conduct a relationshi+ in +eace and a ity. It is a for of le)al contract. In )eneral, there are t(o ty+es of sulh +rocesses; +ublic sulh (treaties bet(een t(o countries to sus+end fi)htin) and to establish +eace for a s+ecific ti e +eriod' and +ri*ate sulh ((hen both the cri e and the )uilty +arty is kno(n and the +ur+ose is to ake sure that re*en)e (ill not take +lace leadin) to another conflict'. /he ost co on condition is to for)et (hat ha++ened and to initiate ne( and friendly relations. /he ediators in this +rocess are called -aha (ho )ain the estee of the co unity. But the sulh ritual is not a zero,su )a eO - 13 -

Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

Conclusions; /he a++lication of %estern style conflict control, reduction and resolution in the !iddle .ast can be effecti*e but (e can ne*er for)et about the i +ortance of traditional ethods and ritualsO

The non'!iolent Crescent) +i*ht Theses on (uslim on!iolent Actions Cha+ter <I
By Chai(at Satha,Anand (>ader !uheideen' (su ary by Charlotte B.NNB"$N' !his chapter suggests that Islam is not the cause of violence but that it in fact contains - ,ithin its / pillars the fundamentals for non-violent actions* -ihad is so eti es considered the si-th +illar of Isla . 5enerally translated as 7holy (ar8, it tends to con4ure u+ i a)es (a on) non,!usli s' of des+erate acts by irrational and fanatical +eo+le (ho (ant to i +ose their (orld,*ie( on others. 3o(e*er, the >ur=an states 7let there be no co +ulsion in reli)ion8. It can be ar)ued that historically, in Arab con9uests, es+ecially in Southeast Asia, Isla see ed to stress continuity rather than conflict (ith +re*ious cultures. /he +ur+ose of -ihad is to +ut an end to structural *iolence. -ihad is the co and of Allah and the traditions of 2ro+het !oha ad that de and continuous +ersonal re,e-a ination in ter s of one=s +otential for achie*in) +eace and oral res+onsibility. -ihad can be differentiated accordin) to the direction (inner and outer' and ethod (*iolent and non,*iolent'. /here is greater -ihad and lesser -ihad* 0reater -ihad is an inner, indi*idual stru))le a)ainst one=s o(n (eaknesses and inner e*il. 1esser -ihad, is fou)ht a)ainst e-ternal ene ies to eli inate e*il (ithin the ummah (co unity'. /he inner and greater .ihad )uides the lesser -ihad in both its ob4ecti*es and conduct. -ihad +laces (ar and *iolence in the oral real , indicatin) that fi)htin) has its li its. /he >ur=an states that6 Fi)ht in the cause of Allah /hose (ho fi)ht you, But do not trans)ress li its6 For Allah lo*eth not trans)ressors. (B;<EI' Fi)htin) in the cause of 5od in Isla is basically synony ous (ith fi)htin) for 4ustice. Accordin) to the >ur=an and the Sunnah (secondary source of Isla ic la( after the >ur=an', the li*es of non, co batants are sacred. In addition, unnecessary destruction of an ene y=s cro+s or +ro+erty is also strictly forbidden. Clearly, odern (arfare (hich includes nuclear and ato ic (ea+ons *iolates these +rinci+les as they kill indiscri inately. Si ilarly, terroris fails to distin)uish a on) its *icti s. /he author +ro+oses that because !usli s cannot use *iolence the (ay it is used in conte +orary society (because it in*ariably in*ol*es indiscri inate killin) of 7innocent8 +eo+le', the co unity ust e-+lore non, *iolent (ays of conductin) -ihad (the stru))le a)ainst in4ustices'. /he author su))ests that this still eans takin) action (albeit non,*iolent' .ihad can be +erfor ed by the heart, the ton)ue or the hand, /he author uses the e-a +le of +rotests sta)ed by !usli s in res+onse to the assacre of ci*ilian !usli s in Southern /hailand in the id,<EGIs. 3e outlines 7Fi*e 2illars of !usli Non*iolent Action8 as the reason for their successful, non,a))ressi*e action. <. /he +rotestors +ossessed the (ill to disobey , (ithout (hich no non*iolent action can be realised. !usli s are (illin) to disobey because for the there is no other authority than Allah, not e*en the state.

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

B. /hese /hai !usli s (ere coura)eous des+ite se*ere re+ression by the state. Because they sub itted to Allah alone, they did not ha*e to fear any ortal. C. !usli disci+line enabled the )atherin), the +rotest arch. !usli s are disci+lined in their e*eryday life6 they +ray fi*e ti es a day. F. /he conce+t of ummah (co unity' is *ery stron) a on) !usli s K. Isla re+eatedly encoura)es action. /he author clai s these +illars corres+ond (ell (ith the sacred Fi*e 2illars of Isla Shahadat a *o( that +roclai s there is no )od but 5od and !uha ad is 3is essen)er Salat 2rayers at s+ecific ti es fi*e ti es a day fro sunrise to sunset, each +receded by +ro+er ablution (the +ractice of usin) ritual (ashin) as one +art of a cere ony to re o*e sin or disease' 2a+ah co +ulsory reli)ious ta- that e*ery !usli has to +ay Sa,m Fastin) in the onth of $a adan e*ery year by abstainin) fro food and drink fro sunrise to sunset (hile +urifyin) both the ton)ue and the heart in the +rocess Ha.. 2il)ri a)e to the holy city of !ecca at least once in a lifeti e if one can afford it A +racticin) !usli should +ossess the +otential for disobedience, disci+line, social concern and action, +atience and (illin)ness to suffer for a cause, and the idea of unity all of (hich a crucial for successful non*iolent action /hus, the ei)ht theses on !usli non,*iolent action are su))ested as a challen)e for !usli s and others (ho seek to reaffir the ori)inal *ision of Isla so that the true eanin) of +eace the absence of both structural as (ell as +ersonal *iolence , can be obtained. <. For Isla , the +roble of *iolence is an inte)ral +art of the Isla ic oral s+here B. :iolence, if any, used by !usli s ust be )o*erned by rules +rescribed in the >ur=an and 3adith C. If *iolence used cannot discri inate bet(een co batants and non,co batants, then it is unacce+table in Isla F. !odern technolo)y of destruction renders discri ination *irtually i +ossible at +resent K. In the odern (orld, !usli s cannot use *iolence M. Isla teaches !usli s to fi)ht for 4ustice (ith the understandin) that hu an li*es, as +arts of 5od=s creation are +ur+osi*e and sacred G. In order to be true to Isla , !usli s ust utilise non,*iolent action as a ne( ode of stru))le N. Isla itself is fertile soil for non,*iolence because of its +otential for disobedience, stron) disci+line, sharin) and social res+onsibility, +erse*erance and self,sacrifice, and the belief in the unity of the !usli co unity and the oneness of ankind.

on!iolence$ +thics and Character 1e!elopment in Islam Cha+ter <<

By Kari 0ou)las Cro( (su ary by Charlotte B.NNB"$N' /he article focuses on ho( there is a need for a ne( tactic in the (ay (e a++roach the i +ortance of reli)ion in conflict resolution and non*iolence. /he Arabic lan)ua)e does not ha*e a s+ecific ter for the notion of 7non*iolence8, ho(e*er the author hi)hli)hts that there are a nu ber of conce+ts that e brace as+ects of the idea of non*iolence. 3e +ro+oses that it is throu)h these conce+ts of ethics and character de*elo+ ent that non,!usli s can )ain a dee+er understandin) of Isla and !usli s the sel*es can )ras+ the conce+t of non*iolence.

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

/oday there are t(o ain trends in the analysis of the rele*ance of reli)ion in non*iolence and conflict resolution6 A+olo)ies are bein) ade for historical e*ents in*ol*in) +articular faiths (hich has lead to )eneralisation and idealisation of co +le-, conte +orary realities !a4or reli)ions selecti*ely take on board the ore fa*ourable as+ects of hi)her uni*ersal *alues, (hilst atte +tin) to e-tract essential attitudes and +ractices su++ortin) current efforts to encoura)e non, *iolence on the )round. /he author +ro+oses that there should be a third a++roach to reli)ion beyond a+olo)ies for or a++eals to the reli)ious +ast. /his ay in turn allo( a dee+er understandin) of Isla re)ardin) notions of inte)rity, intelli)ence and i)norance and in this (ay, to(ard dee+er understandin) of non*iolence in the herita)e of Isla . /here is no s+ecific ter for the notion of 7non*iolence8 in the Arabic lan)ua)e. It is often denoted throu)h e-+ressions such as6 al unf3 7no force8, 7no *iolence8 or 7no,*ehe ence8 sabr3 Ste s fro the root for 7+atience8 and 7fortitude8 Nonetheless, there are conce+ts that e brace as+ects of non*iolence. "ne reason for the lack of the conce+t of non*iolence in !usli teachin)s co es fro unfa iliarity (ith the te-tual and conce+tual bases of the ter . %hat has until no( inhibited a +ro+er )ras+ of Isla ic teachin)s on +eace and conflict is a blind,s+ot a on) non,!usli s concernin) the real nature of Isla ic thou)ht and +ractice. /his is rooted in the e*ents of !edie*al ti es as (ell as i)norance. /oday it is e-as+erated by efforts to de onise Isla as the antithesis to ?udaeo,Christian,3ellenistic cultural *alues (hich ste s fro the threat +osed by !usli 7funda entalis 8 and the e-+loitation of the ter 7terroris 8 by certain )o*ern ents. !isconce+tions of Isla also ste fro the failure of any !usli s to acti*ely +ro ote an intelli)ent +resentation of their o(n tradition in a lan)ua)e and in a anner accessible to the asses and understandable in the conte +orary entality of the (orld. /he author su))ests that the )ro(in) !usli 0ias+ora in .uro+e and North A erica, alon)side the lon)standin) !usli inority co unities in India, China and South .ast Asia ay be the +lace to find a fresh a++roach to +ro otin) an understandin) of Isla . A +o+ularised tradition (hich has a +rofound i +act on the for ation of *alues at all le*els of society is the reli)ious teachin)s (hich centre on the disci+line of the a+hla4 (*irtuous character traits'. /hese ori)inate fro the >ur=an and the hadith (so eti es referred to as hadith-based ethics'. /his states that (ithin a +erson, there is an internal +sycholo)ical dualis not a bodyJ ind dualis . /here is a dichoto y bet(een a +erson=s al a4l (7intelli)ence8 and 7self restraint8' and al-ha,a (7+assion8, 7(hi 8 or 7desire8'. A4l is also o++osed to .ahl (7folly8 or 7i)norance8'. A4l reflects (isdo in the sense of oral self,restraint and har onious conduct in a social co unal conte-t, (hile .ahl si)nifies all that is +er*erse and discordant in the +erson leadin) to inner blindness, conflict and social disorder. In other (ords, the dialectic notion of 7 a4l.ahl5 can be said to be funda ental in leadin) one ulti ately to(ard a hu an +redis+osition to(ard 7non*iolence8 as a +oised s+iritual trait. /he culti*ation of character traits re ains the basis for the indi*idual=s +ersonal en)a)e ent (ith 5od in ser*ice and de*otion, and for lo*in),kindness and charity in the self,sacrificin) ser*ice of one=s fello(s. $ele*ant character traits in Isla include6 Ihsan6 +uttin) the )ood and the beautiful into +ractice Ikhlas6 7+urity of sincerity8 or the internalisation of (orks and faith

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

!a4,a6 75od, indfulness8, as the +erfection of (orks and faith /he abo*e traits sho( that the refine ent and culti*ation of a +erson=s e otional life (as concei*ed to be the a-is balancin) the realisation of hu an +ossibilities both in a social settin) and (ithin the self. /he core of Isla ic ethical +ractice consists of an a al)a of kno(led)e 7the oral transfor ation of the +ersonality8 throu)h a 7+rocess of )roo in)8. 2eter Bro(n, and obser*er of the reci+rocity bet(een Isla and other (orld reli)ions obser*es that the counter balancin) core of Isla ic authority and traditions ste s fro ho( it is 7effecti*ely internalised and +assed onto others8. /he traditional as+ects of Isla then, call for self,restraint and the transfor ation of ani al i +ulses that (ill cease to be heard only (hen *iolence loses its force for 7su++ressin) our internal stirrin)s to transfor our self and our (orld8. /he author (rites that 7the *itality of this tradition has not been e-hausted, des+ite the irascible *ehe ence of the funda entalists (hose an)ry roar fills our ears dro(nin) out the 9uiet hu of the *eritable +ractitioners of Isla 8

on!iolence in Islam) The Alternati!e Community Tradition - Cha+ter <B

By $abia /erri 3arris (su ary Nayla SA!!"#$ SA%A&A' Isla akes no distinction bet(een P church Q and P state Q. /here is scarcely any such entity as an Isla ic church, and an Isla ic state has al(ays been a contro*ersial institution. /3. 2$"23./=S ?I3A0 -ihad eans stru))le or effort, it is traditionally di*ided the 5reater Stru))le, the in(ard effort of confrontin) our lo(er nature and the 1esser Stru))le, the out(ard effort of confrontin) social in4ustice. It includes teachin) and the acti*e +ursuit of a culture of +eace, as (ell as resistance to o++ression. /here is no license in Isla for any (ar that falls outside the bounds of the di*ine co and ents and +ro+hetic +ractice. /3. 1IF. "F /3. 2$"23./ /o understand the +roble s of inter+retin) the Isla ic tradition and a++lyin) this tradition to conte +orary +olitical issues, the life of the 2ro+het ust be considered and the role of the 7lesser stru))le8 a)ainst social in4ustice in it should be e-a ined. /he first task of !uha ad, the !essen)er of Allah, (as to +ersist (ith un(a*erin) endurance in the face of an increasin)ly bitter co unal re+ression. Al-Husayn is kno(n in Isla ic tradition as the 2rince of !artyrs6 he died (illin)ly in +ursuit of the best (ork of faith. /he !assacre of Kerbala horrified the !usli (orld, reli)iously dele)iti ized the early state=s authority, ade irre*ocable the )reat sectarian schis Sunni and Shi=I Isla , and so(ed a seed of conscientious o++osition to +o(er dee+ into the fertile )round of the !usli s+iritual tradition. Al,3alla4 is another artyr. !usli s +ro+onents of non,*iolence are faced (ith a dile a. !usli s kno( that unar ed resistance to o++ression dra(s the eternal blessin) of Allah and anifests a subli e and noble soul. /he 9uestion is, is ar ed resistance a reliable tool for re o*al of o++ression@ IS1A!IC ?#S/ %A$ /3."$& /he 2ro+het has clearly tau)ht !usli s that +o(er is not (hat the e)o takes it to be, and the (innin) is not necessarily a *isible satisfaction. 2o(er and *ictory are (ith 5od alone, and 5od is neither a banner nor an abstraction. %ithout a (ider understandin) of +o(er a on) !usli s that +arallels the 2ro+hetic

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

understandin), o++ressor (ill erely succeed o++ressor and the secret of the 2ro+het=s *ictory (ill re ain a secret. N"N:I"1.NC.; $./#$N /" /3. $.2$.SS.0 Se*eral inter+retations; , #nar ed stru))le has been su+erseded by ar ed stru))le, (hich is no( obli)atory u+on then faithful until Isla is ackno(led)ed e*ery(here. , /he ar ed stru))le is su+erior, but ust (ait, for +ractical reasons, u+on the accu ulation of sufficient ilitary +o(er. , Ar ed stru))le is only a branch, (hich dies if torn fro its root for it is only unar ed stru))le that teaches reliance on 5od. /he assu +tion here is that +o(er, by essence, is non,coerci*e. !usli +ro+onents of non,*iolence can challen)e the (orld +eace co unity to reconsider its funda ental )oal. Is the uni*ersal core of non,*iolence the 9uietis , (hich is a++ro+riate to so e s+iritual traditions, or is it to stru))le for 4ustice in a 4ust fashion (ith the )oal that our current o++onents i)ht )ladly beco e our future allies@

Peace in the Sufi Tradition) An +colo*y of the Spirit Cha+ter <C

By Abdul Said and Nathan C. Funk (su ary by 5ary S.//.' /he Sufi understandin) of +eace is rooted in ta,hid, the +rinci+le of unity that +ro*ides a fertile soil for Isla ic faith and s+irituality. Isla underscores the unity of 5od, the unity of hu anity, and ulti ately the unity of e-istence. If unity is the truth or essence of Isla , hu ans and other creatures a++roach this truth throu)h har ony. /he stren)th of Isla is its ca+acity to reconcile see in) o++osites and har onize di*ersity until the underlyin) unity is +ercei*ed and dishar ony returns to +eace. /A%3I0; AN AFFI$!A/I"N "F %3"1.N.SS The unity of +,istence /he essa)e of +eace and unity e-+ressed in the Sufi tradition a++lies to the inner +erson, to society, and to the cos os. Isla is the +rocess of sub ission to 5od, throu)h (hich the +art the hu an icrocos , beco es reconciled (ith the %hole, (ith the #ni*erse or acrocos . /a(hid then, is a conce+tion (hose reality enters into hu an life at any le*els. Fro a Sufi +ers+ecti*e, ta(hid e-+resses the Isla ic ideal of the funda ental unity of all hu ankind and of all life, and re4ects a *ision of reality rooted in e-clusi*eness. #ni*ersalis and tolerance is the core of Isla . At the heart of this essa)e of uni*ersalis in Isla lies res+ect for cultural +luralis . /he unity of hu ankind is not +re ised on unifor ity. $ather, unity e braces a yriad of cultural differences. Sufis e +hasizes res+ect in inter,reli)ious relations, and conde ns racial and ethnic discri ination. The Practice of Peace /o e-+erience +eace, the seeker ust beco e +assi*e (ith res+ect to the di*ine yet acti*e (ith res+ect to the (orld. 2eace re9uires not only out(ard hu an effort, but also a s+iritual attitude of rece+ti*ity and continual in(ard cleansin). 2urification of the self, re e brance of the di*ine and +ro+er attention to relationshi+s creates a s+ace for the +resence of +eace to anifest. /he essential the e of the >ur=anic re*elation is surrender to and inte)ration in 5od, su))estin) a (orld *ie( +re ised on uni*ersalis and +luralis . Sufis reco)nizes that into-ication (ith odern technolo)y and the nationalist i +erati*es of the - 18 -

Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

nation,state syste ha*e o*erridden traditionalist i +erati*es for cultural di*ersity. /hey also affir the clear +reference in Isla for non,*iolence o*er *iolence, and for)i*eness o*er retribution.

.C"1"5ICA1 3A$!"N&; #23"10IN5 /3. 2A//.$N "F .RIS/.NC.

The Role of the 2uman 3ein* within Creation Sufi +ers+ecti*es on ecolo)y irror their +ers+ecti*es on +eace. /hou)h hu an bein)s +osses a s+ecial di)nity, they are ulti ately at one (ith the rest of creation throu)h surrender to the +resence of the di*ine. All created thin)s are 6uslim, in the sense that they li*e in sub ission to 5od. Both hu an bein)s and other creatures are +art of a sin)le har onious order. %hile hu an bein)s share (ith non,hu an creations the co on condition of sub ission, they are also endo(ed (ith s+ecial +ri*ile)es and res+onsibilities (hich reflect their actual ca+acities. /he .arth and its resources are +laced in the care of hu an bein)s as custodians for their +reser*ation, de*elo+ ent and enhance ent. /he Sufi tradition links the stature and di)nity of the hu an bein) to acce+tance of res+onsibility, self,efface ent, and acti*e +ursuit of kno(led)e. I)norance of the di*ine and failure to li*e in a (ay (hich acti*ates the hi)her faculties of the hu an bein) results in an actual loss of e-istential freedo and stature. A +erson (ho fails to subdue and efface his or her e)o can do far ore har to creation than a +redatory ani al. Ani als (hich act u+on their instincts incur no bla e, but hu an bein)s (ho fail to res+ond to the )race of their Creator (ith )ratitude and ser*ice risk )reat loss to the sel*es and to others. .*entually, hu ans are absolutely free internally6 e-ternally they are li ited in their +o(ers and ri)hts in relation to 5od, nature and fello( hu an. The Sacral 1imension of ature Nature is a irror of 5od6 nature is filled (ith the si)ns of 5od. $e e brance of 5od, and conco itant reco)nition of the +resence of the di*ine in the ecolo)ical har onies of nature, is the surest )uarantee of both hu an (ell,bein) and har ony bet(een hu anity and non,hu an creations. I!21ICA/I"NS "F /3. S#FI "#/1""K Sufi teachin)s su))est that +eace e-ists (ith har onization of the hu an bein). Conte +orary (ars and en*iron ental crises offer a (arnin) that odernization and the celebration of technolo)y are no substitutes for the sustainable and balanced de*elo+ ent of hu an societies and +ersonalities. Isla does not de and the sacrifice of the aterial needs of hu anity for transcendent ai s nor does it sanctify the (orshi+ of the eans of earthly subsistence. Isla does not o++ose the s+iritual to the aterial, but rather underscores the s+iritual as the conte-t of the aterial. .*entually, in the conte +orary (orld, there is a need to rene( the Sufi understandin) of ta,hid (unity'.

4eapons for the 3attle 4ithin Cha+ter <F

By !. $. Ba(a !uhaiyaddeen (su ary by 5ary S.//.' %hat (as )i*en to Isla @ 5od )a*e for al +rayer to Isla as a (ea+on for this (orld and the ne-t. 3e ordained that the fifty ti es of +rayer be ade into fi*e. %e ust use these (ea+ons of +rayer to fi)ht the inner (ar and eli inate the en ity and hatred (ithin oursel*es. %e ust dis+el our base desires, our +re4udices, our reli)ious and racial differences. 2ride, 4ealousy, and all other e*ils ust be fou)ht (ith this (ea+on.

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

In addition to the fi*e,ti e +rayer, 5od ordained fi*e obli)atory duties to the !usli co unity. /he first obli)atory duty is to surrender to Allah (ith absolute faith. /he second duty is to (orshi+ Allah alone, (ithout thinkin) for a o ent that 3e i)ht ha*e any e9ual or +artner. Charity, fastin), and +il)ri a)e (ere three other duties ade obli)atory for those (ho had not fully co +rehended the first t(o duties. Beyond these fi*e outer (ea+ons, Allah has also )i*en si- inner (ea+ons, (hich the Sufis ha*e e-+lained. &ou ay find the in your eye, your nostril, your ear, your ton)ue, and your heart. %e (ho are in Isla ust understand and act in accordance (ith both the inner and outer duties. /hose (ho do not )o*ern +eo+les= hearts, but instead rule o*er the earth, really )o*ern in hell. 2ride is hell, and the attractions of earth, )old, sensual +leasures, and +ossessions are ad*ertise ents that lure us to the se*en hells. /o o*erco e those hells (e ust be)in to )o*ern hearts (ith )ood 9ualities, (ith +rayer, and (ith (orshi+. /he (ars (e are en)a)ed in today are bein) fou)ht for the sake of con9uerin) nations, ca+turin) countries, and killin) and *an9uishin) others. /his is not the kind of (ar that true Isla (a)es. %e ust realize that it is not ri)ht for us to harbour hatred. .n ity cannot be o*erco e (ith en ity. 3ostility cannot be o*erco e by hostility. :en)eance cannot be o*erco e by *en)eance. ?ealousy cannot be o*erco e by 4ealousy. 3atred cannot be o*erco e by hatred. It is our o(n satanic 9ualities that ust be o*erco e (ith inner +atience, content ent, trust in 5od, )i*in) all +raise to 5od. "nce (e understand (hat the true (ea+ons of Isla are, (e (ill ne*er take a life, (e (ill not urder, (e (ill not e*en see any brother se+arate fro oursel*es. But o*er the last hundred years so e +eo+le of Isla and of other reli)ions ha*e chan)ed. Faith has decreased to the +oint (here any say 5od does not e-ist. /he satanic 9ualities of 4ealousy, *en)eance, an)er, sin, and +ride ha*e co e into us. %e ust stren)then our faith and usin) the (ea+ons of the fi*e, ti e +rayer and of +atience, content ent, trust in )od, and +raise of 5od. If e*eryone in the co unity of Isla understand this and tried to establish +eace, tolerance, and +atience, that alone (ould brin) +eace to the (orld. /he (ea+ons of +eace and tran9uillity (ill )rant us *ictory no atter (hat en ity, (hat hostility, threatens us.

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