1.

(driving force)

()
()
()
1 () () ()

2. (Conduction Heat Transfer)

qx

= kA dT

(1)

dx

=
=

x W , Btu / hr
(thermal conductivity)
W / m C , Btu / ft.hr F
m2 , ft 2

dT
dx

(temperature gradient)

qx

C / m , F ft

(1) (Fourier rate equation)

1 k (conduct)
(insulator) 2

2
(heat flux,

q"x

qx
= k dT
A
dx

q"x )

(2)

= k T / x
q"y = k T / y
q"z = k T / z
q"x

2.1
()
3 x

2T
y 2

2T
z 2

T
t

= qg = 0

= 0

d 2T
dx 2

=0

2T
x 2

dT
dx

C1

T = C1 x C2

(3)

C1 C2
x

T1

T2

3 x
C1 C2 x = 0
x = L
x = 0 , T ( 0 ) = T1
x = L , T ( L ) = T2

(3)
T1 = C1 (0) C2 = C2
T2 = C1 ( L) C2 = C1L T1

C1

T2 T1
L

qx

kA

dT
dx

dT
dx

C1

qx

kA
(T1 T2 )
L

(4)

() (composite wall)


(.1)
4 1, 2 3 l1 , l2 l3
k1 , k2 k3 1 2 3

l1
I1

T1
I1

l3
I1

l2
I1
T2
I1

T3

k1

k2

I1

k3

I1

I1

I1

T4
I1

4
3
q1 q2 q3 q

k1 A
(T1 T2 )
l1

T1 T2

T2 T3

T3 T4

T1 T4

=
=

k2 A
(T2 T3 )
l2

k3 A
(T3 T4 )
l3

=q

ql1
k1 A
ql2
k2 A
ql3
k3 A
ql1
+ ql2 + ql3
k1 A k2 A k3 A
l
l
l
q[ 1 2 3 ]
k1 A k2 A k3 A
T1 T4
l
l
l
[ 1 2 3 ]
k1 A k2 A k3 A

(5)

l
kA

(thermal resistance)

l
kA

T1 T4
[ R1 R2 R3 ]

(6)

T1 T4
Rt

(7)

Rt R1 R2 R3 Ri

(8)

R1

R2

R3

I1

I1

I1

I1
E

I1
()
R1
T1

R2

R3

I1
I1 T4
I1
()
5 () () I1
I1

(.2)
6
2 T1 T2

A1 , A2

A3

k1 , A1

I1
T1

k2 , A2

I1

I1

T2

I1
k3 , A3

I1
l

I1
R1

I1

T1

R2

T2

I1

I1

I1
R3

I1
6

q1 = k1 A1 (T1 T2 )
l

q2 = k2 A2 (T1 T2 )
q3 =

l
k3 A3
(T1 T2 )
l

q = q1 q2 q3

k1 A1 k2 A2 k3 A3
l l l (T1 T2 )

(9)

1 1
1
(T1 T2 )
R1 R2 R3

(10)

T1 T2
Rt

1
1
1
1

R1 R2 R3

Rt

(11)

(.3)
7

k2

T1

k1

I1

I1

I1

k5

k3

I1

T2

I1

k6

I1

k4

I1
()

I1

 10

R2

R5

I1
R3

R1

I1

R6

I1

I1

R4

I1

I1
()

T1 T2
Rt

Rt

R1

1
1

1
1
1
1
1

R2 R3 R4 R5 R6

(12)

 11

1 1 cm 110 90 C

()
17 W/mC

q
A

=
=

k
T1 T2
L
17W / m C110 90 C
0.01m

= 34,000 W/m2

q
dx
A
x
q
dx
A x1
q
( x x1 )
A

kdT

k dT

T1

k (T T1 )

q
( x x1 )
kA
2
= 110 C (34, 000W / m )(0.005m 0m )
17W / m C
= 100 C

= T1

 12

2 3 m 6 m (k = 1.37 W/mC) 15 cm
(k = 0.04 W/mC)
500 W 38 C 5 C

T2

I1

T1 38 C

I1

I1

T1 T2

38 5 C =
l2

I1

T3 5 C

I1

l
l
q 1 2
k1 A k2 A

0.15m
l2
(500 W)

2
2
(1.37 W / m C)(18 m ) (0.04 W / m C)(18 m )

= 0.043 m

 13

2.2



8

8
r A 2 rl
l =

1 d dT
r

r dr dr

= 0

(13)

d 2T 1 dT

dr 2 r dr

= 0

(14)

T (r ) C1 ln r C2

(15)

 14

C1 C2
( r1 )
( r2 )

T (r1 ) T1
T (r2 ) T2

(15)
T1 C1 ln r1 C2
T2 C1 ln r2 C2
T T
C1 1 2
r
ln 2
r1

C2 T1 C1 ln r1

T (r )

T1 T2 r
ln T1
r
r1
ln 1
r2

(16)

qr

dT
dr

(17)

k (2 rL)

(18)

kA

=
dT
dr

dT
dr
T1 T2 1
r
ln 1 r
r2

qr

2 Lk (T1 T2 )
ln(r2 / r1 )

(19)

Rt

ln(r2 / r1 )
2 Lk

(20)

 15

8

qr

T1 T4
ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) ln(r3 / r4 )

2 k1 L
2 k2 L
2 k3 L

(21)

qr

T1 T4
R1 R2 R3

 16

2.3
10

=

qr

kA

dT
dr

k (4 r 2 )

dT
dr

(22)

qr
qr
4

r2

r1

T2
dr
k (T )dT
T1
r2

k
qr

4 k (T1 T2 )
(1/ r1 ) (1/ r2 )

(23)

( R )
R

1 1 1

4 k r1 r2

(24)

10

 17

3 (k = 17 W/mC) 8 cm 2 cm
(k = 0.035 W/mC) 0.04 cm
130 C 25C

Basis 1

qr

T1 T3
ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 )

2 k1 L
2 k2 L

130 C 25 C
ln(0.12m / 0.08m)
ln(0.2m / 0.12m)

2 (17 W / m C)(1m) 2 (0.035 W / m C)(1m)

45.1 W

T1 T2

qr ln(r2 / r1 )
2 k1 L

T2

qr ln(r2 / r1 )
2 k1L
(45.1W )[ln(0.12m / 0.08m)]
130 C
2 (17 W / m C)(1m)

=
=

T1

129.8 C

 18

3. (Convection Heat Transfer)

2
1. (free convection)
2. (force convection)

(Newtons law of cooling)

qc hc A Ts T f ,

hc

(25)

(average convective heat transfer

coefficient)
(unit thermal conductance)
W / m2 K

 19

Ts
T f ,

=
=
=

m2
K

K

hc hc
1 hc hc

1
hc ( W / m2 K )
,
5-25
,
20-100
,
10-200
,
50-10,000

3,000-100,000

5,000-100,000
4 300 K 1 2 400 K
200 W / m2 K

(25)
qc = hc A Ts T f ,

= 200 2(400-300)
= 40,000 W

 20

11

u(y)




qc
T
"
qc k f
A
y

hc Ts T f ,

(26)

y 0

11
( dT dy y 0 )




k f k f
hc hc 1

12

 21

12

( k ) ( c p )




(25)

Rc

1
hc A

(27)

 22

Ti
T0 13
q

Ti T0
i 3

(28)

i 1

Ti T0
R1 R2 R3

R1 1 h c ,i A

R2 L kA

R3 1 h c ,0 A

13

5 0.1 (k = 0.7 W / m K ) 270 K

40 W / m2 K 330 K
10 W / m2 K
(28)
R1 = 1 h c ,i A

= 1/(40 1) = 0.025

R2 = L kA

= 0.1/(0.7 1) = 0.143 kW

kW

 23

R3 = 1 h c ,0 A

=1/(10 1) = 0.1 kW

330 270
q
=
=224 W m2
A 0.025 0.143 0.10

6
0.87 7 f s
200 F 60 F
140 F

(1)

Tave =
Tave =

Tin Tout
2
60 140
2

Tave = 100 F

(2) 100

= 62.0 Lb3m

Cp =

ft

0.998

Btu
Lbm . F

(3) Re Re =

= 0.000458 Lbm

ft.s
0.364 Btu
hr. ft. F

ub D

1 ft

Lbm ft
62.0 ft 3 7 s 0.870 in 12 in

Lbm
0.000458 ft.s

 24

Re = 68,700
turbulent

(4) Pr Pr =

Cp
k

Lbm 3600 s
Btu
0.998
0.000458

Lbm . F
ft.s hr

Btu
0.364 hr. ft. F

Pr = 4.521
(5) Dittus-Boelter

turbulent
Nu

= 0.023 (Re)0.8

h =

(Pr)0.4

=h D
k

k
0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4
D

Btu
0.364 hr. ft. F
0.023 (68,700)0.8 (4.521)0.4
=

1 ft
0.870 in

12 in

h = 1563.7

Btu
hr. ft 2 . F

(h)
1563.7

Btu
hr. ft 2 . F

25

4. (Radiation Heat Transfer)

4.1 (thermal radiation)
(conduction)
(convection)


Ts Tsur
14

(internal energy)
(emission)

(Ts >
Tsur) (qrad,net)
Ts Tsur

14

(oscillations)

26

(volumetric)
(surface) 15



1 m

15
(a) (b)

1) (spectral distribution)
(monochromatic) 16(a)

2) (directional distribution)
16(b)

27

16
(a) (b)

4.2 (blackbody radiation)

(blackbody)
(a perfect thermal radiation absorber and emitter)
(self-luminuous)




(incident radiation)


97%

(blackbody radiation)

(infrared) 1000 nm
( 400-700 nm 17 )

 28

17
diffuse emitter
diffuse

emissivity

4.3 (Planck distribution)

29
E ,b , T I ,b , T

E ,b

I ,b

b
h

=
=
=
=
=

C1
exp C2 / T 1
5

(29)

(W m-2 m-1)
spectral emissive power
(spectral intensity) W m-2 steradian-1 m-1
(m)

6.6256 10-34 J.s

[ (Planck constant)]

 29

c0

C1

C2

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1.3805 10-23 J K-1 [ (Boltzmann constant)]

2.998 108 m s-1
[ ]
2
2hc0
3.742 108 W.m4 m-2
hc0/k
1.439 104 m.K
(K)

E,b 18 29

1.
2.
3.
50 K 20 m 2000 K
0.2 m

4.
5800 K (visible spectral region)
800 K

 30

18 (E,b)

4.4 (Weins displacement law)

( max max)

max max E / = 0 30 C3 C3 = 2897.8
m.K

maxT C3

(30)

 31

5 ( max max, E,b( max max))

max max
max max 0.5 m (500 nm)
5800 K, 1000 K
2.9 m
( ), 2900 K ( max max = 1
m)

4.5 (Stefan-Boltzmann law)

29
31
(31)

Eb T 4

Eb

=
=
=

(total emissive power)

= 5.670 10-8 W m-2 K-4

(K)

4.6 (band emission)

(fraction of the total blackbody emission, F(), 6)
(blackbody radiation functions, 2): F(1 2) = F(2) F(1)
F(1) T (m.K) 7

32

19 0

33

34

2 ()

20
0 T

 35

7
(a) (total emissive power),
(b) (1) F(1) = 10% ( 21),
(c) (2) F(2 ) = 10% ( 21),
(d) [max, E,b(max)]
2000 K

21 2000 K
(a) (Eb) 31
Eb
=
=(5.670 10-8 W m-2 K-4)(20004 K4)
= 9.072 105 W m-2
(b) 1, T = 2200 m.K F( ) = 0.100888 10%

= 2200/T = 2200/2000 = 1.10 m

(c) 1, F(2 ) = 1 F( 2) = 0.1 F( 2) = 0.9
T = 9000 + (9500 9000)(0.9-0.890029)/(0.903085-0.890029)
= 9382 m.K F( ) = 0.9 or 90%
2
= 9382/T = 9382/2000 = 4.69 m

 36

(d) max
= 2897.8/T = 2897.8/2000 = 1.45 m
1
E,b(max,T)
= I,b(max,T)
I,b(max,T) maxT = 2898 3 2
I,b(max,T)
= 0.722318 10-4 (m.K.sr)-1 T5
= (0.722318 10-4)(5.670 10-8)(20005)
= 1.310 105 W m-2 sr-1 m-1

E,b(max,T)
= (1.310 105 W m-2 sr-1 m-1)
= 4.12 105 W m-2 m-1
8 W m-2 1500 K
0 60 ( 22) 2 4 m

22 8
F( m) = 0.273232 T = 2(1500) = 3000 m.K
F( m) = 0.737818 T = 4(1500) = 6000 m.K
E

=
=

0.75Eb[F( m) - F(0 m)]

0.75T4[F( m) - F(0 m)]

 37

=
=

0.75(5.670 10-8 W m-2 K-4)(15004 K4)(0.737818 0.273232)

105 W m-2

4.7 (various types of surface emission)

23 (a) (b)
emissivity ()

32 emissivity

23
(a) (b)

, T E ,b , T dA
Eb T

(32)

11 (conductor)
(nonconductor) 40
> 40 70
normal emissivity
(n= 0) ( n)
n 24 25

38

24 emissivity ( )

25 emissivity

39

26 emissivity
n 26
1. 0.02
2.
= 0.10
0.50
3. 0.6
4.

40

27 n

2

(pasteurizer sterilizer)


1

Steam Infusion
Contact type
Steam Injection
Heat Exchangers
Tubular
Noncontact type

Plate
Scraped Surface

1
2

1. (Tubular heat exchanger)

(shell and tube heat exchanger)
(spiral heat exchanger)

42

2 2


3

2 2

3 2
3 (triple-tube heat exchanger)
2 4

43

4 3
5
(shell) (tube)
tube sheet

5
(cross flow)
5
(single pass)
6(a) 2 2
(two tube passes) 6(b) 4 2

44

6 1
7

7
2. (Plate heat exchanger)

8 (stainlesssteel) 0.5-1.2
3-6



(turbulent)

45

8
( 5
Pa.s)
(equivalent diameter, Deq) 0.3 cm.






3. (scraped-surface heat exchanger)
2
9 500-700

46