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Electric Fields
Electric Fields
Review of gravitational fields Electric field vector Electric fields for various charge configurations Field strengths for point charges and uniform fields
uniform field
10 kg 98 N
Earths surface
nonuniform field
Earth
uniform field
+q
F
nonuniform field
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Overview of Fields
Charge, like mass, is an intrinsic property of an object. Charges produce electric fields that affect other charges; masses produce gravitational fields that affect other masses. Gravitational fields lines always point toward an isolated mass. Unlike mass, though, charges can be positive or negative. Electric field lines emanate from positive charges and penetrate into negative charge. We refer to the charge producing a field as a field charge. A group of field charges can produce very nonuniform fields. To determine the strength of the field at a particular point, we place a small, positive test charge in the field. We then measure the electric force on it and divide by the test charge: E = F / q. For an isolated positive field charge, the field lines point away from the field charge (since the force on a positive charge would be away from the field charge). The opposite is true for an isolated negative field charge. No matter how complex the field, the electric force on a test charge is always tangent to the field line at that point. The coming slides will reiterate these ideas and provide examples.
g
E
=
=
W
FE
/
/
m
q
N / kg
N/C
Field strength is given by per unit mass or force per unit charge, depending on the type of field. Field strength means the magnitude of a field vector. Ex #1: If a +10 C charge is placed in an electric field and experiences a 50 N force, the field strength at the location of the charge is 5 N/C. The electric field vector is given by: E = 5 N/C, where the direction of this vector is parallel to the force vector (and the field lines). Ex #2: If a -10 C charge experiences a 50 N force, E = 5 N/C in a direction opposite the force vector (opposite the direction of the field lines).
qE
mg
3. Find the displacement due to each force using the time given and kinematics. 4. Add the displacement vectors to find the net displacement vector.
+
Test charges and force vectors surrounding a field charge
The nearer you get to the charge, the more uniform and stronger the field. Farther away the field strength gets weaker, as indicated by the field lines becoming more spread out.
+1
+2
A B
Here is another view of the field. Since the net force on a charge can only be in one direction, field lines never intersect. Draw the electric force on a positive charge at A, the electric field vector and B, and the electric force on a negative charge at C. The net force on a + charge at D charge is directly to the left. Show why this is the case by drawing force vectors from each field charge and then summing these vectors.
Q1 +
Q2
With two identical field charges, the field is symmetric but all field lines go to infinity (if the charges are positive) or come from infinity (if the charges are negative). As with any field the net force on a test charge is tangent to the field. Here, each field charge repels a positive test charge. The forces are shown as well as the resultant vectors, which are tangent to the field lines.
KQq F= 2 r
This formula only applies to point charges or spherically symmetric charges. Suppose that the force two point charges are exerting on one another is F. What is the force when one charge is tripled, the other is doubled, and the distance is cut in half ? Answer: 24 F
K Qq / r2 KQ F E= = = q q r2
Note that the field strength is independent of the charge placed in it. Suppose a test mass m is placed in the gravitational field produced by a point-like field mass M. From the definition of gravitational field and Newtons law of universal gravitation
GM F G Mm / r2 g= = = 2 m m r
Again, the field strength is independent of the mass place in it.
Uniform Field
Just as near Earths surface the gravitational field is approximately uniform, the electric field near the surface of a charged sphere is approximately uniform. A common way to produce a uniform E field is with a parallel plate capacitor: two flat, metal, parallel plates, one negative, one positive. Aside from some fringing on the edges, the field is nearly uniform inside. This means everywhere inside the capacitor the field has about the same magnitude and direction. Two positive test charges are depicted along with force vectors.
(cont.)
More field lines come from the positive charge than land on the negative. Those that dont land on the negative charge go to infinity. As always, net force on a test charge is the vector sum of the two forces and its tangent to the field. Since the positive charge has greater magnitude, it dominates the negative charge, forcing the turning points of the point to be closer to the negative charge. If you were to zoom out (observe the field from a distance) it would look like that of an isolated, positive point with a charge equal to the net charge of the system.
Review of Induction
Valence electrons of a conductor are mobile. Thus they can respond to an electric force from a charged object. This is called charging by induction. Note: not all of the valence electrons will move from the bottom to the top. The greater the positive charge brought near it, and the nearer it is brought, the more electrons that will migrate toward it. (See animation on next slide.)
+ - + - + - +- +
+ - + - + - +-+
conductor
Review of Induction
(cont.)
+ - + - + - + -+ + + + + +
+ +
Since it is neutral, as many lines land on the conductor as leave it. The number of field lines that go off to infinity is the same as if the + charge were isolated. Viewed from afar, the field would look like that of an isolated, + field charge.
Note that a field drawn without a direction indicated (without arrows) is incorrect. You should be able to draw vector forces on positive or negative charges placed in any field. Also, for complex fields you should be able to describe them as the appear from a distance.
+q
mg
Earths surface
qE
Negatively charged surface
+q
mg
Earths surface
qE
Negatively charged surface
Work-Energy Example
Here the E field is to the right and approximately uniform. The applied force is FA to the left, as is the displacement. The work done by FA is + FA d.
d + + + FA + + q +
qE
Work-Energy Practice
For each situation a charge is displaced by some applied force while in a uniform electric field. Determine the sign of: the work done by the applied force; the work done by the field; and U. 1. q is positive and displaced to the right. 2. q is negative and displaced to the right.
Potential
Gravitational potential is defined to be gravitational potential energy per unit mass. At any given height above Earths surface, the gravitational potential is a constant since U / m = m g h / m = g h. Thus potential is independent of mass. If M > m and theyre at the same height, M has more potential energy than m, but they are at the same potential.
Similarly, electric potential, V, is defined to be electric potential energy per unit charge. At any given distance from a charged surface in a uniform field, the electric potential is a constant since U / q = q E d / q = E d. Thus potential is independent of charge. If Q > q and theyre the same distance from the surface, Q has more potential energy than q, but they are at the same potential. In a uniform field V = E d.
M
h d
E
q
Earths surface
U V= q
The SI unit for electric potential is the volts. Both potential and its unit are notated by the capital letter V. Based on the definition above, a volt is defined as joule per coulomb:
1J 1V= C
Ex: If an object with a 10 C charge is placed at a certain point in an electric field so that its potential energy is 50 J, every coulomb of charge in the object contributes to 5 J of its energy, and its potential is 5 J / C, that is, 5 V.
Equipotential Surfaces
As with gravitational potential energy, the reference point for electric potential energy, and hence potential, is arbitrary. Usually what matters is a change in potential, so we just pick a convenient place to call potential energy zero. The dotted lines on the left represent equipotential surfaces--planes in which masses all have the same potential, regardless of the mass. On the 30 J/kg surface, for example, every kilogram of every mass has 30 J of potential energy. Note that equipotentials are always perpendicular to field lines.
The equipotentials on the right are labeled in volts. Potential decreases with distance from a positively charged surface since a positive charge loses potential energy as it recedes from the surface. Here again the equipotentials are perpendicular to the field lines. On the -45 V surface, every coulomb of charges has -45 J of potential energy. A -2 C charge there has a potential energy of +90 J.
40 J / kg 30 J / kg 20 J / kg 10 J / kg 0 J / kg
Earths surface
side view
steep not steep
top view
Link
Equipotentials are close together where potential energy changes quickly (close to charges).
Capacitors - Overview
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical charge. A charged capacitor is actually neutral overall, but it maintains a charge separation. The charge storing capacity of a capacitor is called its capacitance.
An electric field exists inside a charged capacitor, between the positive and negative charge separation.
A charged capacitor store electrical potential energy.
Capacitors are ubiquitous in electrical devices. Theyre used in power transmission, computer memory, photoflash units in cameras, tuners for radios and TVs, defibrillators, etc.
capacitor
The simplest type of capacitor is a -Q parallel plate capacitor, which consists +Q of two parallel metal plates, each of Area, A area A, separated by a distance d. When one plate is attached via a wire to the + d terminal of a battery, and the other plate is connected to the - terminal, the V battery pulls e-s from the plate wire connected to the - terminal and battery deposits them on the other. As a whole the capacitor remains neutral, but we say it now has a C charge Q, the amount of charge moved from one plate to the other. Without a resistor in the circuit, the capacitor charges very quickly. Thus the current, i, which by definition is in +Q -Q the opposite direction of the flow of e-s, lasts but a short time. As soon as the voltage drop across the capacitor (the i potential difference between its plates) is the same as that of V the battery, V, the charging ceases. The capacitor can remain charged even when disconnected from the battery. Note the symbols used in the circuit diagram to the right.
Capacitance
Capacitance, C, is the capacity to store charge. The amount of charge, Q, stored on given capacitor depends on the potential difference between its plates, V, and its capacitance C. In other words, Q is directly proportional to V, and the constant of proportionality is C:
Q = CV
Ex: A 12 V battery will cause a capacitor to store twice as much charge as a 6 V battery. Also, if capacitor #2 has twice the capacitance of capacitor #1, then #2 will store twice as much charge as #1, provided they are charged by the same battery. C depends on the type of the capacitor. For a parallel plate capacitor, C is proportional to the area, A and inversely proportional to the plate separation, d. C Q
Capacitance: SI Units
The SI unit for capacitance is the farad, named for the famous 19th century scientist Michael Faraday. Its symbol is F. From the defining equation for capacitance, Q = CV, we define a farad:
implies
Q = CV 1 C = (1 F) (1 V)
So, a farad is a coulomb per volt. This means a capacitor with a capacitance of 3 F could store 30 C of charge if connected to a 10 V battery. This is a tremendous amount of charge for a reasonable potential difference. Thus a farad is a large amount of capacitance. Many capacitors have capacitances measured in pF or fF (pico or femtofarads).
m: milli = 10-3, : micro = 10-6, n: nano = 10-9, p: pico = 10-12, f: femto = 10-15
Capacitance Problem
A parallel plate capacitor is fully charged by a 20 V battery, acquiring a charge of 1.62 nC. The area of each plate is 3.5 cm2 and the gap between them is 1.3 mm. What is the capacitance of the capacitor?
1.3 mm
20 V
V = Ed
As argued on the slide entitled Potential, in a uniform field, V = E d. This argument was based on an analogy with gravity and applies only to uniform fields:
gravitational: U = m g h
electric: U = q E d U / q = E d V = E d
Since E is uniform inside a parallel plate capacitor, the voltage drop across it is equal to the magnitude of the electric field times the distance between the plates.
V = E d (formal derivation)
U V= q
(from the definition of potential)
|Wfield | V= q Fd V= q V= E d
(since Wfield = - U )
(since W = F d ) F ) (since E = q
In 1909, Robert Millikan performed an experiment to determine the charge of an electron. The charge to mass ratio of the electron had already been calculated by J. J. Thomson (discoverer of the electron) in 1897. But until Millikans experiment, neither the mass nor the charge was known, only the ratio. By examining the motion of the oil droplets falling between two highly charged plates, he found the charge to be -1.6 10-19 C. The charged plates were similar to that of a parallel plate capacitor.
switch
(cont.)
A drop suspended in midair has no net force on it. This means the downward weight, m g, was negated by an upward electric force, q E. Millikan could vary E by adjusting the potential difference across the plates (V = E d). So, the excess charge on the drop is: q = m g / E = m g d / V. But m needed to be calculated in order to determine q. To find the drops mass, he turned off the electric field by opening the switch and disconnecting the battery. The drop then began to fall, but it quickly reached terminal velocity in the air. The greater the falling speed, the greater the drag force, and by measuring terminal speeds, Millikan could calculate the mass. Continued
qE
mg
switch
(cont.)
At this point Millikan could calculate the charge on a drop. But without knowing the number of excess electrons on the drop, he couldnt determine the charge of an electron. So, he altered the charge on the drop with X-rays (not shown). The X-rays ionized the surrounding air, which, in turn, altered the charge on the drops. The drops were now no longer in equilibrium, so Millikan adjusted the E field until equilibrium was reestablished. Since at equilibrium q = mgd / V, and all quantities on the right side of the equation were known, Millikan could repeat this X-ray procedure numerous times and calculate the many different charges that a drop could attain. He found that the charge on a drop was always a multiple of 1.6 10-19 C. As you know, we now call this amount of charge e, the elementary charge. His experiment showed that charge is quantized, existing in discrete bundles (in this case, electrons) and that the charge on an electron is -1.6 10-19 C.
_ + _ + _
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+ _ +
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+
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The new charges repel themselves and reside only on the surface.
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E=0
inside
small R, strong E
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large R, weak E
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E=0
inside
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+ +
+
+
Credits
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://buphy.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/2e.GIF&imgrefurl=http://physics.bu.edu /~duffy/PY106/Electricfield.html&h=221&w=370&sz=4&tbnid=y0qny4b133kJ:&tbnh=70&tbnw=117&start=3&pre v=/images%3Fq%3Delectric%2Bfield%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D Spark Picture: http://cdcollura.tripod.com/tcspark2.htm electric field lines: http://www.gel.ulaval.ca/~mbusque/elec/main_e.html java, placing and moving test charges and regular charges: http://www.physicslessons.com/exp21b.htm java animation, placing test charges: http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/waves_particles/wavpart3.html http://www.slcc.edu/schools/hum_sci/physics/tutor/2220/e_fields/
http://library.thinkquest.org/10796/ch12/ch12.htm Robert Millikan: http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1923/millikan-bio.html Millikan Oil Drop: http://www.mdclearhills.ab.ca/millikan/experiment.html http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/estatics/u8l4c16.gif http://www.physchem.co.za/Static%20Electricity/Graphics/GRDA0008.gif http://www.eng.uct.ac.za/~victor/electric/charge_opposite_particles.gif