2

Kiril Popovski
Sanja Popovska Vasilevska
Editors


HARMONIZATION OF METHODO-
LOGIES FOR ESTIMATION AND
SUSTAINABLE INCORPORATION
OF BIOMASS AND OTHER RES IN
MUNICIPAL AND NATIONAL
STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT

Proceedings of a Workshop



Skopje, 2010
3








In honour and remembrance
of prof. Kiril Popovski























HARMONIZATION OF METHODOLOGIES
FOR ESTIMATION AND SUSTAINABLE IN-
CORPORATION OF BIOMASS AND OTHER
RES IN MUNICIPAL AND NATIONAL STRA-
TEGIES FOR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
Proceedings of a Workshop
Editors: Prof. Kiril Popovski
Prof. Sanja Popovska Vasilervska
Year of publication: 2010
Publisher: Macedonian Geothermal
Association MAGA
For the publisher: Prof.Dr. Kiril Popovski
Prints: 100
Copyright: All copy rights are kept by the
publisher. Copying of parts of publications
is allowed only with full citing of the source.
NOTE: This publication is not of commercial
character. It shall be distributed free of
charge to the relevant state institutions,
universities, research organizations,
investors and other interested persons.
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 8
INTRODUCTION 10
HARMONISATION OF THE ESTIMATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF BIOMASS
FOR ENERGY, Matthias Dees at al. . 12
THE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF THE BIOMASS IN THE REPUBLIC OF
MACEDONIA WITH A SPECIAL ACCENT ON THE FOREST BIOMASS,
Vlatko Andonovski Ph. D. 24
1. BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN MACEDONIA . 34

CROP RESIDUES IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA AND POTENTIAL TO BE USED
AS ENERGY SOURCE, Prof. d-r Ordan Chukaliev .. 36

ENERGY CROPS IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA,
Prof. Zoran Dimov, Prof. Ordan Chukaliev 52

SUMMARY OF BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN MACEDONIA,
Prof. Slave ARMENSKI .. 58
2. BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN OTHER BALKAN COUNTRIES .. 68
ENERGY FROM BIOMASS IN ALBANIA, Artan Leskoviku 70

POTENTIALS AND UTILISATION OF BIOMASS ENERGY IN BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA, Azrudin HUSIKA ... 76

BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN BULGARIA, Anna Aladjadjiyan, Nikolay
Kakanakov, Aleksandar Zahariev ... 87
BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCES IN CROATIA, J. Domac, V. Segon, T. Savic .. 94

BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN SERBIA,
Dr Branko Glavonjic, Full Professor, Ljiljana Pajovic . 104

POTENTIAL OF WOOD BIOMASS IN SLOVENIA,
MSc Jure Leben, Bojan Pogorevc . 112
3. OTHER RES IN MACEDONIA 118
STATE OF SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATION IN MACEDONIA,
Ass.prof.Sanja Popovska-Vasilevska 120
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN MACEDONIA - First Signs of Recovery -,
Kiril Popovski, Sanja Popovska Vasilevska, Eftim Micevski ........................................... 130
HYDROENERGY IN MACEDONIA,
Dr. Sotir PANOVSKI, Dr. Gordana JANEVSKA . 140
4.
SUSTAINABLE INCORPORATION OF BIOMASS AND OTHER RES
IN MUNICIPAL AND NATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT . 156
POSSIBILITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE INTRODUCTION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES AT THE MUNICIPALY LEVEL, V. Segon, J. Domac .. 158
5.
OPEN REGIONAL FUND IN SOUTH-EAST EUROPE ENERGY
(ORF-E), EXPERIENCE AND OPPORTUNITIES IN WB COUNTRIES 170
OPEN REGIONAL FUND IN SOUTH-EAST EUROPE-ENERGY(ORF-E),
EXPERIENCE AND OPPORTUNITIES IN WB COUNTRIES ... 172

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8



















INTRODUCTORY REMARKS



9

































10


INTRODUCTION

BEE project objective is the harmoni-
sation of biomass resource assessments
with focus on the biomass potential for
energy. Through harmonisation the pro-
ject tries to contribute to improve the con-
sistency, accuracy and reliability of bio-
mass assessments. It will serve as infor-
mation base for the renewable energy
sectors in Europe and its neighbouring
regions and support to the energy policy
development in the European Union. The
project activities included:
(1) the classification of biomass,
(2) assessment of currently applied me-
thodologies,
(3) data quality issues, and
(4) a proposal for a harmonised bio-
mass potential assessment metho-
dology.
One focus was the methodological
harmonisation fostered by ongoing re-
search of a multidisciplinary team of pro-
ject participants, second focus to achieve
a harmonised methodology in this project
was on the opportunities of utilising both
earth observation and terrestrial data for
biomass assessments. The relevant sec-
tors that were investigated on harmonisa-
tion potential were forestry, energy crops,
traditional agriculture and waste.
In order to achieve substantial prog-
ress towards the objective an interdis-
ciplinary partnership has been establi-
shed. The consortium build on its exper-
tise allowed to produce sector-overar-
ching studies. The work in the project was
accompanied by targeted dissemination
of its results to major stakeholders inclu-
ding the international scientific commu-
nity.
Firstly the current status of biomass
resource assessments was assessed. It
comprised of the analysis of policy back-
grounds, presented the results of recently
conducted biomass resource assess-
ments and highlighted information re-
quirements of target groups. Secondly,
applied methodologies and data sources
have been analysed. Based on the ana-
lysis a trial to identify the needs for im-
provement have been identified and prio-
ritised. The third step was the elaboration
of harmonised methodologies for bio-
mass potential estimation with special
emphasis on data harmonisation and im-
proved data access. Case studies at EU
level and for two selected countries have
been implemented in order to illustrate
and validate the harmonised biomass re-
source assessments achieved within this
project. The final evaluation consist of
identifying priorities for further develop-
ment.
The most complicated part of the in-
vestigations has been the identification of
applied methodologies for biomass esti-
mation in EU countries, their quality eva-
luation, type and quality of data collec-
tion, identification of resulting differences,
gaps and estimation of possibilities for
harmonization and improvement of the
quality of final results, which should en-
able an harmonized national and regional
estimation of this energy source.
A comprehensive handbook has
been produced, which shall be dissemi-
nated to all the governments, universities,
scientific institutes and all the stakehol-
ders in EU and candidate countries, wor-
king in the field of biomass production in
general and particularly for the biomass
use as an energy resource.
When WB countries are in question,
project consisted the illustration cases for
Macedonia and Croatia. For Croatia a
more or less good data collection and
possibilities for their elaboration has been
found, enabling application of the most of
methodologies for estimation of the bio-
mass energy resource. However, that is
11
not the case for Macedonia. Incomplete
and not reliable data sources result with
differences in the reported estimations of
biomass energy resource to different in-
ternational agencies, depending on the
authors, i.e. reporters. Taking into ac-
count that similar situation can be iden-
tified in some of the other WB countries
(Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Monte-
negro and Serbia), it was decided to
organize a special workshop, where to
present the results of the BEE project, to
get information about the present ways of
estimation of different biomass energy
resources and to define recommenda-
tions for necessary improvements for ac-
commodation to the EU applied harmo-
nized methodologies.
The case of Macedonia is used, as a
base for determination of the situation in
other WB and EU Balkan countries
(Bulgaria and Slovenia). The presence
and participation of experts from respon-
sible ministries should help to find a
common agreements how to improve it,
i.e. to define elements of a common
strategy for incorporation in the EU sys-
tem of data collection and use of har-
monised methodologies for estimation.
We hope that it can be an initialization of
a set of actions, needed for a smooth
incorporation of these countries in EU.





















12


HARMONISATION OF THE ESTIMATION OF THE
POTENTIAL OF BIOMASS FOR ENERGY
Matthias Dees
1
, Alicia Woynowski
1
; Dirk Lemp
1
, Barbara Koch
1
, Edward Smeets
2
,
Andre Faaij
2
, Jo van Busselen
3
, Katja Gunia
3
, Vadim Goltsev
3
, Marcus Lindner
3
,
Matias Pekkanen
3
, Hans Verkerk
3
, Steffen Fritz
4
, Hannes Bttcher
4
, Pirkko
Vesterinen
5
, Kati Verijonen
5
, Gran Berndes
6
, Stefan Wirsenius
6
, Johan Torn
6
,
Douwe van den Berg
7
, Martijn Vis
7
, Nils Rettenmaier
8
, A. Schorb
8
, A. Susanne
Koeppen
8
, Tetiana Zheliezna
9
, Georgiy Geletukha
9
, Kiril Popovski
10
, Slave Armenski
10
,
Elena Popovska
10
, Sanja P. Vasilevska
10
, Grzegorz Kunikowski
11
, Petro Lakyda
12
,
Sergiy Zibtsev
12
, Davorin Kajba
13
, Velemir Segon
13
, Julije Domac
13
, Uwe Schneider
14
,
Chrystalyn Ivie Ramos
14
, Ioannis Eleftheriadis
15
, Myrsini Christou
15
, Aleksi Lehtonen
16
,
Jukka Mustonen
16
, Perttu Anttila
16

1 University of Freiburg, Department of Remote Sensing and Landscape Information Systems
(FELIS), Tennenbacherstrasse4, 79085 Freiburg, Germany. e-mail: Matthias.Dees@felis.uni-
freiburg.de. Tel.:+49 761 2033697/2033694 Fax:+49 761 203 3701
2 University of Utrecht, Copernicus Institute for Sustainable Development - Utrecht University,
Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands.
3 European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, 80100 Joensuu, Finland.
4 International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Schlossplatz 1, 2361 Laxenburg, Austria.
5 Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O.Box 1603, 40101 Jyvskyl, Finland.
6 Chalmers University of Technology, Physical Resource Theory, Dept. Energy and
Environment, 412 96 Gteborg, Sweden.
7 BTG Consultancy, P.O. Box 835, 7500 AV Enschede, The Netherlands.
8 Institute for Energy and Environmental Research Heidelberg. Wilckensstrasse 3, 69120
Heidelberg, Germany
9 Scientific Engineering Centre Biomass, P.O Box 66, 03067 Kiev, Ukraine.
10 Macedonian Geothermal Association, ul. Dame Gruev br.1-3/16, 1000 Skopje, Macedonia.
11 EC Baltic Renewable Energy Centre, Jagiellonska 55, 03-301 Warzawa, Poland
12 National Agricultural University of Ukraine, 15 Heroiv Oborony str., Kyiv, 03041, Ukraine.
13 Faculty of Forestry University of Zagreb, Svetosimunska 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
14 University of Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.
15 Centre for Renewable Energy Sources, 19th km Marthonos Ave., 190 09 Pikermi, Greece
16 Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, 01301 Vantaa, Finland

SUMMARY

Given the current high rank of the policy objectives for an increase of the use of
renewable energy, a solid knowledge of the potentials of biomass for energy is crucial
both for policy and industry. Since current potential estimates for the same area and
biomass category differ considerably, a harmonisation of such potential estimates is
necessary. Pathways to achieve such harmonisation are described in this paper,
including proposals to harmonise the assessment methodology, to improve data
sources and for an improvement of the characterisation and documentation of studies
with the objective to achieve a higher comparability.
1. Introduction
The need for a harmonisation of the
estimation of potentials of biomass for
energy is based on the observation that
current estimations of these potentials
differ considerably from study to study,
while at the same time the information on
potentials is of high relevance both for
policy and industry in order to make
decisions towards an increase of the use
of bioenergy as one of the major
renewable energy sources. This increase
is of high priority on the agenda of energy
policy in the majority of countries, in order
to achieve energy independence, to
reduce the use of fossil energy and green
house gas emissions, contribute to
climate change mitigation and take into
account the high costs for fossil energy
that are expected to further rise in future.
In almost every country there
already are some stated targets for
increased production of renewable ener-
gies. Within the European Union, after
the transition period of the Directive
2009/28/EC (i.e., by 5 December 2010),
each Member State will have implement-
ed mandatory targets in their national
legislation.
98 Mtoe of biomass was consumed
in the EU in 2007. With that amount,
biomass provided nearly 70% of all re-
newable energy or 5.4% of the total gross
inland energy consumption in 2007
(Connel 2010, Eurostat 2009).
For the EU, the Renewable Energy
Road Map (COM(2006) 848 final) sets
out a long-term vision for renewable ener-
gy sources in the EU. It proposes that the
EU establish a mandatory target of 20%
for renewable energys share of energy
consumption in the EU by 2020, explains
why it is necessary, and lays down a
pathway for mainstreaming renewables
into EU energy policies and markets. It
further proposes a new legislative frame-
work for the promotion and the use of
renewable energy in the European Union.
In doing so, it will provide the business
community with the long term stability it
requires to make rational investment
decisions in the renewable energy sector,
so as to put the European Union on track
towards a cleaner, more secure and
competitive energy future.
Dedicated objectives for an increase
of biomass are formulated by The
European Industrial Bioenergy Initiative
under the Strategic Energy Technology
Plan, which is aiming at an increase of at
least 14% bioenergy in the EU energy
mix by 2020, aiming at the same time to
guarantee greenhouse gas emission
savings of 60% for bio-fuels and bio-
liquids under the sustainability criteria of
the new Renewable Energy Sources
Directive (Connel 2010, EC 2009a). The
impact assessment done for the energy
and climate package and the Biomass
Action Plan estimate that 165-195 Mtoe
of biomass would be needed for the 20%
target (Connel 2010, EC 2008). While the
most recent impact assessment from the
commission side stresses that the
Commission strengthens its position
affirming that between 2020 and 2050 the
availability of land for biomass energy
and of also forest biomass will continue to
increase, because the population in
Europe is projected to decrease, the
consumption of food is saturated, while
the efficiency of agriculture is projected to
increase. (Connel 2010, EC 2010).
Such an envisaged increase from
5,4 % in 2007 to 14% in 2020 are
ambitious targets that require solid
information on sustainable supply of
biomass for energy and thus reliable
potential estimates.
An in-depth analysis of the political
framework and user requirements for
biomass potentials assessments for
energy can be found in the BEE project
report Vesterinen et al. (2010).

2. The BEE Project - Approach to
contribute to a harmonisation of
biomass potential estimations

The objective of the BEE (Biomass
Energy Europe) project is to increase the
accuracy and reliability of biomass re-
14
source assessments for energy. A
common interdisciplinary team (16
partners from 9 European countries, see
www.eu-bee.com) with complementary
thematic and regional experience aims to
achieve this by
Coordinating research and development
of leading research and development
organisations in that field
Analysing studies on currently available
biomass resource assessments,
available methodologies and datasets
the policy background and user
requirements
Formulating the best practises,
including both simple and advanced
methods
Disseminating and promoting project
results and discussion of these in the
research, and with the user and
stakeholder community, in order to
achieve the maximum reception,
acceptance and impact
Actively involving stakeholders, entities
and initiatives responsible for providing
and maintaining basic databases and
resource potential studies
The relevant sectors to be invest-
igated are forestry, energy crops and
residues from traditional agriculture and
waste. The BEE project has been funded
by the European Commission under the
Framework Programme 7 within the
"Energy Thematic Area" and shall
contribute to a "Harmonisation of biomass
resource assessments". The project is
carried out from March 2008 to November
2010.
Each of the thematic BEE work
packages 3 to 7 are focused on a specific
topic and constitute a logical working
sequence:
The first work package of this
sequence, WP3 Status of Biomass
Resource Assessment, covers two major
themes: (i) a comparative analysis of
existing resource assessments at the
global, European, regional, and national
scale, with the aim of analysing the
heterogeneity of the results, methodo-
logies and data sources used and (ii) the
assessment and analysis of the policy
background and the requirements of the
users of the information from resource
assessments. This allowed the identify-
cation of major issues concerning the
harmonisation of resource assessments.
In WP4 Analysis of Biomass
Resource Assessments, the methodo-
logies and datasets that have been used
in major studies identified in WP3 have
been analysed in order to identify
common approaches as well as important
differences. This formed the basis of the
development of a harmonised approach
and harmonisation measures to be
developed in WP5.
In WP5 Harmonisation of Biomass
Resource Assessments, elements of a
harmonised methodology have been
identified based on common methodo-
logical discussions, together with the
identification and specification of data
requirements. A first version of the report
"Harmonisation of biomass resource
assessments" with the two volumes has
been produced: Volume I: Best practices
and methods handbook; and Volume II:
Data sources handbook. This report has
been updated after a period of intensive
review (including the consideration of
most recent R&D results) and based on
the experience of the illustration cases.
In WP6 Illustration Cases, elements
of the harmonised methodology will be
applied in resource assessments of the
Pan-European area with a focus on EU-
27 accompanied with single resource
assessments at the national level,
including case studies in Croatia, Finland,
Macedonia (FYROM) and Ukraine to test
and illustrate the feasibility of the
developed approach.

3. Divergence of potential estimates at
EU and national level

The general biomass definition found
in several EC documents on biofuels or
bioenergy for example in the Directive
2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use
of energy from renewable energy
15
sources (EC 2009b) which is also
taken as a basis for the BEE project.
Here, biomass is defined as the
biodegradable fraction of products, waste
and residues from biological origin from
agriculture (including vegetal and animal
substances), forestry and related
industries including fisheries and
aquaculture, as well as the biodegradable
fraction of industrial and municipal waste.
This general definition, however, only
includes biomass which is actually
entering the economic cycle, i.e. when it
is either used by agriculture, forestry and
related industries or in the case of
industrial and municipal waste occurring
due to economic activities.
For the BEE project, the following
subdivision is used:
(i) woody biomass from forestry,
(ii) woody and herbaceous energy crops
from agriculture (split up in (iia)
dedicated energy crops and (iib)
agricultural residues), and
(iii) organic waste.
When estimating and comparing
potentials commonly the following types
of potentials are usually distinguished
Theoretical potential
Technical potential
Economic potential
Implementation potential.
They are meant as an orientation
and therefore obviously may not cover all
approaches found in the numerous
studies that has been analysed during
this project. Moreover, the concept of a
fifth type of potential the sustainable
implementation potential is introduced.
Technical potential: The technical
potential is the fraction of the theoretical
potential which is available under the
regarded techno-structural framework
conditions within current technological
possibilities (such as harvesting tech-
niques, infrastructure and accessibility,
processing techniques). It also takes into
account spatial confinements due to other
land uses (food, feed and fibre produc-
tion) as well as ecological (e.g. nature
reserves) and possibly other non-
technical constraints. The technical
potential is usually expressed in joule
primary energy, but sometimes also in
secondary energy carriers.
Economic potential: The economic
potential is the share of the technical
potential which meets criteria of economic
profitability within the given framework
conditions. The economic potential
generally refers to secondary bioenergy
carriers, although sometimes primary
bioenergy is also considered.
Implementation potential: The imple-
menttation potential is the fraction of the
economic potential that can be imple-
mentted within a certain time frame and
under concrete socio-political framework
conditions, including economic, institu-
tional and social constraints and policy
incentives. Studies that focus on the
feasibility or the economic, environmental
or social impacts of bioenergy policies are
also included in this type.
The classification in types of bio-
mass potentials helps the reader of
studies to understand what information is
presented. For instance, some biomass
types show high technical potentials while
their economic potential is rather limited
due to the high costs of extraction and
transport. Therefore, it is recommended
that the type of potential is explicitly
mentioned in every biomass resource
assessment. In existing resource assess-
ments, it is often difficult to distinguish
between theoretical and technical
potential and between economic and
implementation potential. The technical
and theoretical potential and the eco-
nomic and implementation potential form
two pairs of potential types. However,
even more important than making this
distinction in four types is the provision of
insight into explicit conditions and
assumptions made in the assessment.
Sustainable implementation poten-
tial: In theory, a fifth type of potential can
be distinguished, which is the sustainable
implementation potential. It is not a
potential on its own but rather the result
of integrating environmental, economic
16
and social sustainability criteria in
biomass resource assessments. This
means that sustainability criteria act like a
filter on the theoretical, technical,
economic and implementation potentials
leading in the end to a sustainable
implementation potential. Depending on
the type of potential, sustainability criteria
can be applied to different extents. For
example, for deriving the technical
potential, mainly environmental cons-
traints and criteria are integrated that
either limit the area available and/or the
yield that can be achieved. Applying
economic constraints and criteria leads to
the economic potential and for the
sustainable implementation potential,
additional environmental, economic and
social criteria may be integrated (see
Figure 1).


Other materials
Forestry policies
Biodiversity policies
Energy policy
Climate change policy
Energy
Food
Conversion process
Wood
(materials)
Population
Economy
Water
Climate
Potential primary bioenergy
Potential secondary bioenergy
GPP / NPP
Soil type
Agricultural
policies
Land
(bioenergy
production)
Yield
(bioenergy
production)
Land
(food and
wood
production)
Yield
(food and
wood
production)
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
policies
GHG emissions and
climate change
Other limitations;
social criteria,
environmental criteira,
institutional barriers,
etc.
Management
TECHNIAL POTENTIAL THEORETICAL POTENTIAL ECONOMIC POTENTIAL
IMPLEMENTATION
POTENTIAL
Other materials
Forestry policies
Biodiversity policies
Energy policy
Climate change policy
Energy
Food
Conversion process
Wood
(materials)
Population
Economy
Water
Climate
Potential primary bioenergy
Potential secondary bioenergy
GPP / NPP
Soil type
Agricultural
policies
Land
(bioenergy
production)
Yield
(bioenergy
production)
Land
(food and
wood
production)
Yield
(food and
wood
production)
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
policies
GHG emissions and
climate change
Other limitations;
social criteria,
environmental criteira,
institutional barriers,
etc.
Management
TECHNIAL POTENTIAL THEORETICAL POTENTIAL ECONOMIC POTENTIAL
IMPLEMENTATION
POTENTIAL

Fig. 1 Illustration of the different biomass potentials

With reference to these basic
definitions, sub-divided along with the
biomass categories
(i) woody biomass from forestry,
(ii) energy crops
(iii) agricultural resides and
(iv) organic waste.
A set of 144 selected key assess-
ments at the global, European, regional,
and national scale have been studied,
with focus on the different specific bio-
mass categories. An extensive overview
was compiled by characterising app-
roach, methodology, geographical cove-
rage, time frame, estimated potential, as
well as the strengths and weaknesses for
each individual assessment. Particular
attention was paid to the type of potential
assessed, differentiating between theo-
retical, technical, economic, implement-
tation, and environmentally sustainable
potential.
Figure 2 and 3 illustrate the diver-
gence of estimates from studies available
for forestry and primary and secondary
forest residues in Germany (Figure 2) and
Finland (Figure 3).

17

Fig. 2 Potential estimates of analysed studies: Forestry & Forestry Residues, National
Level Studies Germany

Fig. 3 Potential estimates of analysed studies: Forestry & Forestry Residues, National
Level Studies Finland

For a comparison at EU level in total
12 studies have been selected. Since
none of the studies covered the same
biomass categories nor exactly all the
EU27 countries, adjustments where
necessary to increase the comparability.
The effects of these adjustments are
shown in Figure 4, which illustrates the
necessity of these adjustments.
While the first issue of the compa-
rison of the studies is already available at
the BEE website (Rettenmaier et al.
2008), the second issue that includes
measures to increase the comparability
will be available within soon and includes
a comprehensive analysis (Rettenmaier
et al. 2010).
In summary, the major reasons
behind the disparities in estimated
potentials that have been identified are:
Ambiguous and inconsistent defini-
tions of concepts of potentials
Lack of consistent and detailed data
on (current) biomass production and
land productivity
Ambiguous and varying methods of
estimating (future) biomass produc-
tion and availability
Ambiguous and varying assumptions
on system-external factors that
influence potentials (such as land
use and biomass production for food
and fibre purposes)
18
Based on the analysis of the results and
the documentation the following reco-
mmendations are derived to achieve a
better comparability of future studies:
- Clear documentation of all data
sources, methods, constraints and
assumptions used
- Inclusion of interim results (area,
cubic meter, tonnes and energy
values) and, when considered, of
several types of potentials
considered in a study
- Explicit and well documented inclu-
sion of results for sub-regions to
enable a comparison with studies
that differ (slightly) in geographic
scope
- Presentation of quantitative results in
tables in addition to visualisations in
figures providing explicit estimate
values

4. Analysis of methodologies & data
sets used

As a next step out of the set of
studies analysed as described above and
further methodologically important studies
(in total over 250 have been considered)
a final set of 28 studies were chosen so
that they, among others, cover the
variability found in the literature with
respect to the type of biomass, the type
of bioenergy potential and the approach
and methodology. Table 1 shows the
categorisation of the approaches and
methodologies that have been
distinguished in the BEE studies.
Three types of approaches can be
distinguished:
Resource-focussed assessments
investtigate the bioenergy resource
base and the competition between
different uses of the resources, i.e. the
focus is on the biomass energy supply
side.
Demand-driven assessments analyse
the competitiveness of biomass-based
energy systems, compared to conven-
tional fossil fuel based energy systems
as well as other renewable energy
systems and nuclear energy, or
estimate the production and use of
biomass required to meet exogenous
targets on climate-neutral energy
supply, i.e. the focus is on the
biomass energy demand side.
Integrated modelling assessments use
integrated assessment models (IAMs),
which are designed to assess policy
options for climate change. IAMs
include mathematical correlations
between the socio-economic drivers of
economic activity and energy use,
which lead to emissions and other
pressure on the environment leading
to environmental changes, in turn
leading to physical impacts on
ecosystems, then socio-economic
impacts and eventually return to cause
changes in the socio-economic
drivers.


19

Fig. 4 Energy crops total (PJ) without adjustments (left), adjusted (right)





20
Table 1 An overview of the combinations of approaches and methodologies that are
used in existing biomass energy assessments to investigate different types of biomass
potentials.
Type of biomass potential General approach General methodology
Theoretical-
technical
Economic-
implementation
Resource-focussed Statistical analysis Yes No
Resource-focussed Spatially explicit analysis Yes No
Demand-driven Cost-supply analysis No
a
Yes
Demand-driven Energy-economics and energy-
system model analysis
No Yes
Integrated
assessment
modelling
Integrated assessment model
analysis
Yes
b
Yes
b

a
Some demand-driven cost-supply analysis start with a statistical analysis or spatially explicit analysis of
technical biomass energy potentials, although this is not the key focus of these studies.
b
Some demand-driven energy-economics and energy-system model analysis use the results of cost-supply
analysis.
c
IAMs typically focus on the economic and/or implementation potential, although IAMs are also used
for the theoretical and/or technical biomass energy potential

The following methodologies have
been identified:
Statistical analysis. The least
complicated studies estimate the
energy potential based on e.g.
information on production areas,
yield or increment per hectare,
based on expert judgement, field
studies or a literate review, in
combination with assumptions.
Spatially explicit analysis. The most
advanced resource-focussed ass-
essments include spatially explicit
data on the availability of land and
forests in combination with calcula-
tions of the yields of energy crops
and forests, based on data on crop
growth models that use spatially
explicit data on climate, soil type and
crop management.
Cost-supply analysis. Cost-supply
analysis start from a bottom up
analysis of the potential, e.g. based
on assumptions on the availability of
land for energy crop production,
including crop yields, or based on
assumptions on the availability of
forestry and forestry residues. The
demand of land and biomass for
other purposes and environmental
and other (social, technical)
limitations are included, ideally by
scenario analysis. The resulting
bioenergy cost-supply curves are
than combined with estimates of the
costs of other energy systems or
policy alternatives, often with specific
attention for policy incentives (e.g.
tax exemptions, carbon credits, and
mandatory blending targets).
Based on this analysis, it was
identified that it is not possible to describe
and recommend one uniform metho-
dology but that a clear description and
recommendation on methods and data
sets per approach and the general
methodology and data availability
situation would contribute considerably to
21
a harmonisation of assessments which
was the next and subsequent step of the
BEE project work.

5. Methods and data handbook

In light of the overall objective, a two
volume handbook has been developed to
promote harmonisation in the develop-
ment of biomass resource assessments.
The first volume, Harmonisation of
Biomass Resource assessments Volume
I: Best Practices and Methods Handbook
(Vis et al. 2010), provides best practice
methods for determination of biomass
resource potentials, and gives guidance
for transparent presentation of results by
providing terms and definitions needed
for the execution and presentation of
biomass resource assessments. The
second volume, Harmonisation of Bio-
mass Resource assessments Volume II:
Data sources handbook (Vesterinen et al.
2010), provides information on data sets
that are needed to conduct a biomass
resource assessment with the metho-
dologies described in Volume I. The
handbook focuses on methods that can
be applied in national and European level
biomass resource assessments. If data
source availability allows it, the methods
can be used at a more local level and
outside Europe as well.
The handbook serves multiple
functions, it:
can be used as a reference work on
the use of terminology in the field of
bioenergy resource assessments.
provides an overview of best
practice methods in the range of
relatively straightforward resource-
focussed biomass assessments to
complex integrated assessments.
presents a detailed overview of
sustainability themes, criteria and
parameters that are relevant for
biomass resource assessments, and
shows how they could be imple-
mented in future biomass resource
assessments.
Methods are provided for four
categories of biomass types: (1) forest
biomass, (2) energy crops, (3) agricultural
residues and (4) organic waste. Further-
more, five types of methods are identified:
statistical methods, spatially explicit
methods, cost-supply methods, energy-
economics and energy system model
methods, and integrated assessments.
For each of the before-mentioned bio-
mass types, the handbook shows how
these methods can be applied. Further-
more, the handbook provides a detailed
overview of sustainability aspects, that
can be implemented in future biomass
assessments.
Each method has its own merits and
costs. The method handbook seeks to
provide guidance to policy makers and
companies that that need to specify their
need for biomass resource assessments.
In parallel it serves scientists and
consultants in providing detailed descrip-
tions of methods and a large selection of
useful data sources for the performance
of biomass resource assessments.
With the methods and data sources
handbook a first contribution towards a
harmonisation of methods, data and
conesquently on results is made. Still, it is
clear that in many aspects further deve-
lopment is necessary, this with focus on
integrating more accurate empirical data,
more constraints and technological
developments.
Since there clearly is no uniform
methodology, it is of high importance in
biomass potential assessments for
energy to clearly document all methods
and data used. Moreover it is of special
importance not only to characterise the
type of potential that is assessed, but to
provide clear information on metho-
dological choices and constraints,
describe the scope of the study and state
which data sets that has been used etc.
Only such clear documentation will
increase the comparability of future
biomass assessments for energy.


22
6. Illustration cases

As a next step, based on the
methodologies specified in the hand
book, potential estimates have been
made based on simple statistical
methods, spatially explicit models and
cost supply models, as well as for EU 27
and in national level illustration cases.
The illustration cases were implemented
successfully and important feedback was
provided for making improvements to the
descriptions of the handbook.
One major problem identified was
data source availability both on single
biomass resources and, specifically,
when preparing estimates for EU 27. It
was observed that many relevant
international data sets are incomplete for
single countries. Obviously the availability
of crucial information differs considerably
from country to country and efforts to
improve this situation on national level
are highly important. The illustration case
reports will soon be available on the BEE
website.

7. Conclusions

Within the methods and data
sources handbook, the BEE projects
offers the opportunity to use and make
reference to the methodologies described
there for future studies. However, further
efforts are necessary to further develop
the methods and to improve data
availability both at national and
international level. Future studies
emphasise documentation standards and
include interim and sub region results.
Moreover, the need for a more
comprehensive and accurate assessment
of the current use of biomass for energy
was identified. The assessment of the
current use by source categories will
contribute to better insight in future
development opportunities since it can be
used to identify the potential to increase
the use of biomass for energy per source
category.

References

1. Connel, D. (2009): Issues Paper for
DG RTD Biomass Availability Work-
shop, Brussels, April 16 2010,
making reference to Eurostat 2009.
2. EC (2010): Impact assessment.
Commission Staff Working Docu-
ment accompanying the Report from
the Commission to the Council and
the European Parliament on sustain-
ability requirements for the use of
solid and gaseous biomass sources
in electricity, heating and cooling,
SEC(2010) 65
3. EC (2008): SEC (2008) 85 Annex to
the Impact assessment accompany-
ing the package of implementation
measures for the EU's objectives on
climate change and renewable
energy for 2020.
4. EC (2009a): A Technology Road-
map. Commission Staff Working
Document accompanying the Com-
munication from the Commission to
the European Parliament, the Coun-
cil, the European Economic and
Social Committee and the Com-
mittee of the Regions on Investing in
the Development of Low Carbon
Technologies (SETPlan), Brussels,
SEC(2009) 1295.
5. EC (2009b). The European Parlia-
ment and the Councile. 2009/28/EC,
Derective on the promotion of the
use of energy from renewable
energy sources and amending and
subsequently replacing Directives
2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.
Brussels, 23 April 2009
6. N. Rettenmaier, A. Schorb, S.
Kppen, G. Berndes, M. Christou, M.
Dees, I. Eleftheriadis, V. Goltsev, G.
Kunikowski, P. Lakyda, A. Lethonen,
M. Lindner, J. Rder, J. Torn, R.
Vasylyshyn, K. Veijonen, P. Vester-
inen, S. Wirsenius, T.A. Zhelyezna,
and S. Zibtsev (2010). Status of Bio-
mass Resource Assessments. Bio-
mass Energy Europe (BEE) Project
Report, FP7 GRANT AGREEMENT
23
N: 213417, University of Freiburg,
Germany &, IFEU Institut fr
Energie- und Umweltforschung,
Germany.
7. N. Rettenmaier, S. Kppen, G.
Berndes, M. Christou, M. Dees, I.
Eleftheriadis, V. Goltsev, G.
Kunikowski, P. Lakyda, A. Lethonen,
M. Lindner, J. Rder, R. Vasylyshyn,
K. Veijonen, P. Vesterinen, S.
Wirsenius, T.A. Zhelyezna and S.
Zibtsev (2008). Status of Biomass
Resource Assessments. Biomass
Energy Europe (BEE) Project
Report, FP7 GRANT AGREEMENT
N: 213417, University of Freiburg,
Germany & IFEU Institut fr Energie-
und Umweltforschung, Germany.
8. Smeets, E. et al. (2010). Methods &
Data Sources for Biomass Resource
Assessments for Energy. Biomass
Energy Europe (BEE) Project
Report, FP7 GRANT AGREEMENT
N: 213417, University of Freiburg,
Germany & Copernicus Institute,
Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
9. Vesterinen, P., Uusi-Penttil, P.,
Flyktman, M., Veijonen, K. and
Batkova, E. (2010). Political
Framework and User Requirements
of Biomass Resource Assessments
for Energy. Biomass Energy Europe
(BEE) Project Report, FP7 GRANT
AGREEMENT N: 213417, Univers-
ity of Freiburg, Germamy & VTT,
Finland.

The reports of the project BEE will be
published on the BEE website towards
the end of 2010 (www.eu-bee.com).












24


THE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF THE BIOMASS
IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA WITH A
SPECIAL ACCENT ON THE FOREST BIOMASS

Vlatko Andonovski Ph. D.
University Ss. Kiril and Metodij, Faculty of Forestry - Skopje

Introduction

Biomass is produced from living
organisms, usually through the
photosynthetic activity of the plants. A
part of the biomass also comes from
animals, insects and microorganisms.
The largest part of the biomass is in a
solid shape, but it can also be found as
fluids. Biomass consists of complex
carbonic polymers, hydrogen, oxygen,
small quantities of nitrogen and inorganic
matters. It often contains traces of
brimstone, too.
Biomass represents a renewable
source of energy as a result of the growth
of new plants and trees which replaces
what has previously been wasted.
Biomass can be used as a solid fuel,
or it can be converted into liquid or gas.
Thus, it can be used in the production of
electric energy, different kind of
chemicals and heating fuels.
There are two types of biomass:
primary and secondary biomass.
Primary biomass predominantly
consists of trees and shrubs in the
forests, as well as the grass, leguminous
plants, oil bearing plants, grained plants,
cane etc. In this category we can also
classify the water plants and algae, as
well as the fertilizers made from animals.
The group of primary biomass also
covers the plants that are grown for the
production of bio-fuels.
The secondary biomass is
represented by any material that is
derived from the primary biomass, but
has undergone significant chemical and
physical transformations. The secondary
biomass includes paper, cardboard,
leather, cotton, hemp, natural rubber,
used cooking oils etc.
The residuals of the production of
substances that are not directly related to
energy are also a significant source of
biomass. The representatives of this
group are the forestry residuals (bran,
bark and branches), the agriculture by-
products (leghorn, fertilizers of animal
origin), by-products in the food production
system (by-products from the production
of canned food) and the organic segment
from the solid municipal waste that can
be further processed into solid, liquid and
gas fuels.
The technical energy potential of the
biomass in Macedonia participates in the
total amount of produced energy in
Republic of Macedonia with approx-
imately 12 % (2006 statistics). The
firewood and charcoal participate with 80
% in the overall quantity of biomass that
is used for energy purposes. The
eventual transformation of the whole
energy potential of the biomass for
production of electric energy would result
in 3,2 % participation, but its real capacity
is much bigger. The types and the
regional prevalence of the biomass
25
sources in Macedonia depend on the
characteristics of each region respect-
ively. The biomass is mostly prevalent in
the agricultural and forest regions of the
country.
It should also be mentioned that the
above stated statistics show the current
situation. The organized production of
firewood for production of electric energy
and the oil-bearing crops for production of
bio-fuels can increase the technical
energy potential of the biomass in the
Republic of Macedonia.





Figure 1.1 Hierarchic structure of the sources of biomass energy




26
Table 2.1 Energy rates of the biomass in Republic of Macedonia
Energy
resource
Theoretical
potential
Participation
in the total
energy
balance
Technical
potential
of the
thermal
energy
Participation
in the total
energy
balance
Technical
potential
for
production
of electric
energy
Participation
in the total
energy
balance
GWh/year % GWh/year % GWh/year %
Forests 8000 21,6 4000 10,8 1000 2,7
Agriculturally
produced
biomass
2000 5,4 287 0,9725 0,19 0,19
Municipal
waste
830 2,24 415 1,12 0,327 0,327
Total 10830 29,24 4702 12,695 3,27 3,217

As it can be seen from the table, the
biomass participates with approximately
12 % in the total energy balance of
Republic of Macedonia. The largest
segment in the total amount is the forest
biomass, i.e. the firewood in the
households. In energy terms for the year
2006, about 2000 Gwh from the total
biomass have been exploited. The action
plan in the First National Communiqu of
Republic of Macedonia from the
Framework Convention for Climate
Change at the United Nations (UNFCC)
recommends construction of heating
systems in small communities based on
biomass and combined heating and
energy production systems (co-
generative) in the small rural
municipalities. These co-generative
installations provide thermal and electric
energy from a single source- biomass. At
the same time, they decrease the
emission of greenhouse gasses, which is
their contribution in the battle against
global climatic change.

FORESTRY AND FOREST BIOMASS

Forest soil occupies 11.596 m of the
territory of Republic of Macedonia
(1159600 xa), and the total forest area is
959259 hectares (statistics from
31.12.2006). The total wood mass is
approximately 74.360.000 m
3
, and the
total annual growth is 1853572 m
3
with an
average annual growth of 2.02 m
3
per
hectare.
With the help of the Forestation
Fund, which was active up to 1990, more
than 140.000 hectares of wasteland were
afforested. That meant an increase of the
forestland for an index of 1,6.
The forests that are state property
occupy 90,14 % of the total forest area,
and the total participation in wood mass
is 92,2%. Forests in private property
occupy 9,86 % (94146 hectares) of the
total forest area, and their participation in
the total wood mass is 7,8 %. The private
forests cover a relatively small territories,
less than 1 hectare, as individual or group
parcels that represent enclaves within the
forest area under state property.
Approximately 8 % of the total area
of forests and forestland are not
commercially arranged.
Forestry in Republic of Macedonia is
a branch of the economy that participates
in the gross domestic product by 0,3-0,5
%. However, if we take into consideration
all the benefits from this branch, the
participation is much higher.
The participation of forestry in the
national economy is mainly materialized
through the Public Enterprise Macedo-
nian Forests that was founded on
December 15, 1997 with an act by the
Macedonian Government. The primary
function of this enterprise is management
of the forests that are state property,
27
which includes exploitation, forestation
and forest protection.
On annual basis this enterprise
provides about 600000 720000 m
3
of
firewood and technical wood, and in the
private forests additional 120.000-
180.000 m are being marked.

Table 3.1 Forest fund in Republic of Macedonia classified by types of trees
Forest fund (in hectares) 31.12.2005 Forests classified by type of
property
(31.12.2006)
State
property
Private
property
Total 955228 959259 854799 104460
Pure plantations of deciduous
trees
555495 560389 486431 73958
Beech 232644 235311 216918 18393
Oak trees (all kinds) 284253 284587 237668 46919
Other types of hard deciduous trees 34224 35971 27867 8104
Poplar 457 480 201 279
Other types of soft deciduous trees 3917 4040 3777 263
Pure plantations of evergreen
trees
83665 87569 76909 10660
Juniper 1419 1466 1427 39
Fir tree 3148 3278 3202 76
Black pine 61795 64971 55755 9216
White pine 10019 10259 8987 1272
Other types of evergreen trees 7284 7595 7538 57

Mixed plantations of deciduous
trees
251006 248439 231338 17101
Beech oak other deciduous 31768 31406 27610 3796
Beech other deciduous 23677 22009 19310 2699
Oak trees other deciduous 168339 169123 161076 8047
Other types of deciduous trees 27222 25901 23342 2559
Mixed stands of evergreen trees 5161 6383 5068 1315
Juniper- fir tree 295 242 242 -
White and black pine 1316 2654 1339 1315
Other types of evergreen trees 3550 3487 3487 -
Mixed stands of deciduous and
evergreen trees
59901 56479 55053 1426
Beech- juniper- fir tree 10682 10693 10693 -
Black and white pine + other
evergreen trees
2656 2787 2768 19
Other types of deciduous and
evergreen trees
46563 42999 41592 1407



28
Table 3.2 Basic indicators of the forestry in Republic of Macedonia
Forest use in 1000
3
Artificial forestation in hectares
year total deciduous evergreen total deciduous evergreen
1979 842 785 57 10284 370 9914
1980 833 775 58 9527 318 9209
1981 873 815 58 8355 285 8070
1982 954 893 61 11323 462 10866
1983 937 880 57 9733 706 9032
1984 1086 1034 52 7354 256 7098
1985 1080 1021 59 7489 426 7063
1986 1088 1016 72 5588 188 5400
1987 1125 1063 62 6917 451 6466
1988 1092 1040 52 4872 632 4240
1989 1109 1048 61 5414 406 5008
1990 999 962 37 3949 366 3583
1991 1023 975 48 3368 269 3099
1992 1064 993 71 3735 322 3413
1993 1094 1037 57 3158 341 2817
1994 1063 977 86 3881 415 3446
1995 960 896 64 2924 431 2493
1996 1118 1012 106 2908 424 2484
1997 1000 947 53 3025 157 2868
1998 897 840 57 2021 213 1808
1999 953 905 48 3072 148 2924
2000 1148 923 225 2370 229 2141
2001 792 644 148 1879 252 1627
2002 810 755 55 1979 444 1535
2003 930 881 49 2879 845 2034
2004 845 775 70 1978 482 1496
2005 821 740 81 2063 568 1495
2006 901 821 80 2106 549 1557

29

Figure 3.1: Forest use in the Republic of Macedonia

Table 3.3 Forest categories in Republic of Macedonia

Forest categories (Statistics from 31.12.2004)
Form of growth
High stands 262790 hectares with 46958000 m
3

timber volume
Low stands 643210 hectares with 27375000 m
3

timber volume
Structure
Deciduous 825370 hectares
Conifers 39860 hectares
Mixed 40770 hectares
Purpose
Economy 834347 hectares
Protection 17617 hectares
National parks and other forests
for other purposes
54036 hectares

Table 3.4 Growth and exploitation balance of the wood mass
Growth Forest categories by the form of
growth (31.12.2004 statistics) m
3
m
3
/hectare
High stands 906141 3,45
Uneven age 690977 4,14
Even age 215164 2,24
Low stands 888475 1,59
Others 34415 0,40
Bushes 31370 0,40
Macchia 648 0,40
Shrubs 2397 0,39
Total 1829030 2,02

30
Table 3.5 Woodcutting of forests in the Republic of Macedonia
In 1000 m
3

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
State property forests 657 764 724 682 821
Private property forests 153 166 121 139 80
Technical wood 133 142 141 158 162
Fire wood 602 709 642 600 662
Waste wood 75 79 62 63 77
Total timber volume 810 930 845 821 901

Taking into consideration the fact
that 65 % of the forests are low stands
categorized by the form of growth, which
dont have much technical timber volume,
it is logical that they are used for the
production of fire wood. We also have to
bear in mind the fact that wood is still the
most exploited raw material as an energy
provider, and this implicates the necessity
for production of this raw material in the
Republic of Macedonia.
From the total amount of forest
products, the fire wood participates with
70 to 75 %, but we cannot consider this
piece of information very accurate,
because a large proportion of the
population provides their fire wood from
illegal woodcuttings that cannot be
registered.
If the institutions in charge introduce
an overall protection from illegal
woodcuttings, and if the prescribed
growth measures come into force, there
is a possibility for an increase in the
production of fire wood by an index of 10
to 15 % from the total quantity of cut fire
wood, which actually represents the real
needs for fire wood on the market.
There hasnt been a research about
the needs for fire wood on the market.
The planned annual quantity of wood
that can be cut in the Republic of
Macedonia is approximately 1.300.000
m
3,
and 70 % of this quantity (or about
900.000 m
3
is used. Some of the reasons
for not exploiting the whole amount of the
planned annual quantity of wood that can
be cut are the terrain configuration, the
inaccessibility of woods due to lack of
roads and paths, the low quality technical
equipment etc.
Having in mind the above mentioned
forest features (structure and form of
growth), we dont see a possibility for any
significant increase in the woodcutting
mass in the near future.
As far as forestation is concerned, it
should be mentioned that in 2008, a total
number of 8 million trees were planted on
a total area of 4100 hectares, and in 2009
a total number of 20 million trees were
planted. This should increase the
afforested area in the country, and in
future it will mean an increase of the
wood mass, i.e. the total forest biomass.
From the entire timber cut, which is a
total of 900.000 m, 750.000 m are used
as firewood for the heating needs of the
households, and the rest is for the wood-
processing industry. Additional 150.000
m of the wood waste from the forestry
and the wood-processing industry, which
are equal to 100.000 tones of wood
waste (its density being 650 kg/m), are
produced during the process of wood
classification and wood processing. Thus,
it is possible to increase the energy
segment of the biomass through:
- Increase of the firewood
consumption for household heating
- Utilization of the produced wood
waste, which remains unexploited for
the time being.
The forest biomass that is derived
from the woodcuttings and the line
spacing, as well as the waste left after the
woodcutting, can also be used as heating
energy sources.
31
In the table below, there is a preview of
the wood mass, as well as the energy
rates of the wood waste from the
woodcutting.

Table 3.6 Energy rates of the wood waste from the woodcuttings in the forests in
Republic of Macedonia
Thin
branches
Branches Bark Bole Logs Total
Annual
production of
wood mass
m
3
/
year
16356 40886 9810 2459 12265 81776
Deciduous m
3
/
year
15574 38547 8770 2198 11483 76572
Conifers m
3
/
year
782 2339 1040 261 782 5204
Energy
potential
GWh/
year
48,7 121,74 29,21 7,32 36,52 243,49
Technically
feasible
production
m
3
/
year
14020 36700 8810 2200 11010 72740
Technically
feasible
energy
potential
GWh/
year
41,75 109,3 26,23 6,55 32,8 216,63

CONCLUSION

There is a possibility (with the
implementation of different technologies)
to use the available forest biomass in
Republic of Macedonia for production of
electric energy and/or internal energy
(heating), or it can be processed into
commercially suitable forms of energy
(pellets, briquettes and charcoal).
Having in mind the fact that the
largest segment of the forest biomass in
Republic of Macedonia is firewood in the
households, a possible increase of
firewood mass for 10 to 15 % is
anticipated by 2020.
The Strategy for Sustainable
Development of the Forestry in Republic
of Macedonia that was enacted in 2007
projects an increase of the overall wood
mass in the next 20 years, as well as
improvements in the quality of the forests
and the wood itself. In the segment of the
general measures that refer to biomass,
the strategy has the following predictions:
- Promotion and implementation of
acceptable energy technologies
based on wood biomass;
- Analysis of the national wood
balance, particularly in the part of the
wood used as fuel in the overall
production.
In relation to the exploitation of the
wood biomass, a particular attention
needs to be paid to the utilization of the
residuals left after the woodcuttings in the
forests (wood waste) the quantity of
which is about 80.000m, and the
technical energy potential is
approximately 200 Gwh/year.
There is a necessity for stimulation
of the production of pellets and
briquettes, as well as introducing
standards about this kind of production.
For the time being, in the Republic of
32
Macedonia there are individual initiatives
and experimental installations for
production of pellets and briquettes from
the forest and agriculture biomass, but
this will not mean any significant change
in the energy balance by the year of
2020.
The extent to which the biomass
energy potential will be used in Republic
of Macedonia depends not only on the
energy politics in the state, but also on
the ability and the readiness of the
different consumers, investors,
producers, research institutions, the
sectors of forestry, agriculture and
finance, and the capacity of all the above
mentioned to participate effectively in the
sustainable use of biomass.

References:

1. Strategy for sustainable develop-
ment of forestry in Republic of
Macedonia, 2007, Ministry of agri-
culture, forestry and water
management.
2. Statistic yearbook of Republic of
Macedonia 2007, State Statistics
Bureau
3. PHARE Program Investment
possibilities in the energy sector in
Republic of Macedonia, 2003,
Technical report: The utilization of
renewable sources of energy and
energy saving.
4. EC FP7 Project: Biomass Energy
Europe-BEE
5. EC FP7 Project: Classification of
European Biomass Potential for
bioenergy using terrestrial and earth
observations-CEUBIOM
6. International Energy Agency-IEA
Statistics: Renewables and Waste in
the Republic of Macedonia, in 2005
7. Analysis of the energy consumption
in Republic of Macedonia and its
importance for the balance in the
payments and inflation, 2006,
National Bank of Republic of
Macedonia
8. US Energy Information Administra-
tion, Biomass Energy Consumption
9. Public Enterprise Macedonian
Forests











33

















34












1. BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE
IN MACEDONIA


35

































36


CROP RESIDUES IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA AND
POTENTIAL TO BE USED AS ENERGY SOURCE
Prof. d-r Ordan Chukaliev
ss Kiril & Metodij University Faculty of Agriculture, Skopje

SUMMARY
Agricultural activities in Republic of Macedonia are taking part on almost of its
territory. During these activities significant amount of crop residues are produced.
Major source of crop residues is cereal straw with about 669 000 t. The biggest
concentration of straw production is in communities of Bitola (13,51%), Kumanovo
(8,56%), Cheshinovo-Obleshevo (5,59%), Dolneni 3,88% and Kochani (3,58%). Straw
is traditionally used as litter and fodder in animal sector. Anyhow certain amount of
straw is not used and it can be valuable source of energy. Estimated surplus of cereal
straw is about 160 000 t.
Pruning residues are second important source of biomass for use as energy
source. The grape pruning residues are estimated to 128 000 t and almost 30% of it
are located in Kavadarci area. Fruit pruning residues are estimated to about 28 000 t
with high concentration in Resen area with about 18% of total production
The biomass available for energy purposes is estimated on 316 000 t.
The biomass with lower quality (suitable for gasification) is produced in other
crop production sectors, and significant amounts are coming from greenhouse
production, with estimation of 40 t of residues per hectare.
The use of biomass from crop residues in energy sector almost does not exist in
the country and there is need to promote these activities, especially in areas where big
concentration appears. The use of biomass as energy source will promote sustainable
rural development in the country.
Introduction
The current trend of decision makers
(especially in EU) is actively encouraging
the use of renewable energy sources to
reduce dependence on finite reserves of
the fossil fuels oil, coal and natural gas.
The main sources of renewable energy
are wind, solar, hydro and tidal power,
geothermal energy (naturally generated
underground heat), and biomass.
Biomass comprises all the living
matter present on earth. The biomass re-
sources are the organic matters in which
the solar energy is stored in chemical
bonds. The biomass energy can be from
various sources (agriculture, forestry,
algae etc), but finally it is transformed
solar energy in process of photosynthesis
that is taking part in green cell. In present
it is the most efficient way of transforming
and storing the solar energy. Biomass
has always been a important source of
energy for mankind from ancient times.
The importance of biomass as energy
source decreases with intensive use of
fossil fuels. Biomass is a carbon neutral
resource in its life cycle. Renewable
37
biomass is being considered as an
important energy resource all over the
world. Due to this and fact that fossil fuels
are finite resource biomass is again in
focus as very important energy resource.
Biomass can be converted into high
quality fuels, such as biodiesel from
vegetable oils, bioethanol - a petrol sub-
stitute from starchy and sugary crops, or
biogas. These fuels can substitute di-
rectly for fossil fuels in transport, or heat
and power generation, so biomass offers
rapid opportunities to influence energy
markets without fundamental changes in
technology and infrastructure. Alternati-
vely, biomass can be burned in its raw
state to run power stations, or heating
systems.
Biomass usage as a source of
energy is of interest due to the following
benefits:
Biomass is a renewable, potentially
sustainable and relatively environmentally
friendly source of energy.
A huge array of diverse materials is
available from the biomass giving the
user many new structural features to
exploit.
Increased use of biomass would
extend the lifetime of diminishing crude
oil supplies.
Biomass fuels have negligible sulfur
content and, therefore, do not contribute
to sulfur dioxide emissions that cause
acid rain.
The combustion of biomass
produces less ash than coal combustion
and the ash produced can be used as a
soil additive on farms, etc.
The combustion of agricultural and
forestry residues and municipal solid
wastes for energy production is an
effective use of waste products
Biomass is a domestic resource
which is not subject to world price fluc-
tuations or the supply uncertainties as of
imported fuels.
Biomass provides a clean, renewab-
le energy source that could improve our
environment, economy and energy secu-
rities.
Biomass usage could be a way to
prevent more CO
2
production in the
atmosphere as it does not increase the
atmospheric CO
2
level.
The use of crop residues as energy
source in Republic of Macedonia almost
not exists. There is various causes for
such situation. There is conflict if crop
residues should be used as energy
source or to be used for other purposes
(litter, fodder, soil improvement). Here is
presented production of crop residues
that can be used as energy source.
Crop residues production in Republic
of Macedonia
Use of Agricultural land in Republic
of Macedonia shows that out of 1,25
milions of hectars, less than a half is
cultivated 585 500 ha. Majority of this
cultivated land is used for growing of
annual crops and only about 43 000 ha
are used for orchards and vineyards.
(Table 1).
Cropping pattern in Republic of
Macedonia shows that most important
crops are cereals with almost 206 000 ha
(table 2).
In the process of crop cultivation
there is remains that are valuable bio-
mass. Cereal straw is used for various
purposes such as animal feeding and
animal bedding. Corn stubble is partially
used as animal fodder. Residues from
industrial crops are left on the field and
not utilised at all, as well as remain from
vegetable production. Pruning residues
from orchards and vineyards is almost not
utilised. Usually there is certain amount of
remains that are treated in an
uncontrolled manner, either burnt in
open-air fires or disposed of to decay. In
both cases, they give rise to significant
environmental impacts while at the same
time useful resources are wasted in the
expense of imported fuels.

38
Table1 Use of Agricultural land in Rep. of Macedonia average 1997-2007 in '000 ha
Total Culti-
vated
Land
Arable
Land
and
Gar-
dens
Orchards Vine-
yards
Meadows Pastu-
res
Ponds,
reed beds
and fish
ponds
1250,6 585,5 486,9 15,7 27,0 55,9 663,7 1,4
Source: Field crops, orchards and vineyards, 2007, State statistical Office
Table 2 Use of Arable land and gardens in Republic of Macedonia average 1997-2007
in '000 ha
Total Sown
area
Cereals Industrial
crops
Vegetable Fodder crops Fallow and not
cultivated
486,9 326,7 205,8 31,0 55,3 36,3 148,3
Source: Field crops, orchards and vineyards, 2007, State statistical Office
Agricultural residues have been
considered in three categories:
Annual crop residues that remain in
the field after the crops are harvested.
The main annual crops in Macedonia are
cereals, maize, rice, tobacco, vegetables
Residues that remain in the field
after pruning of perennials. In Macedonia
important are fruit trees and vine grapes.
Agro-industrial residues that remain
after processing of agricultural products.

Production of Cereal Straw in Republic
of Macedonia
According the cropping pattern in the
country the most important residue from
agricultural production is cereal strow.
Production of cereals in Republic of Ma-
cedonia is most important sector and it is
supported by the state trough the sub-
sidies system. It is important to calculate
amount of cereal straw that is considered
as by product of cereal production in
order to assess possibilities to use cereal
straw as energy source.
It is clear that most important cereal
is winter wheat, followed by barley and
maize. Unfortunately average yield of
cereals in the country is very low due to
various reasons (rainfeed agriculture is
associated with negative impact of
drought, low efficiency in use of existing
irrigation schemes, old and low efficient
mechanization, old agricultural practices,
etc.) Yield results are shown in table 4.
Table 3
Area Sown by Cereals in Republic of Macedonia average 2000-2005 in ha
wheat rye barley oats corn rice total
109455 4832 48733 2399 34.462 2628 202508

Table 4. Yield of Cereals in Republic of Macedonia , average 2000-2005 in kg/ha
wheat rye barley oats corn rice
2671 1773 2427 1349 3996 4908

39
Conversion of crop yield in yield of
straw is very tricky because depend on
various factors (variety, agro-ecological
condition, height of harvest, fertilization,
irrigation etc.). There are several reliable
sources about conversion of grain to
straw yield. So, Engel R., Long F.,
Carlson G., Wallander R. (2005)
Estimating Straw Production of Spring
and Winter Wheat, Fertilizers Facts, No
33, Montana Extension Service,
Bozeman state that conversion factor for
spring wheat is 1,33 and for winter wheat
is 1,64.
One of the most used sources for
energy crops is James A. Duke. 1983.
Handbook of Energy Crops (unpubli-
shed). The following conversion factors
are given in this handbook.
Rice 2
wheat is 1.23
barley is 1.45
oats is 1.16
rye is 0.70
Corn 0,55-1.20
other cereals are 1.10
The most approximate data is given
for corn, due to huge variety of hybrids
with various vegetation periods and
various vigority.
Further, there is models for estima-
ting of straw production, based on yield
data. One of the most suitable models for
Macedonia should be the modelthat was
used in EU, presented in Edwards
R.A.H., Suri M., Huld M.A., Dallemand
J.F., (2005) GIS-Based Assessment of
Cereals Straw Energy Resource in the
European Union, Proceedings of the 14th
European Biomass Conference and Exhi-
bition Biomass for Energy, Industry and
Climate protection, 17-21 October 2005,
Paris. This model is presented for winter
wheat and barley.
We update this model with results for
Macedonia and derive that grain:straw
yield ratio for winter wheat grown in our
regions is 1,21. This number is very close
with other sources, and this factor will be
used in further calculation.
The model derives very similar
conversion factor for barley that fits in low
yield, high straw ratio end of the curve.
This factor for Macedonia is 1,20.
This model for Macedonia gives
grain straw ratio from 1,06 to 1,61
(increase with yield increasing).
For estimating of corn conversion
factor we used several literature sources
and closest one to our region was find in
Donkova, D., Tonev, T. 2005. Post-har-
vest residues of winter wheat and corn
and their incorporation depending on
nitrogen fertilization. I. Amount of post-
harvest residue, Bulgarian journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 11, 11-21. The
average yield of after harvest corn
residues was 4,94 t/ha. In their expe-
riment they incorporate whole plant in the
soil, but common practice is to cut stubble
on certain height above ground and part
of the plant (part of the stubble, crown
and root) remain in soil, and part is used
for other purposes. We set up corn
conversion factor to 1, what is correct for
low yield regions.
Finally production of cereal residues
in Republic of Macedonia was estimated
and presented in following table:
40
Table 5 Estimated production of cereal crop residues (straw and corn stubbles) in
Republic of Macedonia in t
wheat rye barley oats corn rice total
grain
production 292354 8567 118275 3236 137710 12898 573041
conversion
factor 1,21 0,70 1,20 1,16 1,00 2,00
Straw
production 353749 5997 141929 3754 137710 25796 668936

The corn stubbles are utilized dif-
ferently than other cereal straw, so pro-
duction of corn stubbles amounting
137710 t is subtracte from total cereal
remains production and straw production
is estimated on production 531226 t.
Majority of straw production comes from
winter wheat (66,6%) and barley (26,7%).
Straw can be utilized for:
Fodder
Litter
Incorporation to soil
Surplus for energy use
Straw is considered as by product of
cereal production with its market price.
The utilization of the straw depends on
the farmer decision and each of possible
utilization has its value. Main utilization in
present is as fodder and litter. Incor-
porating in soil is not common practice
and usually straw is regularly removed
from fields (only wheat stubbles and roots
are in ploughed into the soil). Value for
straw incorporated in soil is value of fer-
tilizers (per 1 t of straw: 6-7 kg N, 2-2,5 kg
P
2
O
5
and 14-17 kg K
2
O). Higher value
than these fertilizers is environmental
benefits as carbon sequestrated in the
soil, enrichment of soil with organic
matter and erosion protection.
Straw is most common bedding ma-
terial for cattle production in the country.
Number of cattle in year 2005 is 248
185. Average use of straw for bedding is
1-2 t/head. Using the average number of
1,5 t/head it is assumed that 372 277 t or
about 70% of straw is used in cattle
breeding. Still 30% or 158 949 t remain
as surplus ant that straw can be valuable
source for energy production.
Straw can be valuable energy sour-
ce in the country. The most feasible use
of straw as energy source is combustion
for producing of heat energy.
Due to the low bulk density of straw
bales, their utilization should take part in
10-20 km from the field, because of high
transport cost. This fact promote straw as
important energy source for rural com-
munities, because it transportation in big-
ger centers is not economical.
The biggest concentration of straw
production is in communities of Bitola
(13,51%), Kumanovo (8,56%), Cheshino-
vo-Obleshevo (5,59%), Dolneni 3,88%
and Kochani (3,58%). These 5 com-
munities produce 35% of cereal straw in
the country. Together with next 5 from the
list (first 10 communities from the list)
produce about half of the straw in the
country. It is clear that these communities
are first choice to locate projects for
utilization of straw as energy source.
Production of Pruning Residues in
Republic of Macedonia
Despite straw, pruning residues in
present are almost not utilized, and either
are burned on the field, either are
exposed to decay. This material has not
market price. Unlike straw there is not
machinery to collect it on the field and
biggest problem is to remove it from the
field and to transport it to the place of
utilization. Also there is problem with
moisture content in pruning residues and
usually should be additionally dried. Prun-
ing residues are from grape production
and from fruit production.
Assessing the amount of pruning
41
residues is very tricky, because it depend
on vigority of the rootstock, system of
pruning, planting density and other agro
environmental condition. In order to be
able to get real picture for amount of
pruning residues we will use data
published in Ilic, M, Grubor B., Tesic M.,
(2004) The state of biomass Energy in
Serbia, Thermal Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 2,
pp 5-19. These data seem to be closest
to our condition, because big portion of
planting material in the country is im-
ported from Serbia.
Grape pruning residues
Grape production in Republic of
Macedonia is very specialized in several
regions, and there is huge concentration
of pruning residues in certain region.
According Ilic at all. (2004) grape pruning
residues amounts from 4-8 t/ha. We will
use average data of 6 t/ha. According
report on Field crops, orchards and
vineyards, 2007, published by State
Statistical Office harvested area of grape
is 21 312 ha. Assuming 6 t/ha of pruning
remains it is total of 127 872 t of pruning
residues. The concentration is very high
in Tikvesh region with almost 30% of the
total production in the country.
Orchards pruning residues
Pruning residues from orchards are
calculated based on data from statistical
office about number of trees and data
presented by Illic at all (2004) for pruning
residues yield by each type of fruit.

Table 6 Production of orchard pruning remains in Republic of Macedonia

Cherry Sour Cherry Apricot Apple Pear Plum Peach Total
No of trees 160338 931792 136551 3942243 381863 1336789 406599 7296175
Yield of pruning
residues kg/tree
4,5 4,5 8,0 2,0 2,0 7,0 7,0
Pruning resides in t 722 4769 1092 7884 764 9358 2846 27435
% 2,63 17,38 3,98 28,74 2,78 34,11 10,37 100
42
Production of pruning residues from
orchards in Macedonia is estimated on 27
435 t, with big concentration in Resen
(about 18%)
Other crop residues
Other residues from crop production
are characterized with high moisture
content (vegetable production) and it is
not reasonable to transport it. The
greenhouse production is highly efficient
and there is big concentration of
residues. The residues from greenhouse
production are estimated on 40 t/ha and it
can be reasonable amount for fermen-
tation and biogas production with em-
phasizing that there is big amount
produced in same time and there is not
continuous supply of residues to maintain
permanent activity of bioreactors. The
tobacco stubbles are very valuable, but
the harvesting of tobacco is lasting till
September and there is not enough time
to dry stubbles, but some technologies
should be developed due to big presence
of tobacco in the cropping pattern.
Environmental & agricultural
constraints
The environmental benefits of using
biomass resources is the most important
driving force encouraging the use of
biomass for energy production. One of
the basic rules of sustainability requires
that biomass use should be consistent
with environmental quality requirements
and produces green environmentally
friendly bioenergy. The existing agricul-
tural resources, soil characteristics, sites
conditions and different agricultural far-
ming practices should to be taken into
consideration when talking about straw
removal for further use for bioenergy.
Agricultural residues left on land provide
the ecosystem with nutrients, reduce the
risk of soil erosion and regulate water
retention. Therefore, the effect of bio-
mass removal from the field and using
them as energy source can crate ne-
gative impact on the soils (decreasing of
soil carbon content and nutrients availa-
bility, depletion of organic matter content,
decreased water retention capacity of
soils, as well as increased sensitivity to
erosion). These and some other negative
impacts of crop residues removal should
be considered. Biomass removal should
not affect soil fertility and land pro-
ductivity.
Biomass from crop residues could
play an important role for sustainable
energy production. Biomass is a local/
regional resource, which could contribute
to the rural regional development and
security of energy supply. It could also
contribute to the improvement of compe-
titiveness and local/regional employment
whilst creating environmental benefits in
terms of greenhouse gas emissions re-
duction. Implementation of bioenergy
technologies depends on the concepts for
bioenergy technologies, availability and
efficiency of conversion technologies,
economic issues, environmental norms or
regulations to be fulfilled, requirements of
conversion plants, etc.
Possible Use of Crop Residues in
Republic of Macedonia
Crop residues in Republic of Mace-
donia are underutilized. Cereal straw and
corn stubbles are used as litter and
fodder, but there are certain surpluses of
straw that can be used as energy source.
Pruning residues are almost not utilized.
Cereal straw and pruning residues
can be used as valuable energy source in
the country especially in combustion for
heat production. The technology is very
simple and standard burners and com-
bustion facilities can be used for burning
of crop residues. The process of com-
bustion of crop residues produces heat.
The heat produced from crop residues
can be directly used on the farm for:
1. Decreasing cost of energy use in
rural household (Cooking, heating of the
house, hot water production)
2. Improvement of agricultural activities
(heating of protected areas for vegetable
43
growing, heating of animal farms) that will
increase productivity and/or increase
value of the products from the farm
3. Development of processing capaci-
ties that need heat energy in the process`
(heat for sterilization, pasteurization etc)
Despite direct use of energy from
crop residues there is potential for pro-
moting small businesses that will be
oriented toward processing of crop re-
sidues in products that can be offered at
the energy market in rural/urban com-
munities in the country. The biggest
problem of crop residues is low bulk
density and it is very costly to transport
them. Small business should be orga-
nized in the areas where crop residues
are readily available (rural areas). The
recommended businesses are:
1. Producing of briquettes/pallets from
crop residues and sell them on rural
urban market for heat production
2. Liquefaction of crop residues and
selling of liquid fuel at the market
3. Use of heat energy for food pro-
cessing and production of traditional food
products that will increase value of the
agricultural production in rural areas
Despite this crop residues can be
used in gasification process to produce
biogas that can be used on farm for
various purposes.
Using of crop remains as energy
source is not related with the production
price. Only cereal straw has it market
price (0,02-0,04 EUR/kg). Our recom-
mendation is to use crop remains for heat
production. Farmers in present use wood,
oil or electricity for various purpose.
Replacing conventional energy sources
for heat production with crop remains
despite environmental benefit (replace-
ment of fissile fuels with renewable
energy) there will be big decreasing of
cost for heat production. The present
price of fire wood is 42 EUR/m
3
. The fire
wood in the country is offered at market
as m
3
of stere. The real volume of 1 m
3
of
stere in average for fire wood cut in
pieces of 1 m length is approximately
0,65 solid m
3
. The weight of 1 m
3
of stere
of air dry wood depends on wood type
and for common fire wood in Macedonia
(beech, oak or mixture of beach and oak)
is about 600 kg. The cost of 1 kg of fire
wood is approximately 0,07 EUR. One kg
of air dry fire wood has net heating value
of 15,5 MJ/kg. The neat heating value of
air dry straw is 15,2 MJ/kg with average
price as 0,02 EUR/kg. One kg of fire
wood can be replaced with 1,02 kg of
straw. The cost for fuel will be 3,5 times
less if farmers are using straw as energy
source for heat production in comparison
of using fire wood.
Crop residues do not offer just com-
bustion and heat production for its utili-
zation. Various types of products can be
produced and used for various purposes
(liquids, gas, electricity etc. that can be
used for various purposes.). There is
variety of possible application unlike other
renewable. And biomass in whole is
considered as one of the best renewable.
There is big possibility for sustainable
development of rural areas trough ope-
ning of various business.
Finally, use of crop residues is not in
conflict with other activities (ex. growing
of energetic crops is in competition with
food crops and food price increase). It is
additional contribution toward sustainable
economic development.
Conclusion
Despite other biomass types crop
remains are not specially produced and
represents byproducts of agricultural
activities. Some of these residues are
used for other purposes (fodder, litter),
some not. Only straw has market price in
the country, other residues are with not
price. If used on farm they will stay
without price, but for bigger scale of use
some price will be determined.
Crop residues are very good
renewable energy source. It is produced
every year in almost same time, same
amount and same place.
44
Macedonian production of crop
residues is:
o cereal remains production and straw
production is estimated on production
531226 t.
o corn stubbles 137710 t
o vine grape pruning remains are
127872 t.
o orchards pruning residues are
estimated on 27435 t,
Majority of straw production comes
from winter wheat (66,6%) and barley
(26,7%).
The biggest concentration of straw
production is in communities of Bitola
(13,51%), Kumanovo (8,56%), Cheshi-
novo-Obleshevo (5,59%), Dolneni 3,88|%
and Kochani (3,58%). These 5
communities produce 35% of cereal straw
in the country.
The biggest concentration of grape
pruning residues is in Tikvesh region with
almost 30% of the total production in the
country.
The biggest concentration of
orchard's pruning residues is in Resen
(about 18%) and these residues are from
apple orchards
Crop residues can be used for
production of heat, liquid fuels, gas and
solid fuels trough various technology
processes. The easiest start is using crop
residues for heat production
Biggest problems with use of crop
residues as energy source are related
with low density and high transport
expenses (not more than 10-20 km))
Energy from crop residues is locally
produced and should be used locally for
rural development, because it is very hard
to transport it.
There is not awareness of using of
crop residues as energy source in the
country.
There is not available equipment for
using of crop residues as energy source
in the country (furnaces, boilers and
stoves that operate with crop residues)
Due to very low price of crop
residues it is very cheap energy. Using of
straw is 3,5-5 times cheaper than using
other fuels available in the country. This
can not be calculated for pruning resi-
dues due to its "no price".
Unsustainable use of crop residues
may cause environmental problems of
soil degradation, especially in losing of
organic matter and increased soil
erosion.
There are plenty of social, econo-
mical and environmental benefits of using
of crop residues as energy source and
these activities should be promoted and
supported for sustainable rural develop-
ment.

Literatute
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1460
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Estimating Straw Production of
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facts No. 33, Agricultural Research
Center, Montana State University
45
7. Edwards R.A.H., Suri M., Huld M.A.,
Dallemand J.F., (2005) GIS-Based
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46
Annexes
Crop residues production in RM by communities
Table 6 Production of cereal straw in 2007 by local communities in t
Winter Ray Barley Oat Corn Rice Total % of
Bitola 46770 41 20177 0 7250 0 74238 13,51
Kumanovo 19833 76 23257 564 3335 0 47065 8,56
Cheshinovo- 3530 21 2386 0 7735 17076 30747 5,59
Dolneni 17690 58 3401 0 159 0 21308 3,88
Kochani 5026 136 2238 235 2871 9110 19617 3,57
SvetiNikole 10888 0 4808 5 205 0 15906 2,89
Skopje 6649 102 4123 136 2659 0 13669 2,49
Mogila 9460 12 3302 0 809 0 13583 2,47
Shtip 5013 53 6552 6 754 212 12589 2,29
Strumitsa 4979 28 1374 0 6000 0 12381 2,25
Lozovo 6434 0 5560 0 17 0 12010 2,18
Prilep 7460 126 3534 49 456 0 11624 2,11
Struga 6264 225 576 549 3450 0 11064 2,01
Staro 3150 61 6204 356 726 0 10497 1,91
Bosilovo 3272 0 240 0 6883 0 10395 1,89
Karbintsi 2604 46 3205 0 725 3026 9606 1,75
Bogovinje 2207 10 76 16 6626 0 8935 1,63
Brvenitsa 3305 6 38 5 5055 0 8408 1,53
Teartse 2723 8 113 41 5383 0 8267 1,50
Lipkovo 4483 57 887 111 2674 0 8212 1,49
DemirHisar 5076 48 660 0 2379 0 8163 1,48
Probishtip 4302 44 2908 0 774 50 8077 1,47
Gostivar 2376 52 216 56 5361 0 8061 1,47
Vrapchishte 2752 7 24 12 4972 0 7766 1,41
Negotino 4822 0 2290 0 289 360 7760 1,41
Krivogashtani 6515 25 1110 0 107 0 7757 1,41
Jegunovtse 3075 3 35 2 4350 0 7465 1,36
Novo Selo 1814 114 368 51 4994 0 7341 1,34
Delchevo 2818 436 2381 336 1278 0 7249 1,32
Radovish 4211 70 1824 21 1099 0 7225 1,31
Novatsi 4634 52 2014 1 489 0 7190 1,31
Tetovo 2840 8 79 28 3982 0 6937 1,26
Vasilevo 3647 99 479 32 2007 0 6265 1,14
Saraj 2309 32 1369 20 1875 0 5604 1,02
Vinitsa 1298 78 1746 26 1701 524 5373 0,98
Zhelino 2503 36 112 58 2642 0 5351 0,97
Ilinden 2703 0 1330 0 1198 0 5231 0,95
Gazi Baba 2507 56 1520 37 332 0 4453 0,81
Zrnovtsi 968 8 836 2 2559 52 4426 0,81
Bogdantsi 1711 28 1498 93 868 0 4197 0,76
Gevgelija 997 26 632 32 2262 0 3950 0,72
Veles 2064 5 1668 1 148 0 3886 0,71
Gradsko 1439 0 1814 0 136 0 3389 0,62
Petrovets 1419 0 1444 97 221 0 3181 0,58
Chashka 1577 0 979 0 254 300 3110 0,57
Konche
2120 16 648 14 291 0 3089 0,56
47
Resen 2489 83 112 0 356 0 3040 0,55
Rankovtse 1971 53 863 35 49 0 2971 0,54
Krushevo 2214 39 552 0 96 0 2901 0,53
Debartsa 1509 85 451 30 780 0 2856 0,52
Valandovo 1388 12 262 0 1190 0 2851 0,52
Oslomej 1416 191 317 0 836 0 2760 0,50
Berovo 796 103 450 193 65 0 2541 0,46
Ohrid 1185 71 385 115 708 0 2463 0,45
Arachinovo 1431 0 256 227 230 0 2144 0,39
Kratovo 908 16 571 1 379 0 1875 0,34
Pehchevo 797 360 391 184 48 0 1781 0,32
Chucher- 958 3 662 27 12 0 1662 0,30
Rosoman 392 0 448 5 768 0 1612 0,29
Dojran 605 29 226 14 588 0 1461 0,27
Butel 855 5 462 14 33 0 1369 0,25
Makedonska 350 186 710 56 67 0 1369 0,25
Kavadartsi 439 10 516 13 270 0 1248 0,23
Kichevo 594 52 82 10 454 0 1192 0,22
Drugovo 572 20 30 0 558 0 1181 0,21
Debar 777 19 102 21 224 0 1143 0,21
Vraneshtitsa 594 34 46 0 450 0 1123 0,20
Zajas 506 56 91 0 456 0 1109 0,20
Sopishte 537 0 223 0 235 0 995 0,18
Demir Kapija 627 0 304 0 50 0 980 0,18
Gjorche 194 8 341 45 282 0 870 0,16
Studenichani 290 0 214 0 240 0 744 0,14
Zelenikovo 249 25 149 43 238 0 703 0,13
Plasnitsa 288 6 78 13 165 0 550 0,10
Aerodrom 424 0 97 0 20 0 541 0,10
Makedonski 82 11 54 0 384 0 531 0,10
Centar Zhupa 171 27 101 49 112 0 459 0,08
Karposh 128 0 198 21 94 0 441 0,08
Vevchani 215 25 41 0 84 0 365 0,07
Kisela Voda 234 1 82 0 24 0 341 0,06
Kriva Palanka 105 34 113 19 59 0 329 0,06
Mavrovo & 0 15 29 20 99 0 163 0,03
Shuto Orizari 0 0 54 0 0 0 54 0,01
Total 263876 471 127970 4009 118384 30710 549667 100

Table 7. Production of grape pruning remains in 2007 by local communities in t
Harvested
area
Pruning
residues in t
%of total
Kavadartsi 4239 25434 19,89
Valandovo 1649 9894 7,74
Negotino 1393 8358 6,54
Skopje 1242 7452 5,83
Radovish 901 5406 4,23
Rosoman 865 5190 4,06
Veles 859 5154 4,03
Bogdantsi 773 4638 3,63
Gevgelija 724 4344 3,40
Kumanovo 649 3894 3,05
Vasilevo 602
3612 2,82
48
Gazi Baba 553 3318 2,59
Sveti Nikole 551 3306 2,59
Bosilovo 457 2742 2,14
Chucher-
Sandevo
445 2670 2,09
Gradsko 430 2580 2,02
Bitola 429 2574 2,01
Demir Kapija 403 2418 1,89
Prilep 397 2382 1,86
Shtip 355 2130 1,67
Staro
Nagorichane
343 2058 1,61
Vinitsa 276 1656 1,30
Karbintsi 259 1554 1,22
Dojran 252 1512 1,18
Kratovo 248 1488 1,16
Ohrid 242 1452 1,14
Probishtip 207 1242 0,97
Lozovo 206 1236 0,97
Saraj 193 1158 0,91
Cheshinovo-
Obleshevo
165 990 0,77
Resen 161 966 0,76
Strumitsa 151 906 0,71
Butel 141 846 0,66
Kochani 135 810 0,63
Debartsa 131 786 0,61
Chashka 123 738 0,58
Vevchani 122 732 0,57
Kisela Voda 120 720 0,56
Lipkovo 120 720 0,56
Struga 103 618 0,48
Konche 97 582 0,46
Gjorche
Petrov
89 534 0,42
Aerodrom 70 420 0,33
Ilinden 69 414 0,32
Sopishte 68 408 0,32
NovoSelo 67 402 0,31
Mogila 62 372 0,29
Karposh 61 366 0,29
Petrovets 56 336 0,26
Demir Hisar 48 288 0,23
Studenichani 47 282 0,22
Dolneni 40 240 0,19
Zelenikovo 33 198 0,15
Novatsi 24 144 0,11
Teartse 24 144 0,11
Zrnovtsi 19 114 0,09
Shuto Orizari 15 90 0,07
Krushevo 15 90 0,07
Brvenitsa 10 60 0,05
Delchevo 8 48 0,04
Rankovtse 5 30 0,02
Arachinovo 4 24 0,02
Jegunovtse 4
24 0,02
49
Debar 2 12 0,01
Krivogashtani 2 12 0,01
Zhelino 1 6 0,00
Berovo - 0 0,00
Bogovinje - 0 0,00
Vraneshtitsa - 0 0,00
Vrapchishte - 0 0,00
Gostivar - 0 0,00
Drugovo - 0 0,00
Zajas - 0 0,00
Kichevo - 0 0,00
Kriva Palanka - 0 0,00
Mavrovo &
Rostusha
- 0 0,00
Makedonska
Kamenitsa
- 0 0,00
Makedonski
Brod
- 0 0,00
Oslomej - 0 0,00
Pehchevo - 0 0,00
Plasnitsa - 0 0,00
Tetovo - 0 0,00
Centar Zhupa - 0 0,00
Total 21312 127872 100,00

Table 9. Production of orchard pruning remains in 2007 by local communities in t
Cherry Sour Apricot Apple Pea
r
Plum Peac
h
Total %
Resen 36 105 3 4741 14 68 6 4972 18,12
KrivaPalank
a
23 4 18 108 79 1300 58 1590 5,79
Delchevo 29 802 9 51 28 593 5 1518 5,53
Bitola 20 933 25 82 19 130 149 1357 4,95
Skopje 85 121 220 82 64 313 286 1171 4,27
Rosoman 2 1 9 3 1 12 1083 1111 4,05
Ohrid 20 77 10 642 1 195 141 1086 3,96
Struga 24 25 24 284 33 410 31 833 3,03
Berovo 4 22 0 85 7 673 0 792 2,89
Kochani 11 292 14 50 17 365 16 766 2,79
Brvenitsa 3 394 11 270 11 37 7 733 2,67
Debartsa 33 19 2 318 5 267 8 653 2,38
Prilep 7 64 71 50 53 244 50 539 1,97
Pehchevo 9 174 0 34 3 302 0 521 1,90
Negotino 4 313 47 8 4 43 57 476 1,74
Tetovo 19 274 7 105 16 38 7 467 1,70
Radovish 4 29 48 22 9 261 41 415 1,51
Shtip 25 298 17 4 4 49 11 409 1,49
Saraj 46 43 84 17 16 103 68 377 1,37
Gradsko 1 63 48 2 5 21 233 373 1,36
Rankovtse 4 1 3 13 12 319 3 355 1,29
Kumanovo 9 9 41 72 20 168 27 345 1,26
Kratovo 6 4 12 37 27 252 5 342 1,25
StaroNagoric
hane
7 7 10 22 18 263 10 338 1,23
DemirHisar 11 15 0 32 14 238 0 309 1,13
Vinitsa 5 24 11 17 11 210 13 290 1,06
Cheshinovo-
Obleshevo
5 146 14 11 7 91 16 290 1,06
Probishtip
3 184 6 9 8 56 4 270 0,98
50
Drugovo 17 5 3 34 18 184 4 264 0,96
Jegunovtse 8 17 1 43 6 178 5 258 0,94
Strumitsa 39 5 15 28 5 98 41 231 0,84
Makedonski
Brod
29 1 2 38 5 153 0 229 0,83
GaziBaba 10 12 43 33 22 55 45 220 0,80
Gostivar 12 9 4 110 23 57 4 219 0,80
Kavadartsi 7 4 13 6 8 44 130 212 0,77
Vrapchishte 8 6 2 112 12 67 4 209 0,76
Aerodrom 5 40 28 18 10 55 37 192 0,70
Makedonska
Kamenitsa
3 2 2 10 11 149 1 179 0,65
Karbintsi 0 143 14 1 2 12 0 173 0,63
Krushevo 2 1 0 16 6 135 0 160 0,58
Oslomej 6 3 3 20 12 110 2 157 0,57
Chashka 5 3 9 14 10 94 12 147 0,53
Butel 5 5 20 5 11 48 48 142 0,52
Veles 2 4 38 6 11 35 40 137 0,50
Ilinden 8 6 19 4 15 54 26 132 0,48
Teartse 15 6 1 62 7 33 6 130 0,47
Studenichani 5 2 31 4 4 27 50 123 0,45
Valandovo 2 4 42 6 2 28 37 123 0,45
Vasilevo 15 4 6 4 2 29 59 119 0,43
Vraneshtitsa 9 3 2 17 10 71 2 114 0,42
Debar 9 4 4 19 15 55 5 111 0,40
GjorchePetr
ov
10 13 24 6 4 30 22 110 0,40
Gevgelija 3 7 22 4 4 34 28 103 0,38
Zajas 5 2 4 15 8 65 2 101 0,37
Mogila 0 1 0 15 4 80 0 100 0,37
Zrnovtsi 3 3 5 5 3 63 7 88 0,32
SvetiNikole 1 27 26 4 5 23 1 87 0,32
Bogovinje 9 5 2 20 5 41 2 84 0,30
KiselaVoda 2 3 10 3 1 8 56 82 0,30
Petrovets 3 6 17 5 5 28 10 74 0,27
NovoSelo 12 9 8 8 6 20 10 73 0,27
Lipkovo 4 5 11 6 7 30 10 72 0,26
Kichevo 5 6 2 10 5 41 1 71 0,26
Chucher-
Sandevo
7 5 28 6 5 14 3 69 0,25
Bogdantsi 2 1 16 6 2 27 11 64 0,23
Novatsi 1 2 1 5 2 53 0 64 0,23
Sopishte 19 4 11 3 2 15 9 63 0,23
Dolneni 0 0 0 8 3 47 1 59 0,22
Mavrovo&Ro
stusha
14 4 0 10 3 28 0 59 0,22
CentarZhupa 5 4 1 6 3 30 2 51 0,18
DemirKapija 3 8 13 2 1 14 9 50 0,18
Krivogashtan
i
0 0 1 7 2 40 0 49 0,18
Konche 1 20 0 7 2 17 1 48 0,17
Zhelino 7 6 3 12 3 16 1 48 0,17
Karposh 5 6 11 1 0 13 10 46 0,17
Arachinovo 4 4 7 1 0 8 22 45 0,17
Zelenikovo 2 3 8 3 3 21 6 45 0,17
Bosilovo 0 1 1 4 2 25 6 40 0,15
Vevchani 1 2 1 2 1 20 2 30 0,11
Dojran
2 2 6 1 1 8 4 24 0,09
51
Plasnitsa 2 1 0 3 2 11 0 19 0,07
Lozovo 0 0 5 0 0 3 0 9 0,03
ShutoOrizari 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 0,01

































52


ENERGY CROPS IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
Prof. Zoran Dimov, Prof. Ordan Chukaliev
ss Kiril & Metodij - Faculty of Agriculture, Skopje

Energy crops are crops that can be
used to produce energy. Having in mind
that all crops are just biomass and bio-
mass is considered as valuable energetic
resource it means that all crops can be
considered as a energy crops. This
approach can be very risky for future of
the agriculture, so we need much better
definition what the energy crops are. On
of the definitions state that an energy
crop is a plant grown as a low cost and
low maintenance harvest used to make
biofuels, or combusted for its energy
content to generate electricity or heat.
Energy crops are generally categorized
as woody or herbaceous (grassy). These
crops can be used directly for combustion
and heath production, as well as to be
transformed in some more valuable pro-
ducts fuels as solids (briquettes, pal-
lets), liquids (biodiesel, bioethanol) and
gass (biogass and mixture of gases (syn-
gas), where carbon monoxide and hydro-
gen form the main part trough thermal
decomposition). Liquid and gas fuels
derived from energy crops can be used in
transport, electricity production and other
purposes.
Many crops suitable for energy pro-
duction are already grown on a wide
scale. Well-known oilseed crops like
rapeseed and sunflower can be used to
make biodiesel. Starch crops such as
wheat, potatoes, maize, barley and rye
can be converted to bioethanol, as can
sugar crops such as sugar beet and
sweet sorghum. These crops are well
known as 1st generation bioenergy crops.
The using of these crops for ener-
getic purposes create huge pressure over
the sustainable food supply and this con-
flict can crate huge dispute about use of
this crops for other purposes despite
food. Another source of biomass energy
are woody crops like willow and poplar,
also known as short rotation coppice
(SRC), or perennial grasses, such as
Miscanthus, Switchgrass, Reed Canary
Grass or Giant Reed. These crops
produce lignocellulosic material that can
be converted to biodiesel, bioethanol or
biogas, or burned directly for heat and
power. These crops are well known as
2nd generation bioenergy crops. These
energy crops (2
nd
generation) are fast-
growing crops that are grown for the
specific purpose of producing energy
(heath, electricity or liquid fuels) from all
or part of the resulting plant. Second
generation of energy crops are selected
for their advantageous environmental
qualities such as erosion control, soil
organic matter build-up and reduced
fertilizer and pesticide requirements.
There are many other perennial plant
species which could be used for energy
crops. In addition, some parts of
traditional agricultural crops such as the
stems or stalks of alfalfa, corn or sorghum
may be used for energy production.
Despite all these benefits, there is
still discussion of use of agricultural land
for growing of energy crops, and effect of
this approach on the world price of the
food and on food security and availability
53
Republic of Macedonia is still far a way of
these modern trends in energy sector.
Producing of bioenerergy crops of first
generation is still in very initial stage and
these crops are used for food/fodder
supply, despite some small areas
developed with certain projects. There is
not even experimental stage of using of
2
nd
generation of bioenergy crops. There
are certain capacities for production of
crops dedicated for energy production
due to big portion of abounded land
(Uncultivated land and fallow is very big
portion of arable land around 30%.
Especially important fact is that land
available for irrigation (totaled cca 120
000 ha) is used with very low efficiency
(not more than 30 000 ha) and there is
possibility to grow energetic crops even
on irrigated land, so very good results
can be achieved.
First generation of energetic crops
These energetic crops are common
crops well known as food source. These
crops can be used for energy production
if there is surplus that can not be
exported. Using of these crops for energy
production is very risky especially if
energetic sector will introduce special in-
centives for their use. Then it will imme-
diately increase food price and seriously
affect national food supply, food security
and food availability.
Production of Crops that can be
used as energy source (First Generation)
in Macedonia for 2009 year.
These crops can be divided in 3
groups
1. Starchy crops when starch is major
product that can be converted in fuel
(alcohol for example)
2. Oil crops when oil is major product
and can be converted in fuel (biodiesel)
3. Sugar crops when sugar is major
product and can be converted in fuel
(alcohol)
Production of these crops is pre-
sented according data published in Sta-
tistical review: Agriculture - Field crops,
orchards and vineyards, 2009 published
by State statistical office of Republic of
Macedonia.
Starchy crops
Starchy crops are most common
crops in Republic of Macedonia with
domination of winter wheat. It is our major
crops according sown and harvested
area.
Table 1. Production of starchy crops in Macedonia in year 2009
Area in ha Yield kg/ha Total production in t
Wheat 88 151 3076 271 117
Barley 48 622 3010 146 372
Rye 3 701 2456 9 089
Oats 2 726 1820 4 960
Corn 32 466 4 751 154 237
Rice 3120 6368 19 870
Potato 13 527 15 134 204 717

According data in table 1 about 192
313 ha in the country are planted with
starchy crops. It is about 46% of our

arable land (cca 420 000 ha). Yield is
very low and as well as total production.
Republic of Macedonia is not self suffi-
cient in production of starchy crops and
regularly there is import of these crops in
order to secure population with bread
54
wheat, as well as to secure sustainable
fodder supply for animal breading sector
and for other needs. There is not any
possibility to use these crops for produc-
tion of energy without serious impacts on
food sector.
Oil Crops
Data presented in Statistical review:
Agriculture - Field crops, orchards and
vineyards, 2009 published by State sta-
tistical office of Republic of Macedonia
considered only two oil crops, sunflower
and poppy seed. Unfortunately there is
not data for oilseed rape and probably it
is grown for oil production on marginal
areas that are not feasible to be pre-
sented in national statistical report for
agriculture. It is well known that despite
oil palm oilseed rape is major crop for fuel
production.

Table 2 Production of oil crops in Macedonia in year 2009
Area in ha Yield kg/ha Total production in t
Sunflower 4 136 1879 7 774
Poppy seed 618 504 816


Production of oil crops is very low
according area as well as according total
production and yield per unit area. These
amounts are much lower than Macedo-
nian needs and Macedonia is huge
importer of oil for human consumption.
Production of biodiesel from oil crops
grown in Macedonia is not fusible at all
without serious changes in the sector.
Sugar crops
Unfortunately there is not need to
present sugar crops production in a table,
because in 2009 there were total of 0
hectares planted with sugar crops. Des-
pite this fact, major sugar crop in the
country is sugar beet and there is good
environmental condition for its growing.
Economic situation and other factors
create such a unfavorable conditions for
growing of sugar beet that in last period
only few hundreds of hectares were
planted and in 2009 it disappear from our
fields.
Second Generation of energy crops

Second generation biofuels, specifi-
cally biofuels derived from cellulosic or
lignocellulosic conversion. Advocates for
the development of cellulosic conversion
believe that second generation
technology avoids many of the adverse
consequences of first generation biofuels:
it does not directly compete for food
(since it is based on crops such as
switchgrass or waste like maize stover), it
causes less environmental impact than
row crop agriculture, and the energy yield
per hectare (ha) is generally higher (it has
the potential to be five times higher than
that of maize, since the entire plant can
be converted to fuel).
The second generation of energetic
crops can be divided in to 3 general
groups:
1. Woody crops (short rotation coppice,
fast growing wood)
2. Herbaceous crops (Miscanthus,
Switchgrass, Reed Canary Grass or
Giant Reed)
3. Aquatic plants (microalgae, macro-
algae, pond plants and weeds)
Woody crops
The most popular second generation
energetic crops are short rotation
55
coppices (SRC). The SRC (short rotation
coppice) consists of densely planted,
high-yielding varieties of either willow or
poplar, harvested on a 2 5 year cycle,
although commonly every 3 years. The
osier, a shrub willow, is parental stock to
the majority of willow varieties planted for
use as an energy crop. SRC is a woody,
perennial crop, the rootstock or stools
remaining in the ground after harvest with
new shoots emerging the following
spring. A plantation could be viable for up
to 30 years before re-planting becomes
necessary, although this depends on the
productivity of the stools. Willow SRC is
planted in the spring using planting
material produced by specialist breeders
and equipment specifically designed for
the purpose. The willow will grow rapidly
in the first year reaching up to 4m in
height. During the winter after planting
the stems are cut back to ground level to
encourage the growth of multiple stems
i.e. coppiced. Generally three years after
cutback and again during the winter, the
crop is harvested. The equipment used
for harvesting will have been specifically
developed for the purpose and depends
on the fuel specification of the custo-
mer/end-user. Most operations other than
planting or harvesting can be completed
using conventional farm machinery.
Yields from willow SRC at first har-
vest are expected to be in the range 7
12 oven dry tones per hectare per year
(odt/ha/yr) depending on site and effici-
ency of establishment.
Herbaceoius Crops
The herbaceous crops are mainly
grasses that are fast growing, tall and
produce a lot of organic matter per unit
area. Several species are considered as
good energetic crops, but in present
dominant is Miscanthus. Following
grasses are used as energetic crops of
second generation:
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum)
Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundi-
nacea)
Rye (Secale cereale)
Giant reed (Arundo donax).
Miscanthus (Miscanthus giganteus)
Grasses grown from seeds are much
cheaper to establish than those grown
from rhizomes (such as miscanthus), stu-
dies have been carried out to identify
crops that can be grown from seed and
reliably offer high yields. With non-native
species, however, seeded grasses can
present a potential threat of invasion and
must consequently be viewed with
caution.
Miscanthus
Miscanthus species are tall (up to
3.5m high) woody, perennial, rhizoma-
tous grasses. Rhizomatous grasses re-
tains a large proportion of the nutrients in
the rhizomes, retaining little in the bio-
mass, so nitrogen and nutrient require-
ments are very low, and no yield benefits
are obtained by applying nitrogen.
Miscanthus uses the C4 photosyn-
thetic pathway, which can make it effi-
cient in fixing carbon and in water use.
They are not native to the Europe,
originating from Asia, but even under
some EU countries conditions have been
shown to give very high yields (14 oven
dry tones per hectare per year
(odt), which is higher than those obtai-
ned from short rotation coppice (SRC) (9
odt).
The calorific value of miscanthus is
slightly lower than that of most wood, and
the ash content quite high, similar to
straw.
Miscanthus (Miscanthus giganteus)
can be planted by rhizome division, and
this is the preferred way, though it makes
establishment expensive. Conventional
agricultural equipment, such as a potato
planter can be used, although specialized
equipment has been developed.
It is planted in spring at a density of
20,000 per ha and grows strongly to 1-2
m by late August. From late July the crop
starts to dry out so that when it is
harvested in late winter, most of the
56
leaves have died back, leaving canes of
10 mm diameter and relatively low
moisture content. This first year's growth
gives poor yield, but in subsequent years
greater height, typically 2.5-3.5 m can be
achieved, and yield increases over the
first 4-5 years.
Once established, a miscanthus
plantation can be harvested annually for
15-20 years before needing to be
replanted. Yield depends on sunshine,
temperature and rainfall, but miscanthus
grows well on a range of soils and yields
of 12-14 t/ha can be achieved from the
third year onwards and even higher on
good sites.
Harvesting is undertaken with a
modified forage harvester, and moistures
below 20% are easily achieved at harvest
and can be left to dry further, in the
swath, prior to baling.
The crop is then baled using a
conventional baler to produce rectangular
or round bales, depending upon the
requirements of the application.
Aquatic plants
Aquatic plants offer a number of
potential advantages over land based
crops. As the water provides support for
the structure of the plant they do not have
the requirement to lay down structural
material, such as lignin. They can also
usually take in nutrients and carbon
dioxide from the surrounding water and
consequently may not need to develop
roots. Many, therefore, can display very
high photosynthetic efficiencies.
As they do not require soil, they can
be grown in areas unsuitable for con-
ventional agriculture. Marine species
also avoid conflict for freshwater resour-
ces as well as for land.
There are very many species of
algae, both microscopic microalgae and
macroalgae such as seaweeds that can
grow to over 60 m long, that offer many of
the above benefits and that are poten-
tially suitable for use in energy applica-
tions. However the very high water con-
tent of algae can make them an incon-
venient form of biomass.
They must either be used very close
to production to avoid costly, inefficient
transportation of water, or be dried,
though active drying should be avoided
owing to the significant energy cost
involved. Passive drying is likely to be
labor intensive. If they are to be used wet
then a suitable process must be used.
Microalgae
Microalgae are those algae that con-
sist of just a single cell, or a small group
of cells. There are very many different
species of microalgae (>>30,000), some
freshwater, some marine, that offer a
wide diversity of characteristics.
Some species can display very high
levels of oil accumulation, potentially
exceeding 50% by (dry) weight of the
organism, and these have been proposed
for biodiesel production.
Alternatively polysaccharide (com-
plex carbohydrates) accumulation of up
to 50-80% by weight can be achieved,
making them potentially suitable for
bioethanol production.
Other species have been proposed
for biomass production, owing to the very
high photosynthetic efficiency and growth
rate, hydrocarbon production or methane
production, while still other algae have
been shown to produce hydrogen
directly.
Macroalgae
Larger, multi-cellular, algae can also
display very high productivities, making
them potentially suitable for biomass
production, though with the same issues
of very high water content.
Schemes for large scale seaweed
production integrated with offshore wind
farms have been proposed, however
issues such as dewatering at sea have
yet to be adequately addressed.


57
Pond and Lake Weeds
There are a number of different wa-
ter weeds, variously called pond weeds
or lake weeds that include a range of
different plants including algae and other
flora. These may be available as waste
material after the clearing of a lake or
pond, and thus form a potential biomass
resource.As with algae, these are a high
water content form of biomass and
consequently transport must be
minimized unless it is to be dried first, a
potentially financially and energetically
costly option unless it is to be passively
dried.
In Republic of Macedonia there is
not even experimental field for any of
second generation energy crops.
There is potential for growing of
short rotation coppices on the marginal
land close to the river beds. Other
potential for growing of second
generation energetic crops is that 30% of
the arable land is no cultivated or fallow
land. Such land is not used for crops for
food and can be used for second
generation of energetic crops.












Literature Used
DEFRA (2004) Growing Short Rotation
Coppice, Best Practice Guidelines
for Applicants to Defras Energy
Crops Scheme, DEFRA
State statistical office of Republic of
Macedonia (2010) Statistical review:
Agriculture - Field crops, orchards
and vineyards, 2009, Skopje
Kuzel S. , Kolr L., Peterka J., Sindelro-
v M. (2008) Usage of Energetic
Crops as Alternative Sources of
Energy In Czech Republic, AGRO-
NOMIJAS VSTIS (Latvian Journal
of Agronomy), No.10, pp15-19
IATA (2010) 2nd Generation Biomass
Conversion Efficiency, IATA, McGill
University
http:/ / www.usewoodfuel.co.uk
http:/ / www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk
58


SUMMARY OF BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN
MACEDONIA
Prof. Slave ARMENSKI, PhD
University of Ss Cyril and Methodius, Faculty of Mechanical engineering, Skopje

Introduction
Biomass is the oldest source of re-
newable energy, which mankind have
had used before thousand years, i.e. from
fire discovering to this day. Under the
term biomass it can be understand any
organic substance get by the process of
photosynthesis in vegetation. That is
practically the biodegradable part of the
products, waste and residues of agricul-
ture (including plant and livestock pro-
duction), forestry and wood processing
industry and biodegradable part of the
solid communal and industry waste.
Biomass is renewable (sustainable)
source of energy because its creation is:
- continuing and unlimited, i.e. it can
be raised in unlimited quantities in relati-
vely short time,
- biomass has heterogeneous and
chemical complex structure.
Chemical energy accumulated in
biomass is called bioenergy.
The kind and energy potential of
waste biomass is a crucial criterion for its
estimation.
Three type of waste biomass
potential in Republic of Macedonia are
distinguished:
- theoretical potential (maximum the-
oretical available quantity) of waste bio-
mass, which is on disposal according to
the potential of its source,
- technical potential (part of theoretic-
cal, available under the regarded techno-
structural framework condition), which
can be used after taking into account the
limitations connected to the present tech-
nological level, possible use for human
and animal feeding and ecological limi-
tations, and
- economical potential is the potential
which can be used under the present
economy conditions, i.e. satisfying the
criteria to be profitable.

Biomass resources in Republic of
Macedonia
There are three base sources of
waste biomass in Republic of Macedonia:
- forestry residues and residues from
wood industry processing,
- agricultural and animal husbandry,
and
- communal and industrial wastes.
Following basic data sources have been
used for estimation of the biomass ener-
gy potential:
- Statistical Yearbook of Republic of
Macedonia,
- Annual reports, production plans and
finance reports of the public utility Mace-
donian forests, and
- Scientific-investigation studies and
reports for the quantities of rigid com-
munal and industrial waste in Republic of
Macedonia.
Energy quantity of each type of
biomass is estimated according to its heat
value, i.e. heat quantity produced by
59


Figure 1.1. Assortment of wood volume for 2006, m
3
/y
direct combustion of 1 kg, or 1 m
3
of it.
We are defining the so called upper and
low heat value. For upper one, the water
content is in liquid state, and for the low
one in gas state.
1.0. Forestry residues and residues
from wood industry processing
Forestry is the most wide brunch and
very important economic activity in R. of
Macedonia. Every year is cutting down
and processing an enormous wood mass,
first of all for wood industry, but for
cooking and home heating too. Its par-
ticipation in the state energy balance is
continually about 10 % during the recent
20 years and significant changes are not
foreseen during the coming 20 year.
Timber harvesting process and land
clearing produce waste wood in the form
of: broken logs, decadent timber, stumps,
and tree trunks. During the timber har-
vesting, only the billet or log is extracted
from the forest while the crown (consis-
ting of foliage and brunches) and the
stumps are considered to be wood waste.
Between 6 to 9 % of dry mass of the bole
consists of the foliage and between 10 to
15 % is bark.
Generally, waste wood can be divi-
ded in two groups: waste get during cut-
ting of wood in forests and waste get
during the wood processing in industry.
Their composition is different, i.e. wastes
wood from timber harvesting, is consis-
ting from bark, trunks, chips, sawdust,
tree stump, tree roots, tree leaves and
others. Wood residue from wood process-
sing facilities mainly includes chips, saw-
dust, bark, broken logs, reject wood and
ends, endings, knots, lathe cutting, lily
pads, panel trims, peeler cores, reject
strips, sander dust, shake blocks, slabs,
wood chunks and other wood fragments.
Wood waste can be used for pro-
duction of wooden plates, wooden cons-
truction materials, paper, and cellulose.
As fuel, waste wood can be used directly
or as raw material for production of
different rigid, liquid and gas fuels.
Total forest area in Republic of Ma-
cedonia occupies 947.653 ha. Most of
this area are forests of deciduous trees
(58,4 %), mixed trees stand of deciduous
trees (25,6 %), pure trees stand of con-
iferous trees (8,98 %) and mixed trees
stand of coniferous trees (6,34 %). 90,14
% of forest is state (92 % by wood mass)
and 9,86 % is private property.
Annual increment of forests in
Republic of Macedonia (for 2007) is:
- High forests (49 %) - 792.223 m
3
/y,
One type (21%) - 190.134 m
3
/y
of three
60
Various types (79 %)- 602.089 m
3
/y
of trees

Figure 1.2. Average annual theoretical
gross waste wood volume for deciduous
and coniferous trees (period 1997-2007
in R. of Macedonia), m
3
/y
- Low forests (51 %) - 824.551 m
3
/y
One type (98%) - 808.068 m
3
/y
of tree
Coppice (2 %) - 16.491 m
3
/y
Total 1.616.782 m
3
/y
The planed quantity of trees cutting
in Republic of Macedonia between 2002-
2008 is from 792.178 to 930.000 m
3
/y.
About (70-82) % of total gross volume is
fire-wood and (18-30) % is technical
wood. Waste wood gross volume from
forest harvesting is about 10 % (80.000-
90.000 m
3
/y).
Four types of tree are used for
supplying of technical wood: beech (67
%), fir (8,49 %), pine-white (12,44 %) and
pine-black (11,69 %). Fire-wood is
supplied only from two types of tree:
beech (54,4 %) and oak (44,7 %). Total
waste wood volume from timber harves-
ting for 2006 is 81.559 m
3
/y (Figure 1.1).
1.1. Average annual gross waste wood
volume quantity from firewood
preparation
During fire wood preparation (saw-
ing, cutter, and storing) for household
heating and cooking, waste wood is
produced (in shape of: sawdust, chips,
sha-vings, bark and other) which usually
is throw on landfill or burn on open space.
According to variable fire wood cut-
ting from year to year, the average gross
volume quantity is between 600.000 and
650.000 m
3
/y, and waste wood from fire

Figure 1.3. Average annual theoretical
gross waste wood mass quantity for
deciduous and coniferous trees (period
1997-2007 in R. of Macedonia), t/y
wood preparation between 8.600 and
9.400 m
3
/y, or about 1,45 % of total fire
wood volume.

1.2. Average annual gross waste wood
volume quantity from wood
industry
Waste wood from wood industry
(wood processing) can be group in 2
main groups:
- primary waste wood from: sawing,
and panels production,
- secondary waste wood from:
carpentry, furniture and polishing.
Waste from wood sawing is pro-
duced during the process of logs sawing
and production of: board and plank,
beam, parquet and other product. The
quantity of this waste is different and
depends from many factors.
According to variable technical wood
cutting from year to year, the average
gross volume quantity is between
140.000 and 150.000 m
3
/y, and waste
wood from logs sawing is between
70.100 and 73.000 m
3
/y, or about (48-50)
% of total technical wood volume.
During the technical wood process-
sing in form of carpentry, furniture and
other products, in wood industry is also
created waste wood. The quantity of
61
wood waste is different from one to other
industry, and depends on dimension, type
and quality of logs, wood processing

Figure 1.4. Average annual: theoretical, technical and economical gross waste wood
mass quantity production by source and type of trees in R. of Macedonia, (period
1997-2007), t/y
equipment and the type of final product.
Average annual waste wood volume from
technical wood processing in R. of Mace-
donia is between 29.400 and 30.700
m
3
/y.

1.3. Total annual gross volume and
mass of waste wood in R. of
Macedonia
Total waste wood volume from
timber harvesting and forest clearing,
wood preparation and processing is pre-
sented in figure 1.2. Because for waste
wood energy contain assessment is ne-
cessary, first their gross mass is
determined. Figure 1.3 gives data for an-
nual theoretical waste wood gross mass
quantity in R. of Macedonia for 10 years
period (1997-2007).
The theoretical waste wood gross
mass from deciduous trees is 76.660 t/y,
and its much more large (87 %) then
from coniferous 11.545 t/y (13 %) trees.
Figure 1.4 gives data for: theoretical,
technical and economical gross waste
wood mass quantity production, depen-
ding on source and total waste wood
mass quantity in R. of Macedonia (1997-
2007), in t/y.
2.0. Waste biomass from agricultural
and animal husbandry in RM
Agriculture production results, bet-
ween others, with regular production of
large quantities of waste. These are re-
sidues after harvesting the grains and
industrial cultures, brunches after regular
annual cutting of orchards and vineyards.
In animal husbandry, that is the manure
in rigid or liquid shape.
Present habit is burring the waste by
plugging, burring at the site where they
have been collected, to let them to decay,
or to use them for animal feeding.
This source of waste biomass can
be divided in the following groups:
62
biomass from agriculture,
biomass from livestock and poultry,
Biomass from agriculture is produ-
ced during the growing of:

Figure 2.1. Average yearly: theoretical, technical and economical gross waste wood
mass quantity production by source and type of trees in R. of Macedonia, (period
1997-2007), t/y
grain plants (straw from: wheat, bar-
ley, oats, rye and other) maize (leaf, trunk
and core), rice (straw and husks),
vegetable plants (bean, peas, pota-
to, pepper, tomato, watermelon, cabbage,
cucumber and other),
industrial plants (sugar beet, sugar-
cane, sunflower, cotton, tobacco, poppy
and other),
fodder plants (clover, alfalfa, forage
sugar beet and other),
fruit trees (apple, plum, pear, cherry,
peach, sour cherry, walnut and other).
2.1. Waste biomass quantity from
agriculture by sources
Waste biomass quantity from grain
plants. Average technical waste biomass
production from grain plant harvesting in
R. of Macedonia for years 1997-2004 is
carrying out 576.200 t/y (collection of
about 90 %), while economical waste bio-
mass production is carrying out 210.578
t/y (rest biomass is using like fodder and
bedding material).
Waste biomass quantity from vege-
table plants. The average theoretical qu-
antities of dry waste biomass from vege-
table plants (harvesting and processing)
is between 125.000 and 135.000 t/y (ave-
rage 129.566 t/y), while technical quanti-
ties is carrying out 110.295 t/y (about 85
% of theoretical potential). Economical
potential is 67.020 t/y (about 60 % from
technical potential).
Waste biomass quantity from Indus-
trial plants. Total theoretical quantities of
waste biomass from industrial plants are
carrying out between 22.000 and 31.300
t/y (average 26.920 t/y), while technical
quantities is 21.770 t/y (about 81 % of
theoretical potential). Economical poten-
tial is 13.833 t/y (63,5 % from technical
potential).
Waste biomass quantity from fodder
cereals. The average theoretical quantity
of dry waste biomass from fodder cereals
(depending of the year), which is collec-
ted from sown area and preparing is
between 140.000 and 145.500 t/y (ave-
63
rage 143.592 t/y). The average quantity
from fodder cereals preparation is bet-
ween 13.100 and 15.000 t/y (average
13.683 t/y). The average yearly technical
quantities is 17.765 t/y (about 12,4 % of
theoretical potential). Economical poten-
tial is 7.254 t/y (40,8 % from technical
potential).
Waste biomass quantity from fruit
trees and vineyard. The average theo-
retical quantity of dry waste biomass from
logging fruit trees and vineyard is carrying
out 176.594 t/y (from fruit trees 30010 t/y
and from vineyard 146.584 t/y). The tech-
nical yearly quantities from logging trees
and vineyard are carrying out 142.455 t/y
(about 71 % of theoretical potential). Eco-
nomical potential is carrying out 81.586
t/y (57,3 % from technical potential).
Figure 2.1, gives data of average
annual theoretical, technical and econo-
mical waste biomass quantity from agri-
culture for period of 8 years (1997-2004)
in R. of Macedonia, in spite of the plant
type (grain, vegetable, industrial, fodder,
fruit and vineyard) (Source: Statistical
Yearbook of the R. of Macedonia 2002
and 2005).
2.2. Waste biomass from livestock and
poultry
Waste manure from livestock and
poultry, in case of stall rising of:
- cattle (cow, calf, heifer, bulls and
oxen)
- horses (colts, mares, geldings and
other)
- pigs (porkers, sows, boars and other)
- sheeps (lambs and other).
- poultry.
Figure 2.2, gives a data of average
yearly livestock manure quantity by sour-
ces (from: cattle, sheep, pig and horse)
and poultry for 8 years period (1997-
2004) in R. of Macedonia (Source: Statis-
tical Yearbook of the R. of Macedonia
2002 and 2005).
3.0. Solid communal waste in
Republic of Macedonia
The solid communal waste can be
treated as energy source due to the fact
that containing organic maters. That
allows its burning with additional of small
quantities of other fuels or even without

Figure 2.2. Average yearly livestock and
poultry manure quantity by sources, res-
pectively from stall and open area-total
(period 1997-2004 in R. of Macedonia),
t/y
that. Quality of solid communal waste
from organic point of view depends
mainly on its composition. In developed
European countries nearly 80 % of total
waste is organic. Above 65 % of it is of
biological origin (paper, plastic, food an
animal wastes). In R. of Macedonia this
presence is much lower due to the lower
living standard of population.
Solid communal waste can be clas-
sified (depending by source) as:
- communal (households-urban and
rural, trash from street and courts),
- commercial waste,
- industrial waste (waste from
technological processes)
- waste from construction and
demolition of buildings, and
- clinical waste
In order to enable organization of
regular collection of communal waste un-
der economically justified condition, it is
proposed to organize 7 regional stores of
waste (Figure 3.1), where to organize its
treatment with modern technologies.
64
For the estimation of quantities of
communal waste in the listed regions,
result of own and measurement of exist-
ing landfill have been used. It was ac-
cepted that in town 0,82 kg/day per per-
son (300 kg/y) been is produced, 0,41
kg/day per person (150 kg/y) in villages
and 0,14 kg/day per person (50 kg/y) in
commercial units.
For the estimation of economical po-

Figure 3.1. Communal rigid solid waste in
R. of Macedonia)- Collection regions
tential, beside other factors, it is ne-
cessary to take into account that part of
the waste can be recycled, i.e. returned
back to the industrial technological pro-
cesses, for production of new products or
for production compost, i.e. organic ma-
nure. This is the reason why for the need
of estimation of economical potential for
energy production, two variants have
been used, i.e. 25 % and 40 % recycling
of paper and plastics.
Figure 3.2 give a data about average
annual theoretical, technical and econo-
mical available quantity of solid commu-
nal wastes by source and regions in Re-
public of Macedonia.
4.0. Energy potential of waste bio-
mass in Republic of Macedonia
Biomass is organic matter which can
be use as a source of energy in the form
of:
- solid (residues, pellet, briquette,
charcoal),
- liquid (ethanol, methanol, biodiesel),
and
- gas (biogas) state.
Principally three groups of technolo-
gies for biomass transformation can be
applied, i.e.:
- thermo technical transformation
(burning, gasification and methanol
production),
- biochemical transformation (anaero-
bic transformation for biogas produc-
tion and aerobic for ethanol produc-
tion), and
- chemical transformation (biodisel
and lubricant production).

Figure 3.2. Average annual theoretical,
technical and economical available quan-
tity of solid communal waste by sources
and regions in R. of Macedonia, in t/yr
4.1. Average annual available energy
from waste wood in Republic of
Macedonia
Heat value of waste wood is deter-
mined in the base of dry mass (moisture
contain between 15-20 %). Law heat
value for dry waste wood mass from
deciduous trees is accepted 18.250
kJ/kg, and for coniferous trees 19.300
kJ/kg.
Figure 4.1 gives a data for: theoretical,
technical and economical energy produc-
tion from waste wood, depending from
source and total energy in R. of Macedonia
(1997-2007), in PJ/y.
From figure 4.1, it can be seen that
total economical energy production from
waste wood from forests logging is
1,2216 PJ/y (deciduous 1,0325 PJ/y and
coniferous 0,1891 PJ/y). From logs
65
sawing 0,454 PJ/y (deciduous 0,338 PJ/y
and coniferous 0,116 PJ/yr) and technical
wood processing plant 0,1633 PJ/y
(deciduous 0,121 PJ/y and coniferous
0,0423 PJ/y).
4.2. Average annual available energy
from agriculture and livestock/po-
ultry in R. of Macedonia
The heat value (low) of biomass
from agriculture in this project is deter-
mined for dry waste biomass (moisture

Figure 4.1. Average yearly: theoretical, technical and economical energy production
from waste wood by source and type of trees in R. of Macedonia, (period 1997-2007),
PJ/y
contain between 15-20 %).
For transformation of waste manure
from livestock and poultry, usually is
using anaerobic fermentation of biomass.
Final product of this process is biogas
(mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and
small quantity of NH
3
and H
2
S).
Average annual energy production
(theoretical, technical and economical)
from agriculture (grain plants, vegetable
plants, industrial plants, fodder plants and
from fruit trees and vineyard) and live-
stock (cattle, sheep, pig, horse) and
poultry in R. of Macedonia: is presented
in figure 4.2 (1997-2004).
Average total annual theoretical en-
ergy production from waste biomass from
agriculture and manure from livestock
and poultry (figure 4.2) is carrying out
18,93 PJ/y; technical energy production
is carrying out 14,0845 PJ/y and
economical energy production is carrying
out about 6,4 PJ/y.
4.3. Average annual available energy
from solid communal waste in R.
of Macedonia
Figure 4.3 give a data about average
annual theoretical, technical and econo-
mical energy production from solid com-
munal wastes by source and quantity of
recycling matters in Republic of Macedo-
nia.
Average total economical available
energy from solid communal waste in R.
of Macedonia in case of 25 % recycling of
paper, plastic and rubber is 56,7 % of
66
technical available energy potential. In
case of 40 % recycling of paper, plastic
and rubber it is 41,1 %.
Average annual economical availab-
le energy potential from solid communal
waste in R. of Macedonia in case of 25 %
recycling of paper, plastic and rubber is
2,33 PJ/y, while in case of 40 % recycling
of paper, plastic and rubber is 1,98 PJ/y.


Figure 4.2. Average annual energy pro-
duction (theoretical, technical and econo-
mical) from waste biomass from agricul-
ture, livestock and poultry manure, by so-
urces (period 1997-2004) in Republic of
Macedonia, PJ/y
4.4. Total average annual energy
potential of waste biomass in R.
of Macedonia
Figure 4.4 gives data about average
annual energy potential of waste biomass
(theoretical, technical and economical) by
source and quantity of recycling matters
in Republic of Macedonia in PJ/y and
Figure 4.5 in GWh/y.
5.0. Conclusions
Estimations made for the theoretical,
technical and economical energy poten-
tial of waste biomass in Republic of
Macedonia (forestry, agriculture, animal
husbandry and communal waste) enable
to make also estimation of its summary
and participation of different categories.
From figure 4.4 it can be seen that the
largest participation in the total econo-
mical energy potential of waste biomass
in Republic of Macedonia is the one of
agricultural waste. For the case of 25 %
recycling of paper, plastics and rubber
(from solid communal waste), it is 7,1
PJ/y (61,12 %), or for the case of 40 %
recycling it is 63 %.
Second one is the solid communal
waste with 2,33 PJ/y (20,14 %), than the
wood waste with 1,22 PJ/y (10,55 %) and

Figure 4.3. Average annual theoretical,
technical and economical available ener-
gy from solid communal waste in R. of
Macedonia, in PJ/y
at the end energy potential of the waste
from animal husbandry with 0,94 PJ/y
(8,1) %.
6.0. References
1. Todorova, M., Mijovska, M.,Georgi-
evska, L. & Nedanovska, L. Statis-
tical Yearbook of the Republic of
Macedonia, 2005 Skopje 2005.
2. Todorova, M., Mijovska, M.,Georgi-
evska, L. & Nedanovska, L. Statis-
tical Yearbook of the Republic of Ma-
cedonia, 2002 Skopje 2002.
3. Production and financial plan, JP
Macedonian forests, Skopje 2006.
4. Annual Report, JP Macedonian fo-
rests, Skopje 2006.
5. Production and financial plan, JP
Macedonian forests, Skopje 2008.
6. S. Armenski: Bioenergy from waste
wood from forests and industry,
West Balkan Project, 2005.
7. S. Armenski: Biomass Energy,
book, Publisher "Alfa-94", 243 pp,
Skopje, May 2009.
8. K. Popovski, S. Armenski, E. Popov-
ska, S.Popovska-Vasilevska: Bio-
mass Energy in Macedonia, Mace-
donian Geothermal Association,
Skopje 2009.
67















68









2. BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN
OTHER BALKAN COUNTRIES


69







































70


ENERGY FROM BIOMASS IN ALBANIA
Artan Leskoviku
RES and EE, Albanian National Agency of Natural Resources

ABSTRACT
Biomass is currently a source for renewable energy in Albania. Increasing global prices
for fossil fuels, concerns over energy security, and commitments to reduce CO
2
emis-
sions has increased the demand for biomass in the energy sector.

Keywords: wood energy; bioenergy; biofuel; fossil fuels; wood products, sustainable
harvest, outlook studies, renewable energy, green house gases, biomass, economical
value, primary and secondary forest fuels.

Introduction
Energy is the key theme for future
world development. The energy demand
worldwide is increasing rapidly, especially
in the developing countries and transition
countries. The great challenge now is to
meet this energy demand in a sustainable
manner without harming the environment.
Without a sustainable reinforcement of
the global energy supply system, sus-
tainable development will not be possible.
It is absolutely certain that without major
changes in energy supply systems
climate change will have significant
impacts on human life.

Summary of presentations

In the priorities of Albania strategy it
is emphasized that: The sustainable ma-
nagement of natural resources of forests
and pastures means well-governing and
usage of these resources in a manner
and a rhythm that preserve biodiversity,
productivity, regeneration capability, vita-
lity and their potential to fulfill nowadays
and for the future.
The ecological function, economic
function, social function at national and
global level without causing damages to
other ecosystems.
The strategy defines strategic purpo-
ses for the development of forest and
pasture sector, with a view to developing
new policies for the forest and pasture
sector that include the production of bio-
energy as one of the principal objectives
of the strategy. Development that provi-
des sustainability of natural resources,
productivity and a high level of environ-
ment, providing economic development
that can face the recent demands of
population without any compromise with
demands of future generations.
Albania has a popularity density rela-
tively low compared with other Mediter-
ranean Countries. The total area is 28.7
thousand km
2
, of which less than 2
thousands km
2
is occupied with lakes and
rivers, while the agricultural activities oc-
cupy around 7 thousands km
2
. The cities
and other urban infrastructure including
ports, streets and railways occupy less
than 1.5 thousands km
2
. In the upper
alpine height over 1500 m are placed
71
more than 90% of 18.7 thousand km
2
,
while the least 11.0 thousand km
2
are
placed in the height less than 1000 m.
The production of the agricultural
products in our country is relatively low in
comparison with other European coun-
tries, which means that the potential
possibility of the use agricultural remnant
is limited for the possibility to justify their
economic use.
The biomass potential in our country
can be grouped in 4 main categories:
* Woods and woods remnant from
different processes in wood industry;
Plants remnants (stem, seed) after
their productive cycle end, which is not
going to be use in other economy
branches;
Energy plants (woods) which growth
as fuel wood.
Animals remnants (fertilizer, bones,
skin) not to be use in other economy
branches;
Forest Inventory carried out during
years 2005-2007, the sustainable annual
harvesting possibility is 1,152,000 m3.
The annual potential of biomass for bio-
energy production includes firewood,
branches, foliage and residues of timber
processing.
Firewood consumption is estimated
to be around 2 million m3, much higher
than the official statistics record. The
difference is considered to be the result
of illegal cutting. The potential for bio-
energy production will be higher if we
take also into account the timber provided
from thinnings ( 35000 m3/year) and
timber provided from artificial plantations
with species of short cyclem of pro-
duction, like willow, eucalyptus, poplar,
acacia, tamarix.
According to the Ministry of Agri-
cultures statistics, Albania possesses
about 403,651 ha bare land that could be
used for short rotation plantations for
energy production. Rough estimation:
400,000 families live in rural areas in
Albania, their estimated annual average
consumption is 5 m
3
, resulting in an
estimated national consumption of
2000000 m
3
)
The potential of energy derived from
our forest resources is estimated as
follows:

Table 1 Potential annual sustainable wood and biomass production from forests (2007)
according to the last NFI


72
Albania has a forest and pasture
area that cover about 52% of whole
territory, but the state of the forest
resources is not so good. The country is
hilly and mountainous in character with
different forms of vegetation. As result of
the last National Forest Inventory carried
out during the years 2005-2007 is drawn
the current state of forest resources for
Albanian Forest Fund:
.
Fig 1: Map of land use in Albania:

73
Table 2 Results of last NFI in Albania


Energy evaluating of biomass that
comes from wood is estimate seeing the
possibility of their conversion in fuel
wood, wood-wool and match-wood, cra-
shed chaffs and canebrake and crashed
briquette of wood-wool considering forest
maintenance. Table 3 gives possible en-
ergy potential of forestry and their rem-
nants.
Pronouncedly that for the other bio-
mass source is made approximation from
scientific institutions because there are
not used as energetic fuel. Energetic
potential from agricultural remnants for
2007 was around 2300 GWh/year, while
forecast of the urban remnants potential
in biggest regions for 2020 will be ap-
proximate 1460 GWh/year. Calculations
are made in statistics data from Ministry
of Agriculture and INSTAT.

Fuelwood

Traditional use of biomass ( wood
and dry manure burned in stoves ) was
quite developed in Albania. The utilisa-
tion of fuelwood is well known in traditi-
onal fireplaces, firewood boilers, wood-
burning stoves and similar small heating
systems.
Energy from agro-residues
With regard to the biomass from the
agricultural plants, it can not be taken into
account since these agricultural remains
are being use as food or shelter for
domestic animals during the winter
period. While biomass produced by the
livestock can not be taken into account
due to the non-considerable number of
domestic animals, as well as fro the fact
that they are grouped in livestock farms.
For this reason, they are scarce and they
are presently used as organic fertilizer.
Energy from animal residues
Dispersion is also the problem in the
livestock breeding sector. The absence of
modern units for intensive breeding ren-
ders collection of significant quantities of
manure impossible. It is clear, as in agri-
culture, that there are higher priorities
than biomass exploitation. The absence
of environmental legislation and/or control
eliminates an important factor for biomass
utilisation.
Energy from Solid and Urban Waste
Utilisation of urban waste for energy
production seems interesting only in
Tirana area, mainly due to the concen-
tration of population. The main barriers
come from the minimal cost of the
present methods for disposal and from
the semi-urban character of wastes
(high percentage of organic matter that
could not permit burning of waste without
significant quantities of fuel). Landfill gas
is an attractive option, but existence of
well constructed landfill sites is a
prerequisite and can not be considered
important for the national energy balance.

Conclusions about biomass energy
usage in Albania
In addition to the direct power and

74

Table 3. Energy evaluating of biomass

Unit
Thin
Brunch
Brunch Bole
Board
rem-
nants
Block
head
Total
Perennial
forests
000
m
3
/year
8799 22165 4517 1011 4995 41487
Forests
greenness
000
m
3
/year
442 1345 536 120 340 2783
Annual wood
production
000
m
3
/year
9241 23509 5052 1131 5335 44269
Energy
potential
GWh/year 28 70 15 3 16 132
Advantage
potential for
energy
producing
000
m
3
/year
7921 21103 4537 1012 4789 39362
Advantage
economic
potential for
energy
production
GWh/year 24 63 14 3 14 117
Origin: Agricultural University
Table 4: Biomass Energy Potential in Albania

Theore-
tical
potential
Partci-
pation
in Alba-
nian
Energy
balance
Technical
energy-
Heat
potential
Participa-
tion in
energy
balance
Heat
Techni-
cal ener-
gy
Electrici-
ty
Partici-
pation
in ener-
gy ba-
lance-
Electrici
-ty
Probab-
le econo-
mic po-
tential for
coming
decade
GWh % GWh % GWh % GWh
Forest
remnants
263.63 1.069 234.45 0.951 70.34 1.066 315.10
Grain
remnants
1,521.08 6.170 979.81 3.975 293.94 4.454 1,316.78
Fruit-Tree
remnants
168.05 0.682 142.90 0.580 42.87 0.650 207.49
Animals
remnants
585.25 2.374 521.65 2.116 156.50 2.371 701.47
Oily plants
remnants
62.34 0.253 57.10 0.232 17.13 0.260 76.72
Urban
remnants
1,576.38 6.395 1,276.12 5.177 382.84 5.801 1,446.64
TOTAL 4,176.72 16.943 3,212.03 13.030 580.77 14.600 4,064.19
Resource: National Strategy of Energy


75

environmental benefits, biomass energy
systems offer numerous other potential
benefits that are very important especially
for Albania. Some of the conclusions
drawn by my presentation are:
Main source for electricity power
production to Albania is by hydropower.
The electricity power covers 58% of
domestic use energy sources.
Energy independence of Albania is
55% and rest part of energy demands our
country fulfill by means of import.
Annual consumption of firewood is
bigger than net annual growth (incre-
ment).
The potential contribution of biomass
from forests to overall national energy
consumption in
Albania is around 3.9% of the annual
energy consumption.

References
1. Forestry General Directory 2007:
Raporti final i Inventarizimit kom-
betar te Pyjeve ne Shqiperi.
2. Bulletin of Ministry of Agriculture
2008
3. Albania National Energy Strategy
2003-2015
4. Bulletin of Ministry of Environmental
2007
5. INSTAT 2007: Vjetari statistikor
2003-2007.
























76



POTENTIALS AND UTILISATION OF BIOMASS
ENERGY IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Azrudin HUSIKA
Mechanical Engineering Faculty Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

1. Summary
The utilisation of the biomass energy is the global trend urged by the campaign against
climate change that streamlines the technological development of the developed
countries, increases employment and export, decreases dependence on fossil fuels,
increases safety of energy supply, etc. At the same time, these are the typical goals of
the national energy policies. The most important source of biomass in Bosnia and
Herzegovina (BiH) for energy production is the forest woody biomass (firewood and
logging slash) and wood waste from the wood processing industry. The agricultural
biomass residues have important energy potential in some parts of northern and north-
eastern Bosnia. In BiH the biomass energy has important role mainly when it comes to
firewood for production of heat energy. Currently, the biomass in the form of firewood
and wood coal is the increasingly used energy source in BiH, the average utilisation of
which is estimated to be 1,464,400 ton per year. However, the level of efficiency of the
energy conversion devices is quite low. In some parts of BiH, the share of biomass in
heating of households is up to 60% (parts of Eastern Bosnia). According to the BiH
Energy Sector Study, the average annual share of biomass in the total consumption of
primary energy was about 4.2%. In theory, the available biomass may reach the share
of nearly 14% of the total energy consumption. The utilisation of forest waste has been
low so far; however, the pellet producers have become interested in higher utilisation
of forest waste. The estimate is that the installed capacity of biomass boilers (wood
waste, pellets and briquettes) in BiH in 2010 is about 100 MW.
Keywords: biomass, potentials, barriers
2. Introduction
According to the BiH constitution,
responsibility for energy lies with the en-
tities. Therefore, all strategy documents
have been developed at the level of en-
tities. Thus, in 2008 the Federation BiH
developed the Energy Sector develop-
ment Strategy Paper, and Republic
Srpska adopted the Energy Development

77

Strategy for 2010. Both of these strategy
papers envisage more intensive utilisa-
tion of renewable energy sources, inclu-
ding biomass, but without any specific
figures regarding the share of biomass in
the total energy consumption. At the level
of state, the BiH Energy Strategy has
been developed. On the basis of avai-
lable information, it provides the overview
of the current status in the relevant field.
Basic original energy sources in BiH
are coal and hydro-energy. BiH imports
natural gas and petrol. The structure of
the primary energy is the following: coal
56%, hydro-energy 10%, liquid fuels 28%
and natural gas 6%. As for the production
of electrical energy, coefficient of the
installed capacities of the thermo-power
plants compared to hydro-power plants is
49:51 respectively, while the coefficient of
production of electrical energy of these
two sources is 75:25 respectively. The
basic characteristic of the BiH energy
sector is the low efficiency of utilisation of
energy in the course of life cycle (from
coal extraction or fuel import to conver-
sion of energy into cash or comfortable
living conditions). The consequence of
this if a very intensive utilisation of energy
in 1991. BiH had almost by 2,5 times
higher consumption of energy per GDP
than any other former Yugoslav republic
(including Croatia and Macedonia). One
of the reasons for the very intensive utili-
sation of energy in BiH at the time was
that electrical energy was exported at low
prices to other former Yugoslav republics.
The consumption of electrical energy
is an important indication of the living
standard. In 2004, the average global
consumption of energy was about 70 GJ
per capita. In the developed countries it
reached 236 GJ/per capita and in BiH it
was about 50 GJ/per capita, which is the
clear indication that it was well below the
average level. The consumption of elec-
trical energy in BiH per capita is also be-
low the global average and in 2000 it was
1.915 kWh/per capita; the global average
was 2.343 kWh/per capita and the ave-
rage of OECD countries was 8089 kWh/
per capita. This is another clear indication
that some BiH citizens live below the po-
verty limit. The level of energy consum-
ption in BiH before the war (1991) was
about 73 GJ per capita, which exceeds
the global average (around 69 GJ/per
capita). One of the energy consumption
efficiency indications in a country is the
energy intenseness that makes the con-
sumed energy and GDP coefficient. In
2000, an average of 10,14 GJ was con-
sumed in order to acquire the USD 1.000
GDP at global level. In the same year, the
developing countries consumed 22,57 GJ
for USD 1.000, and BiH consumed 30,1
GJ to acquire the same level of revenue.
This figure indicates that more than 20%
of GDP is spent on energy sector in BiH
with the existing level of energy intensi-
veness. Such a high share of energy sec-
tor in GDP clearly indicates that energy
sector in BiH should be addressed in
more detail [2].
Although the level of meeting the
basic demands for energy is quite high in
BiH, poor persons still have a restricted
access. The majority of households in
BiH are connected with the network of
electrical energy supply but it is not that
often a case with the natural gas or
district heating systems. Persons with low
income consume less in order to meet the
elementary needs for energy. In addition,
the use of firing wood is quite spread in
BiH, especially in poor house-holds.

78

According to the estimation for 2005, the
share of households and com-mercial
sector in BiH was 50%, of in-dustry 25%,
and of transport 25% of total consumption
of electrical energy. There-fore, the share
of households and com-mercial sector in
the consumption of el-ectrical energy is
the highest one. Energy consumed by
households and comercial sector is used
(mostly) for heating (heat-ing and water
treatment, cooking), light-ing as well as
for electrical devices and equipment [4].
3. Potential of biomass as a rene-
wable energy source in Bosnia
and Herzegovina
The potential of wood biomass is the
forest wood (natural forests and energy
plantations), biomass from the farming
fields, and woody residue and waste
mainly from the primary and secondary
wood processing [1]. There are several
distinct types of wood biomass according
to the distinction based on natural,
technical, economic, environmental and
marked related potential [5]. Based on
other criteria, there is a distinction
between theoretical and effective poten-
tial. Theoretical potential represent bio-
mass that can be produced from forests
while effective potential depend on the
forest management principles, biomass
utilisation technologies, wood product
market, socio economic position of the
forest owner, etc. [1].
Theoretical potential of the annual
global forest growth is estimated to be
110 x 10
9
TJ, which is by several hundred
times more than the total global primary
energy consumption. Some believe that
improvement of the forest management
and other biomass sources as well as
better utilisation of logging slash repre-
sent cheaper solution than making ener-
gy plantations [1].
The most important source of bio-
mass in BiH for production of energy is
the forest wood mass (firing wood and
logging slash) and wood waste from the
wood processing industry. Biomass resi-
dues from agricultural production have
important energy potential in some parts
of Northern and North-eastern Bosnia.
Forests are the main natural re-
source in BiH that is one of the richest
European countries when it comes to
forestation and forest diversity compared
to the total area of the country. As 15 to
25% of the soil is arable and covered with
pastures, BiH has advantageous condi-
tions for biomass utilisation. The Figure
3.1 presents the arrangement of forests
and forest land in BiH, especially regar-
ding the deciduous and coniferous forests
and shrubs and bushes. The Figure
demonstrates that the largest area is
covered with deciduous forests), while
about 10% of soil is bare (that is one fifth
of the forest soil). Major part of shrubs
and maquis are in the karstic Mediter-
ranean area and are less utilisable for the
production.
Of total area covered with forest,
81,3% is state-owned, and 18,7% is
private property.
Almost 50% of soil BiH is covered
with forest (about 2.7 million ha), and
meadows and pastures constitute about
20%. About 14% of land is arable of
which 5% make permanent crops which
may result in advanced agriculture and
forest management industry. The afore-
mentioned indicates that biomass has a

79


Figure 3.1. Map of arrangement of forest area in Bosnia and Herzegovina [2]
large potential as the renewable energy
source.
The most important biomass source
for energy production is the forest wood
mass (firing wood, wood waste and wood
industry waste and wood industry waste).
However, agricultural waste has impor-
tant energy potential on the northern,
central and southern part of BiH. The
total wood deposit in forests in BiH is 317
565 740 m
3
or 203,6 m
3
/ha (62% deci-
duous forests and 38% coniferous fo-
rests). The annual volume growth of BiH
forests is 9 500 600 m
3
or 6,1 m
3
/ha, and
potential annual scope of cut is 7 451 450
m
3
or 4,75 m
3
/ha [1]. The structure of
products made of forest wood in BiH
2003 is indicated in Table 3.1.
Of total land area of 51.219 km
2
, the
share of forests and forest covered areas
is about 27.000 km
2
(around 50% of total
land registered in 1960s and 1970s),
However, because of the uncontrolled
cutting, mines, forest fires, building of
tanks etc. in the last ten years, it is be-
lieved that the area covered with forest

80

Table 3.1 Structure of processed wood products in Bosnia and Herzegovina for 2003
[1]
Conifers Broadleaved Wood assortments

m
3

%

m
3

%

Veneer logs and logs for 22.384 1,20 35.372 1,62
Saw logs I, II, III classes 1.485.803 79,45 839.883 38,47
TT poles 5.168 0,28 0 0,00
Round pit timber 127.954 6,84 7.426 0,34
Other round wood 41.984 2,25 2.110 0,10
Pulpwood 175.905 9,41 21.598 0,99
Firewood 10.814 0,58 1.276.737 58,48
Total 1.870.012 100,00 2.183.126 100,00


has become smaller. The aforementioned
fact has been confirmed by the most
recent satellite research (within the EU
funded CORINE programme), showing
that forests currently cover 40% of land in
BiH (10% less than in 1970s). Also, it is
important to emphasize that one part of
BiH territory is mined (about 8%). The
mined territory has become considerably
smaller as the demining process advan-
ces, which is of key importance for the
development of agriculture and forestry
[2].
The forestry sector makes 10% of
GDP, which is probably the percentage
lower than the real share of this sector for
the following two reasons:
Industries based on wood are mainly
grouped in the production sectors, civil
engineering and trade,
Most of the forest products are
traded under the counter (grey economy)
The share of wood export in the total
BiH export is approximately 15%. It is
further estimated that 15% of total
population earn a living from forestry and
related industry, which best indicates the
importance of this sector. Generally, it
can be concluded that the demand for
forest products has increased, and the
availability of forest area meeting the
industry demands has decreased. It is
important to note that the industry
consisting of large and medium large saw
mills and wood processing companies
mainly uses old technologies [2].
Firing wood is especially important in
villages and small municipalities that lack
local district heating systems and makes
up to 60% of total household heating in
some parts of BiH. It is less important in
large urban areas.
Amount of wood biomass given in
the Table 3.3. also approximately the
same with the previous assessments.
Literature figures [1] show that
potential has been decreased and losses
relate to cutting is about 18,55 PJ/a.
1. The existing level of biomass
energy utilisation in Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Biomass energy is important in
Bosnia and Herzegovina mainly with
respect to firing wood for the production
of heating energy. Especially in the areas
where the rural population lives as the
rural population in all areas used biomass
for heating and/or cooking. Biomass in

81

the form of firing wood and wood coal is currently the growing source of energy
Table 3.2. Energy potential of forest biomass in BiH






Table 3.3. Annual biomass potential in Bosnia and Herzegovina [2]
Source of biomass Available
biomass
Potential PJ)

Biogas from farms (m
3
)
20.100.000
0,508

Branch of fruit trees (t) 211.257 0,739
Residues of cereals (t) 634.000
8,876

Residues of beans and oleaginous
plants (t)
3.858
0,038

Saw logs residues (m
3
)
1.141.398 7,524
Firewood (m
3
)
1.464.706
13,181

Forest residues (m
3
)
599.251
2,621

Total 24.154.470
33,485

in BiH, the average consumption of which
is estimated to be 1.464.400 ton per year.
However, the level of efficiency of the
energy conversion devices is quite low.
Biomass consumption in other sectors,
including agriculture, trade and industry,
unlike in households, is low. The firing
wood is mainly important in rural areas
and small urban districts with no access
to district heating network. In some areas
of BiH the share of biomass in household
heating reaches up to 60% (Eastern
Bosnia).
According to the BiH Energy Sector
Study, an average annual biomass share
in the total consumption of primary
energy is about 4,2%. In theory, the
available biomass may reach the share of

almost 14% in the total energy consum-
ption (estimated to be about 1 million
m
3
/year of non-utilized wood waste =
heating for 130.000 houses) [2]. Accor-
ding to the available figures from the First
National Report on Climate Change in
BiH biomass makes about 9% of the total
primary energy supply.
There has been almost no utilization
of forest waste so far. However, pellet
producers have become interested in
utilizing forest waste more. It is estimated
that the installed biomass boiler capacity
(wood waste, pellet and briquette) in BiH
in 2010 is about 100 MW (Source:
Firewood Logging and wood
processing residue
Total amount of wood
biomass for energy
Total potential production m
3
/a 1.464.706 * 1.740.649 3.205.355
Potential annual energy
production from wood biomass
[toe] 314.306 242.417 556.723
[PJ]**
13,16*
(31,13)***
10,15
23,31
(41,28)***
*illegal logging is not included
** 1 milion m
3
solid wood = 7,19 PJ (40% m.c.); 1toe=41,87x10
-6
PJ
*** including estimation 3,46 million m
3
of fuelwood (officially+unregistered logging)
Data source: Petar M.Gvero, Ph.D.,M.Sc. Assistant Professor, 2007.
Firewood Logging and wood
processing residue
Total amount of wood
biomass for energy
Total potential production m
3
/a 1.464.706 * 1.740.649 3.205.355
Potential annual energy
production from wood biomass
[toe] 314.306 242.417 556.723
[PJ]**
13,16*
(31,13)***
10,15
23,31
(41,28)***
*illegal logging is not included
** 1 milion m
3
solid wood = 7,19 PJ (40% m.c.); 1toe=41,87x10
-6
PJ
*** including estimation 3,46 million m
3
of fuelwood (officially+unregistered logging)
Data source: Petar M.Gvero, Ph.D.,M.Sc. Assistant Professor, 2007.

82

Bioenergy doo Vitez).
In recent few years there has been a
trend of increasing biomass utilization (as
wood waste) to produce energy. That
primarily concerns the utilization of wood
waste in the wood processing capacities
for fulfilment of their heat energy needs
(wood drying and space heating). That is
the result of the availability of technology
that may efficiently use of wet dust.
Sawdust from the final wood processing
phase is mainly sold to pellet/briquette
producers. For the sake of illustration, all
wood processing capacities visited by the
author of this Article in the previous year
(about 10 factories) have the installed
sawdust-driven boilers which is sufficient
for their need for heat energy, and the
surplus of sawdust (wet and dry) is sold
to pellet/briquette producers.
There are only few biomass-driven
cogeneration plants in BiH among the
wood industry companies. As for the price
of energy in the plants driven by biomass,
biogas and waste in the Regu-lation
concerning the utilization of the re-
newable energy sources in the Federa-
tion BiH the purchase price has been de-
fined for the production of generated el-
ctrical energy from those plants. Repub-
lika Srpska also has the defined purchase
prices for electrical energy from the bio-
mass-driven plants. In light of that, there
are several initiatives (projects in early
development phase) for the construction
of plants heating stations (co-genera-
tion) in BiH of heat power between 6 and
30 MW. The first district heating station
using exclusively wood waste was con-
structed in Gracanica and has power of 8
MW. The plan is to increase its ca-pacity
by additional 6 MW. The overview of the
on-going projects regarding the develop-
ment of the district biomass driven boiler
stations is given in the Table 4.1.

Table 4.1. District boiler stations biomass-driven plants in BiH in the project
development phase
location Existing source of energy Project Expected reduction
of CO
2
emission
Bosanska
Gradiska
Heavy fuel oil, 24 MW biomass, 6 MW 3.500 t/a
Prijedor Heavy fuel oil, 60 MW biomass, do 30 MW 15.500 t/a
Gracanica Individual heating and
biomass fuelled district
heating
Additional capacity
in biomass, 6 MW
5.300 t/a
Livno Individual heating Cogeneration on
biomass, 5 MWel
and 20 MWth
50.000 t/a


In recent years, pellet production in
BiH increases rapidly. Sawdust from the
wood processing industry is used as a
raw material for pellet production. Lacking
sawdust, some producers are made to
use forest waste as an input material for
pellet production (for example SwissEco-
pelet Zvornik). There are seven com-
panies dealing with wood pellet
production with the capacity ranging from
3.000 40.000 ton/a. Beside these com-

83

panies, there is a certain number of
small-sized producers producing 1.000 -
2.000 t/a. Therefore, the total capacity is
estimated to be about 150.000 ton/a,
while the annual production is about
60.000 t/a. According to rough estimation,
there is no considerable demand in the
national market as only about 10-15% of
the produced pellet is sold in the territory
of BiH, and the largest part is exported in
the market of Italy, Slovenia and Austria.
However, the demand in the national
market grows. Therefore, the EU Pale
company in 2009 promoted about 70% of
products in the national market.

Table 4.2. Pellet producers in Bosnia and Herzegovina [3]

According to GTZ research in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, potential briquette
production is estimated to 55.000 ton/a.
Currently, 50.000 ton/a is produced.

Table 4.3. Briquette producers in Bosnia and Herzegovina [3]






Other producers in Bosnia and Her-
zegovina have considerably lower capa-
city of 10.000 ton/a.
Pallet and briquette prices in BiH
and Europe are given in the Table 4.4.
Since the pellet and briquette producers
have access to the European market, it
can be expected that the prices will go up
in the forthcoming period, thus reaching
the European prices.
Name of a
company
location

capacity
(t/a)
Interbriket Banja Luka 10.000
ASA-tvrtka Pale 10.000
Vitales Ripac 10.000
Nikacevic Kiseljak 10.000
Brisnik Tomislavgrad 10.000

84


Table 4.4. Prices of briquettes and pallets in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Briquettes
EUR/t
Pellets
EUR/t
Bosnia and Herzegovina 60 90 120 150
Europe 100 - 120 150 - 300


Table 4.5. provides the comparison
of the price of energy contained in a
certain fuel as well as the comparison of
energy on the outlet of the boiler. The


current average level of efficiency of
boilers for certain boilers is taken. The
prices of fuel do not include the storage
and labour costs.

Table 4.5. Comparison of prices of energy produced from various fuels in Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Energy
source Price
Heating
value Cost
Ratio
of
costs
Energy
efficiency
of boilers
Cost of
heat on
boiler
outlet
Ratio of
costs of heat
energy on
boiler outlet
KM/t GJ/t KM/GJ % KM/GJ
coal 100 15,0 6,67 1,00 75 0,09 1,00
firewood 100 15,5 6,45 0,97 70 0,09 1,04
briquete
ss 150 18,0 8,33 1,25 85 0,10 1,10
pellets 270 18,5 14,59 2,19 90 0,16 1,82

The Table 4.5. indicates that the
energy from coal is the cheapest energy
(with the envisaged medium low heat
power), while the energy from firing wood
and briquette is more expensive by 4%
and 10% respectively. The energy from
pellet is considerably more expensive.
However, if the labour force costs are ta-
ken into account as well as the fact that
the pellet process is automatic, the price
of pellet energy is considerably approxi-
mated to the price of energy from other
fuels. In addition, pellet driven boilers ha-
ve more advanced possibilities to adapt
to the real heat need of a space com-
pared to the external temperature. Judg-
ing the present prices of the above re-
ferenced fuels, it can be concluded that
all fuels are competitive and that any
option should be considered depending
on each individual case.

85

2. Barriers to utilisation of biomass
energy in BiH
The issue of utilisation of renewable
energy sources (including biomass) is not
so much a matter of assessment of their
natural potentials as it is a matter of a
series of barriers to their utilisation (tech-
nical, economic, environmental, market
related barriers...). There are countries
and cases where the natural potentials of
renewable energy sources are quite high,
and that form of energy is not used be-
cause some of the barriers to their utili-
sation are strong. Despite the large na-
tural potential in BiH for the production of
energy from biomass, there is a series of
interrelated barriers preventing the using
of the available potential. The barriers are
classified into several categories. There
are six categories of the barriers pre-
sented in this Paper: economic, strategic,
information related, public awareness and
perception barriers, institutional and tech-
nical barriers. Only the economic barriers
are analysed as the most important ones.
There are no earmarked funds in
BiH for financing the projects of utilisation
of biomass energy. The European Com-
mission, through international develop-
ment banks through certain projects of
financing of renewable energy sources,
provides certain subsidies for the bio-
mass projects (grants of 15 to 20%). In
most of the cases, the projects of utili-
sation of biomass energy must be funded
through commercial loans. The local fi-
nancial resources are scarce and the list
of priorities quite long (post-war recon-
struction, food supply, etc.), which finally
means that the tendency when deciding
on investment is to minimise the invest-
ment costs and increase operative costs.
Therefore, the higher cost of equipment
for utilisation of biomass energy is one of
the barriers for the increased biomass
utilisation despite the considerably lower
level of operative costs and quick invest-
ment return.
The lack of biomass stock market is
a big barrier to biomass utilisation. That is
the reason why many investors, both
biomass producers and biomass energy
consumers, fear to invest. Some inves-
tors seek long-term biomass supply con-
tracts as an instrument to overcome this
barrier.
Not taking into account external
costs of utilisation of coal and other fossil
fuels is also a barrier to biomass utili-
sation. Charging air pollutant emission
fee will soon commence which will help
overcome this measure significantly.
3. Conclusion
BiH avails of considerable biomass
potential. The most important source of
biomass in BiH for energy production is
forest wood mass (firing wood and forest
waste) and wood waste from wood pro-
cessing industry. The agricultural bio-
mass residues have important energy
potential in some parts of northern and
North-Eastern Bosnia. According to some
estimates, technical potential can cover
about 14% of needs for primary energy.
The utilisation of biomass energy has
been growing in recent years, especially
in the segment of pellet and briquette
production. Majority of these products are
exported; however, demand in the local
market becomes higher. Further increase
of biomass demand in the local market
will depend on the addressing of the
biomass issue in the national develop-
ment strategy papers. Biomass issue is

86

not addressed in the entity sectoral deve-
lopment strategy papers as it should be
taking into account its potential.
Literature
(1) B. Jovanovic, S, Gurda, J. Music. M.
Bajric, A. Lojo, S. Vojnikovic, A. Ca-
barevic, Forest biomass - Potential
source of renewable energy in Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Faculty of Forestry,
University of Sarajevo, 2005
(2) Study of energy sector in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Energy Institute Hrvoje
Pozar Croatia, Soluziona Spain,
Economy Institute Banja Luka BiH,
Mining Institite Tuzla BiH, 2008
(3) B. Glavonjic, Wood energy: defini-
tion, objectives and challenges in South
East Europe, Wood Energy Congres,
Klagenfurt, Austria, 3rd September, 2009
(4) Stategic plan and programme of
development of energy sector in Fede-
ration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Minis-
try of energy, mining and industry of Fe-
deration of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
2008
(5) Husika A., Proposal of complex
potential of renewable energy in SEE,
International conference Energy efficien-
cy and environmental protection, Zla-
tibor, Serbia, 2008























87




BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN BULGARIA

Anna Aladjadjiyan, Nikolay Kakanakov, Aleksandar Zahariev
National Biomass Association, Bulgaria
www.bgbiom.org

Abstract
Last events in the field of energy supply have raised the role of Renewable Energy
Sources in world scale. The use of biomass in Bulgaria is presently confined to heat
production from residues. The production of biomass per capita is considered high.
Present situation in biomass-for-energy potential in Bulgaria is shortly described.
Assessments of the actual fuel biomass consumption are not enough reliable by now
due to irregular statistics and only several assessment studies done until now, still not
at a national level. Development and harmonization at European level of national
strategy for sustainable use of biomass for energy is necessary. This paper aims to
present recent changes in national energy concept The paper is realized in frames of
CEUBIOM project.

Key words: Biomass, Renewable energy sources, Harmonization, National
strategy

Introduction
National Biomass Association (Bg-
Biom) is partner in the project CEU-
BIOM. This project is financed in the fra-
me of Seventh Framework Programme.
The general aim of CEUBIOM project is
to develop a harmonized method for as-
sessment of biomass potential for bio-
energy.
The development of common policy
in EU for substitution of fossil fuels with
Renewable Energy Sources (RES) re-
quires planning of electricity and heat
production from biomass at Communitys
level. Last tasks performance requires
assessing available biomassfor-energy
resources with acceptable accuracy. This
task is one of the basic assignments of
CEUBIOM project.

Present Situation in Bulgaria
At worlds level Bulgaria is not rich
with fossil fuels. Oil fields have been
registered in Plevens district and on the
cape Shabla, Varnas district. Coal fields
are situated near Lom, Sofia, Elhovo,
along the river Maritza, near Burgas,
Sliven, Bobovdol, etc. Natural gas has
been found near the village Devetaki,
Lovechs region and around the outfall of
the river Kamchia. The research of slaty
gas attracts different investors at the
moment in northern Bulgaria.
Last years a considerable part of
Bulgarian land has been set aside. The
land use as well as the climatic conditions
in Bulgaria offer favorable conditions for
biomass growing and its use for energy
purposes.
Bulgaria has considerable resource
for biomass production [1]. The total area
of Bulgaria counts 110,910 sq km, of
which the land is 110,550 sq km and the
water takes 360 sq km. Approximately
60% of the territory of Bulgaria (flat
countries and hills) is occupied by arable

88

lands (Fig.1) and agricultural breeding:
arable land - 43%; permanent crops - 2%;
permanent pastures - 14%. The forestry
takes the second place with about 30% of
the territory. They occupy the medium-
and high- mountain regions. Irrigated land
takes 12,370 sq km (1993 est.) About 6
% of the territory represents places in-
tended for tourism and recreation. Towns
and villages take about 3-4 % of the
territory.
30%
4%
6%
44%
2% 14%
Forestries Towns and villages
Territory for tourism and recreation Arable land
Permanent crops Pastures


Fig.1 Biomass resources in Bulgaria

The diagram at Fig.1 shows that
about 90 % of territory of Bulgaria is pro-
ducing or is available to produce bio-
mass, which makes a considerable re-
source.
Our previous calculations showed
[2], that the energy equivalent of crop and
animal wastes and residues makes ap-
proximately 2 Mtoe per year, which equ-
als to 90,5 PJ and represents about 22 %
of primary energy supply for 1996.
Bulgarias biomass resource potential
can be estimated also with the help of
table 1, based on data from Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations [cited in 3]:

Table 1: Biomass Resource Potential by Sectors
Biomass resource type Total production Production density
Total land area covered by (avg. 2006-2007, km
2
) (avg. 2006-2007, %)
Arable Land 30,925 28
Permanent Crops 2,005 2
Permanent Meadows and
Pastures
18,450 17
Forest Area 37,000 33
Other Land 20,240 18

89

Inland Water 2,380 2
Primary crop production (avg. 2006-2007, ton) (ton /100 km
2
)
Total primary crops (rank among
COO)
6,858,118 (18) 6,180 (14)
Top 10 primary crops

Wheat 2,846,246 25,642
Maize 950,353 8,562
Sunflower seed 880,509 7,933
Barley 483,027 4,352
Grapes 341,918 3,080
Potatoes 338,302 3,048
Tomatoes 173,079 1,559
Chilies and peppers, green 119,214 1,074
Watermelons 106,431 959
Cabbages and other brassica 86,831 782
Animal units, number (avg. 2006-2007,
number)
(number / 100 km
2
)
Cattle 625,034 5,631
Poultry 19,811,000 178,477
Pigs 977,824 8,809
Equivalent animal units 1,214,273 10,939
Annual round wood production (2006-2007, m
3
) (m
3
/ 100 km
2
)
Total 5,844,000 5,265
Fuel 2,705,500 2,437
Industrial 3,138,500 2,828
Wood-based panels 710,500 640
Annual industrial residues (2006-2007, tons) (tons / 100 km
2
)
Paper and paperboard 377,500 340
Recovered paper 80,000 72.1
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations


90

These data give the value 96.2
PJ/year for the total biomass potential,
which includes three components: forest
biomass - 44.4 PJ, agricultural biomass -
48.2 PJ, and waste biomass from indus-
try - 3.6 PJ. This represents about 16% of
the primary energy supply for 2005.

National Strategy for the Use of
Biomass for Energy Production

The utilisation of the biomass energy
potential in Bulgaria as well as future per-
spectives was developed in the National
Long-Term Programme to Encourage the
Use of Biomass for the Period 2008-2020
[4] and is presented on Table 2:

Table 2: Estimation of biomass energy potential for the period 2005-2020, ktoe

Indicator 2005 2010 2015 2020
Gross domestic consumption 20 137 20 500 22 400 25 600
Final energy consumption 9 276 10 400 11 400 12 500
Gross domestic consumption of biomass 750 1 192 1 514 2 181
Share of gross domestic consumption 3,7% 5,8% 6,8% 8,5%
Final energy consumption of biomass 745 1 090 1 197 1 344
Share of final energy consumption 8,0% 10,5% 10,5% 10,7%

According to this document, in 2020
in case of full utilization of the biomass
energy potential its share will reach 8,5%
in gross domestic consumption. About 38
% of the biomass utilized in 2020 is ex-
pected to be used for the generation of
electric and heat energy, which amounts
to about 8,37 ktoe. From the above total
quantity about 70% of the biomass will be
used for the generation of heat energy,
and respectively 30% - of electric energy.
The share of biomass in final energy
use will reach 10,7%. The largest relative
share will be that of households 55, 8%
followed by transport 25,4% agriculture
etc. The following figures show the final
energy consumption of biomass by basic
economic sectors for 2005 and 2020
(source: the National Long-Term Prog-
ramme to Encourage the Use of Biomass
for the Period 2008-2020).


91

As it can be seen from the figures,
in 2020 the share of biomass use by
households and industry is expected to
decrease due to the implementation of
more efficient biomass combustion tech-
nologies.
An earlier document, the National
Long-Term Programme for Stimulation
the Use of RES 2005-2015 [5], has
developed scenario for the electric power
generation from biomass till years 2010
and 2015 presented in the next Table 3.

Table 3: Prognosis for the electric power generation from biomass till years 2010
and 2015
Till 2010 Till 2015
GWh ktoe GWh ktoe
Produced
electricity
from biomass
418 36.0 849 73.0

No prognoses about heat production from biomass are available.
National Legislative Framework
Sustainability of the use of biomass
for-energy production presumes develop-
ing of convenient legislation. Bulgarian
Renewable and Alternative Energy Sour-
ces and Biofuels Act was adopted in June
2007 for diversifying energy supply, envi-
ronmental protection, to set the terms for
sustainable local and regional develop-
ment, and to increase the capacity of
SMEs and RES producers.It regulates the
public relations aiming to promote the
production and use of electrical, heating
and/or cooling power generated from
renewable and alternative energy sour-
ces, as well as the production and use of
biofuels and other renewable fuels in the
transport sector. Bulgarian Energy Effici-
ency Act is the other Law concerning the
use of Renewable energy sources. It has
been adopted in 1999. Both regulatory
laws have been critisizes and amended in
the past years.
Installation of RES for the generati-
on of electricity with a capacity of up to 5
MW, or for thermal energy production,
requires no license. Preferencial prices
for buying green electricity from produ-
cers are previewed. Unfortunately it caus-
es regular rising of electricity and fuels
prices for consumers. No preferences are
previewed for consumers of electricity
and heat from RES.
Harmonized Approaches for Biomass
Assessment

Current situation in European Union
concerning biomass potential asses-
sment (not only for energy, but also for
other purposes) is very heterogeneous. A
large number of existing assessments
vary considerably in terms of:
- the type of potential (theoretic, tech-
nical, sustainable, economic, ecologic);
- the type of assessed biomass (fo-
rest, forest residues, agriculture and agri-
cultural residues, waste, etc.);
- time frame (including or excluding fu-
ture projections);
- methodologies and approaches;
- basic data used;
- spatial dimension (area covered);
- frame conditions (basic conditions,
assumptions).
This situation makes difficult elabo-
ration of common policy and planning,
since the initial data and final estimations
vary considerably. For any consolidated
actions or political decisions, such a hete-
rogeneous database is highly inadequate,
because the credibility of obtained results
is under question. Thus harmonization of
the methods/work processes is rather
important especially on a national/Euro-
pean level. It should include very clear

92

guidelines on how each country should
undertake the biomass potential asses-
sment in terms of input data, biomass
types considered, area covered and
methods and assumptions used in order
to create a database which is comparable
throughout Europe.
In this context CEUBIOM project
aims to develop a harmonized method in
the assessment of biomass potential for
bioenergy, which should be well appli-
cable and relatively easy to implement
and in line with the assessed user re-
quirements. On the basis of collected in-
formation and
In the case of biomass-for-energy
use it is necessary to assess biomass
potential keeping in mind the quantities
required for feed and food production.
The common EC planning requires com-
patible data about agricultural biomass-
for-energy potential. That means data
from different countries-members of EC
to be collected in the similar way. That is
why it is necessary to harmonize the rules
of data collection in the countries of EC.
Harmonization of agricultural bio-
mass-for-energy databases is essential. It
should include very clear guidelines on
how each country should undertake agri-
cultural biomass potential assessment in
terms of input data, biomass types con-
sidered, area covered and methods and
assumptions used. Most of the countries
in EU have published the methodology
for collecting agricultural biomass infor-
mation in their Statistical Year Books.
The countries that declare they have syn-
chronized their methodology with EU re-
gulations on statistics include Austria,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Ger-
many, Greece, Denmark, Hungary, Italy,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia and
Spain.
Recently the integration of remote
sensing technique for distance asses-
sment of biomass-for-energy became
very attractive. As far as it gives a clear
added value in terms of spatial infor-
mation, it was included as a vital com-
ponent of the method proposed by CEU-
BIOM. Therefore the project focused ex-
clusively on the development of a propo-
sal for a spatially explicit methodology,
providing a uniform resource-focussed
approach for the users.
The requirements of national users
have been identified through implemen-
ting and processing a number of inter-
views collected from countries participa-
ting in the project. The output based on
the processing of questionnaires, has
allowed the formulating of the following
conclusions on users requirements:
1. Data should deliver all types of bio-
mass potential for energy (including
technical, economic, ecologic, etc.);
2. be annually updated;
3. be available at no cost;
4. be suitable for different purposes in-
cluding policies and reporting, but
also very specific ones like the
asses-sment of new investments;
5. the accuracy should be near 100 %;
6. the biomass potential should be split
into individual types of potential
(crop types, wood types, sawmill
product types, waste types);
7. the data should be available as a
GIS or WEB-based continuous map
at a scale of around 1:50.000
aggregable to municipalities and
different NUTS levels;
8. the method to reach this goal should
be of low complexity, so it can easily
be implemented in existing
institutions and it should allow fast
processing.

Conclusion
The development of RES, speci-
fically biomass, requires good knowledge
of biomass-for-energy potential. A consis-
tent supply of high quality and low cost
biomass is very important. The competi-
tion between different use of biomass
for food and feed against industrial use,
should be precisely planned and
controlled through statistical data
collection.

93

Sustainability of agricultural bio-
mass supply should be assessed and
controlled.
The conditions of its sustainable
production and use must be explored and
clearly formulated.

References

1. Aladjadjiyan A. - The potential of the
Bulgarian Agriculture concerning the
biomass supply for energy,
Proceedings of the International
Forum for Bioenergy in South-
Eastern Europe, 25-26 April 2007,
Sofia, Bulgaria, pp. 73-80.
2. Aladjadjian A. - Plant Residues as
Renewable Energy Sources in
Bulgaria. In: Proc. VII-
th
National
Bioenergy Conference, Sept. 15-20,
1996, Nashville, Tennessee, pp.816-
821.
3. Phare project BG9307-03-01
Technical and Economic
Assessment of Bulgarian Renewable
Energy Sources.
4. National Long-Term Programme to
Encourage the Use of Biomass for
the Period 2008-2020, Sofia, Ministry
of Economy and Energy, 2008
5. National Long-Term Programme for
Stimulation the Use of RES 2005-
2015, Ministry of Economy, Energy
and Tourism, Sofia, 2005
6. www.ceubiom.or








94



BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCES IN CROATIA

J. Domac, V. Segon, T. Savic

North-West Croatia Regional Energy Agency, Zagreb, Croatia

Abstract: In the past biomass had never taken an important place in the energy policy
of the Republic of Croatia. However, in the course of the last few years Croatian
scientists and engineers have undertaken considerable research and developed
different technologies for energy production from biomass. This paper deals with
current state of the art of bioenergy in Croatia, the analysis of available resources in
terms of potential, its past and expected further development, identified barriers,
achieved results and further activities.

Keywords: bioenergy, biomass resources, biomass energy potential, Croatia

Introduction
According to the Croatian National
Energy Strategy, adopted in October
2009 by the Croatian Parliament, there is
a significant energy potential for rene-
wable energy sources exploitation in
Croatia. For heating the best options
include biomass, geothermal and solar
radiation; while for electricity production
the identified potentials consider small
hydro, wind, biomass, geothermal and
energy generated through photovoltaics.
With approximately 48 percent of the
total land area of the country covered
with forests and well-developed agricul-
ture and wood processing industry, bio-
mass and woody residues as well as
biogas and bio-fuels have a great poten-
tial as a source of renewable energy, es-
pecially in rural parts of country.
In 2008, the total installed capacity
of biomass was 513.5 MW and 4.59 MW
for heat and electricity generation,
respec-tively. The data on heat capacity
of the heating plants using biomass refer
to the biomass-fired industrial facilities
and do not include information on heat
capacity of small heating furnaces and
hot water preparation in households.
Heat generation from biomass includes
the generation in industrial heating faci-
lities and heat generation from fuelwood
for heating and hot water preparation in
households totalling 16 583 TJ in 2008. In
the past, bioenergy (mostly in form of
fuelwood) represented a very significant
source of energy in Croatia (Fig. 1.1).

Overview of biomass potential
andutilisation in Croatia

The most important source of bio-
mass for energy is wood from forestry
and wood processing. Estimated quanti-
ties regarding wood residues amount to
1.8-1.9 million m
3
solid (12.1 PJ), which
are available for energy production, about
half of which originates from the wood
processing industry. Croatia qualifies
among the European countries with a
considerable expanse per capita (0.51
hectares per capita). According to the da-
ta from the Ministry of Regional Develop-

95

ment, Forestry and Water Management
for 2008, the total forest and forest land
area in Croatia amounts to 2 688 690 ha,
with approximately 78 percent managed
by the public company Hrvatske sume,
Ltd. Zagreb, and a minor part (less than
20 percent) run by private proprietors and
other institutions and companies. This
may prove important for a forthcoming
systematic utilisation of biomass as ener-
gy source due to potential introduction of
advanced equipment and technology and
to creation of wood market as an energy
source. An appropriate category of fo-
rested timberland and woodland plays a
crucial part in the process of obtaining
woody biomass.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1965 1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995
PJ
Others
Wood waste
Fuel wood
Share in total energy supply
1965 24,8%
1970 14,1%
1975 11,2%
1980 7,6%
1985 6,2%
1990 5,6%
1995 4,2%

Figure 1. Historic trends of bioenergy use in Croatia

About 800 thousand tones of bio-
mass residues (energy potential of about
11.4 PJ/year) from agriculture are cur-
rently available, with wheat and corn
being the major agricultural crops. Agri-
cultural residues have a significant ener-
gy potential in both Eastern Croatia and
coastal zone.
Animal manure could deliver only a
modest contribution to bioenergy in Cro-
atia and cattle breeding has been on a
steady decrease in the last years. A
potential amount of biogas output has
been calculated on the basis of the num-
ber of registered livestock as well as the
average biogas yield per cattle unit both
daily and annually. The actually exploit-
able part of the potential amount is esti-
mated to be 20 percent of the total, due
to a number of factors (dispersion of live-
stock, keeping small number of heads of
cattle, keeping the cattle in the open),
and it amounts to 2.0 PJ/year


Table 1. Total primary energy supply in Croatia for years 2006-2008
Energy source 2006 2007 2008
Coal and Coke 31,61 33,74 34,65
Biomass 15,28 13,31 13,38
Liquid fuels 185,15 189,70 180,15
Natural gas 99,86 114,22 110,22
Hydro Power 58,18 42,21 50,19

96

Electricity 20,24 22,90 23,68
Renewables 0,24 0,82 0,97
TOTAL 410,56 416,91 413,24


Figure 1.2 Primary energy consumption by source in Croatia in 2008.

Figure 1.2. presents the shares of
various energy sources in the total pri-
mary energy supply for 2008.
The contributions of energy forms in
the Croatian total primary energy supply
in the period between 2006 and 2008 are
given in Table 1.1. In 2008 the total pri-
mary energy supply in Croatia amounted
to 413.24 PJ, which represents a dec-
rease by 0.9 percent from the previous
year. This decrease is the result of lower
consumption of liquid fuels and natural
gas while the consumption of other ener-
gy forms increased.
Heat and electricity production from
renewable energy sources in Croatia are
presented in Table 1.2. and 1.3. res-
pectively for years 2006-2008. Table 1.4.
provides data on installed capacities for
heat and electricity generation from the
renewable energy sources for 2008.

Table 1.2. Heat Production from renewable energy sources, in TJ
Type of RES 2006 2007 2008
Solar N/A 26.1 183
Biomass 14 767 13 380 16 583
Geothermal 558.52 562.81 557.34

Table 1.3. Electricity production from renewable energy sources
Type of RES 2006 2007 2008
Solar (in MWh) 49.13 52.65 62.65
Wind (in GWh) 18.96 34.91 39.9
Biomass (in GWh) 6.0 7.02 21.1
Small hydro (in GWh) 109.57 83.0 94.8


97

National RES policy and role of
bioenergy

Energy legislation package and cor-
responding rules and regulations adopted
by Croatian Parliament in July 2001, have
opened the doors for increased use of re-
newable energy in Croatia. Legislative
framework defines relationships within the
energy sector that includes the following:
Energy Law, Law on Electricity Market,
Law on Oil and Oil Derivatives Market,
Law on Gas Market and Law on Regu-
lation of Energy Activities, Law on Pro-
duction, Distribution and Supply of Ther-
mal Energy and Law on Biofuels for
Transport.

Table 1.4. Installed capacities for heat and electricity generation from renewable
energy sources in 2008
Type of RES
Installed heat capacity
(MW)
Installed electrical power capacity
(MW)
Solar 53.90 0.0773
Wind 0 17.15
Biomass 513.65 4.59
Small Hydro 0 31.02
Geothermal 113.90 0
TOTAL 681.45 52.84

Energy Law, as the fundamental
do-cument, regulates the organisation
and the institutions active in the field of
energy efficiency and renewable energy
sources; further, energy resource ma-
nagement, energy sector development
planning; competition principles; sale of
energy materials and products; technolo-
gy transfer; principles of investment
handling, promotion and protection; obli-
gations of energy organisations and insti-
tutions; energy supply safety principles;
price formation principles; technical con-
ditions and regulations; energy supply
conditions; electric energy and gas tariff
system; surveillance over the energy
sector, etc.
Energy Law, for the first time, preci-
sely articulated the positive attitude of the
Republic of Croatia toward renewable en-
ergy sources, thus representing a small
but significant shift in view of a positive
message to the investors interested. The
key step, as regards the legislative treat-
ment of RES, was also included in the
Law on Electricity Market that established
the legislative obligation of electric energy
purchase generated from renewable en-
ergy sources. Law on Electricity prescri-
bes: the obligation to take over the total
electricity produced from eligible produ-
cers, the obligation to submit the trans-
mission system operators data to the
market operator for the purpose of gua-
rantee of origin of electricity, enter into
contracts with all suppliers for the pur-
pose of ensuring a minimum share of el-
ectricity produced from renewable energy
sources and cogeneration.
The Energy Law and Law on Electri-
city Market promote the utilisation of re-
newable energy sources, but the actual
implementation is realised lately through
the adoption of a package of five sublaws
which regulate electricity production from
renewable energy sources and cogene-
ration. The following is an overview of the
five sublaws:
Tariff system for the production of
electricity from renewable energy sources
and cogeneration (pursuant to the Energy
Law, Article 28), OG 33/07;
Regulation on the fee for the pro-
motion of the electricity production from
renewable energy sources and cogene-
ration (pursuant to the Energy Law,
Article 28), OG 33/07;
Ordinance on the usage of rene-
wable energy sources and cogeneration

98

(pursuant to the Energy Law, Article 14),
OG 67/07;
Regulation on a minimum share of
electricity produced from renewable
energy sources and cogeneration in the
electricity supply (pursuant to the Law on
Electricity Market, Article 26), OG 33/07;
and
Ordinance on the obtaining of the
eligible electricity producer status (pursu-
ant to the Law on Electricity Market,
Article 8), OG 67/07.

National energy strategy of the Re-
public of Croatia (OG 130/09), adopted
on 16
th
of October 2009, defines following
objectives concerning renewable energy
use till 2020:
Share of renewable energy resour-
ces in final energy consumption 20%;
Share of biofuels in transport 10%;
Share of renewable energy resour-
ces in electrical energy production 35%.
Till 2010, goal is to consume 15 PJ
energy from biomass and untill 2020 to
increase this number to 26 PJ. In Croatia
currently 13,43 PJ energy from biomass
is consumed, with total instaled capacity
of electrival power plants 2 MW. Total
installed electrical power in biomass po-
wer plants in 2020 will reach 85 MW. In
order to realize defined goals, Program-
me for Strategy Implementation with di-
namics will be formulated in a four-year
period.
Table 2.1 below gives an overview of
the implementation status of the Directive
2001/77/EC in the Contracting Parties.

Table 2.1 Implementation status of the Directive 2001/77/EC in Croatia
National
indicative
targets
Support
schemes
Guarantee of
origin
Administrativ
e procedures
Grid system
issues
National targets
set at 1.8% of
the total
electricity
consumption for
2007 and 5.8%
for 2010
1

Feed-in
tariffs for
various RES
defined
Regulation
partly in place,
full implementa-
tion expected in
future
Authorisation
procedures for
new RES
plants defined
in accordance
with overall
legislation
TSO/DSO
obliged to
ensure
purchasing of
RES electricity
Rules on
connection
costs defined

Table 2.2 Feed-in tariffs for electricity produced from RES in Croatia for 2007
RES type Size up to 1 MW Size greater than 1 MW
Small hydro 9.20 5.60-9.20 (depending on
produced electricity)
Wind 8.53 8.66
Biomass 12.66-16 (depending on
biomass type)
11.06-13.86 (depending on
biomass type)
Geothermal 16.80 16.80

1
Data on national targets are presented as stated in the Regulation on a minimum share of
electricity produced from renewable energy sources and cogeneration in the electricity supply,
OG 33/07, which exclude large hydro power plants. No other official data regarding national
targets for RES electricity are currently available.

99

Biogas, liquid biofuels 4.80 4.80
Landfill gas 4.80 4.80
Wave, tidal 8.00 6.67
Solar pv <10 kW
10-30 kW
>30 kW
45.33
40.00
28.00

The Tariff system for the production
of electricity from renewable energy sour-
ces and cogeneration, OG 33/07, defines
the right of eligible electricity producers to
the incentive price (in the form of feed-in
tariffs) of electricity paid by the Market
Operator for the supply of electricity pro-
duced from renewable energy sources
and cogeneration. The Tariff system fur-
ther defines the obligation of the Distri-
bution System Operator and Transmis-
sion System Operator to ensure the
purchasing of all electricity produced by
eligible producers.
Table 2.2 gives an overview of the
various tariffs in Cc for 2007, according to
RES type and plant size.
As it can be seen in Table 2.3 below,
Croatia has set a national indicative tar-
get on the share of biofuels within the
total petrol and diesel fuels placed on
their markets in line with the indicative
targets specified in the Directive 2003/
30/EC. It is important to mention that this
target was actually included within the
Regulation on the quality of biofuels (OG
141/2005), while the target corresponding
to the Directive 2009/28/EC, i.e. share of
10% of biofuels in total fuel consumption
within the transport sector by 2020 was
included in the already mentioned Nati-
onal Energy Strategy of the Republic of
Croatia.

Table 2.3 Implementation status of the Directive 2003/30/EC in Croatia
National indicative
targets
Monitor the effect of the
use of biofuels in diesel
blends above 5% by non-
adapted vehicles
Public
information
Support
measures
Set at 5.75% by 2010
Regulation partly in place,
needs to be completed
Measures will
be defined
Not defined

At the moment there is no special
action plan exclusively focused on the
promotion of bioenergy in Croatia, in the
sense that biomass has not received any
special treatment in comparison to other
renewable energy sources, except for the
slightly different feed-in tariffs for each
RES. However, an important impetus to
biomass utilisation for heat production is
expected from the adoption of the legis-
lative package regarding heat production
from RES, which is expected in the near
future. Specifically, the Law on the Pro-
duction, Distribution and Supply of Heat
(OG 42/05) defines that the Croatian Go-
vernment shall adopt several sublaws
regarding heat from renewables, which
should define the national target, financial
incentive mechanisms and all other as-
pects necessary for the stimulation and
realisation of the target. Of all rene-
wables, biomass is expected to play the
main part in the total heat produced.
Similarly, the Law on Biofuels for
Transport (OG 65/09) defines the adop-
tion of a package of sublaws which will
define in detail all necessary pro-cedures
in order to fulfill the national target of the
share of biofuels of 10% in total fuels
consumed in the transport sector by
2020.
The importance of biomass as an
energy source for Croatia especially
considering its potentials for regional eco-
nomic development in rural areas is fur-
ther emphasized by the fact that a special

100

Working Group on Biomass was formed
by two Croatian ministries, namely Minis-
try of Economy, Labour and Entrepre-
neurship and Ministry of Regional Deve-
lopment, Forestry and Water Manage-
ment. The Working Group includes rep-
resentatives from both ministries, the
state company for forest management
(Hrvatske Sume Ltd.), the Forest Exten-
sion Service as well as recognised nati-
onal experts in the field of biomass and
bioenergy.
Regarding incentives and financial
support for renewable energy sources
projects in Croatia it is important to
mention the Environmental Protection
and Energy Efficiency Fund Act, enacted
in July 2003 by a special Law. The Fund
is the financial institution in charge of
funds for environmental protection,
energy efficiency and RES projects,
which includes assignment of soft loans,
partial subsidies of investment costs,
support to research and development,
spreading of information and education,
etc. The Fund is financed through the
introduction of ecological fees and taxes
following the principle the polluter pays,
and a series of other compensations.

Energy Market and the role of biomass
fuels

Presently, the market for renewable
energy in Croatia is still in early stages of
development, and consequently, the avai-
lability of financing options for such pro-
jects is quite limited. Progress has al-
ready been made in this area with the es-
tablishment of the Environment Protec-
tion and Energy Efficiency Fund mentio-
ned above, and the Croatian Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (HB-
OR) started a special loan lines for RES
projects with favourable conditions. How-
ever, the problem still remains with com-
mercial banks, which at the moment are
generally not interested in financing RES
projects. Education and promotion coup-
led with demonstration projects and acti-
vities are seen as crucial steps for over-
coming this.
Complicated and long procedure for
licences issuing is one of the most com-
mon barriers to any kind of renewable
project in Croatia, as the procedure for
obtaining the necessary permits and li-
censing is rather extensive and time con-
suming.
Croatia has achieved a good leved
of legal alignment as regards the internal
market for electricity, except for cross-
border exchanges. The necessary legal
framework is largely in place. However,
real and full liberalisation of the electricity
market including effective third party ac-
cess as foreseen by 2008 still requires
considerable efforts, and might prove dif-
ficult in practice under the envisaged
market model. While Member States may
choose different models to achieve the
objectives of Directive 2003/54/EC, ef-
fecttive functional unbundling will need to
be ensured. Croatia's chosen asset-ow-
nership model with a separate market
operator, although perhaps compatible
with the acquis, is an unusual solution.
Croatia needs to ensure that the fra-
mework for the allocation and use of
cross-border transmission capacities is
complete and in line with the require-
ments of the acquis. Electricity losses are
considerably above the EU average and
Croatia should take measures to tackle
this issue. Croatia has achieved a good
level of legal alignment as regards the
internal market for gas. However, there is
no effective wholesale market yet, and
real and full liberalisation including ef-
fective third-party access still requires
sustained efforts. Croatia needs to adopt
adequate provisions on a number of
issues such as gas storage, LNG terminal
activities, third-party access rights, inter-
ruptible service obligations, and methodo-
logies for capacity allocation and conges-
tion management. The concession regi-
me needs to be aligned with the acquis
which, while allowing for tendering if
necessary, treats authorisation as the
standard procedure.

101

Small scale combustion of biomass
is by far the most extensive application of
bioenergy in Croatia and currently the
majority of fuelwood is consumed within
the household sector primarily for space
heating. In areas where the gas grid does
not reach, and where there is no district
heating system, fuelwood is the main
source of primary energy used for heating
purposes. Most of this wood is cut from
forests especially for energy purposes.
Apart from heating, a substantial amount
of wood is also used for cooking. Con-
trary to common practice in many other
countries, in Croatia grills are predo-
minantly fuelled by wood, instead of
charcoal. Stated reasons for this are the
low costs of fuelwood, specific food
preparation methods, and tradition.
According to data for 2008 fuelwood
contributes with approximately 4% to the
total primary energy supply. However,
apart from the estimated total consum-
ption on the national level, reliable sta-
tistics on fuelwood consumption at muni-
cipality levels were not available. In order
to fill this information gap, consumption
estimates for the municipality level have
been produced. The main data source
used was the information available from
the Central Bureau of Statistics which
includes the number and surface of
occupied dwellings that use wood as
exclusive or primary fuel for space heat-
ing. The spatial distribution of fuelwood
consumption per inhabitant for space
heating, water heating and cooking in
Croatian households is shown in Figure
3.16.


Figure 3.1 Fuelwood consumption per inhabitant by Croatian households

Large scale production of bioenergy
takes place in the industry exclusively.
Many companies in the wood industry
have a substantial heat demand, in
specific sawmills and furniture factories.
Most of them produce their own heat,
quite often from fossil fueled boiler
systems but some also from their wood
resources. A number of site visits to
selected companies revealed that on
average, boiler systems are old and worn
down, and of outdated designs that would

102

not likely comply to any emission
standards. The wood residues used for
heat generation are usually only a part of
the available amounts. It appeared that
many companies have a willingness and
ability to invest in modern heating
equipment, since the age of the existing
equipment results in frequent
breakdowns of boiler systems. For
companies producing heat using fossil
fuels, a switch to biomass in an obvious
choice. In specific cases, the potential
savings on fuel are enormous and a
biomass boiler system could be paid back
in less then 3 years.
In order to gather relevant and up to
date information regarding biomass sup-
ply and demand in Croatia the application
of the WISDOM (Woodfuel Integrated
Supply/Demant Overview Mapping) me-
thodology developed by FAO was applied
for Croatia within the FAO project TCP/
CRO/3101 (A) Development of a sus-
tainable charcoal industry. The applica-
tion includes gathering of data regarding
the biomass supply from the forestry
sector (including wood-processing Indus-
tries), and data on demand from the
households and wood industry sector.
Information regarding biomass heating
plants within the wood-processing Indus-
try was obtained through telephone
surveys of all companies registred within
the database of the Croatian Ministry of
Regional Development, Forestry and Wa-
ter Management. The collected data in-
clude relevant parameters (plant capa-
city, operating hours, wood consumption,
etc) about 108 biomass heating plants.
The total installed capacity of these
heating plants amounts to 375.7 MW,
whereas the estimated total wood con-
sumption amounts to 1.227.938 m3/year.
Figure 3.2 shows the distribution of
industrial biomass heating plants in Cro-
atia with five different categories regar-
ding installed capacity.


Figure 3.2 Distribution of industrial biomass heating plants in Croatia

Currently in Croatia there are only
two biomass plants utilised for the heat-
ing of buildings in operation (in the cities
of Gospic and Ogulin) and both are

103

owned and operated by the state forest
management company Hrvatske Sume
Ltd. However, there are several projects
aiming to the building of biomass district
heating plants for cities and municipalities
which are under implemenentation
phase.
At the moment there are no biomass
CHP plants in Croatia in operation,
however there are several projects in
implementation within wood processing
companies.
The biofuels sector in Croatia is ra-
ther underdeveloped. Total capacities for
liquid biofuels in Croatia in 2009 amoun-
ted to 61 000 tons per year of biodiesel.
In 2008 the quantities of biodiesel pro-
duced amounted to 3 481 t, out of which
about half was placed on the domestic
market. Approximately 16 percent of the
total amount originated from collected
waste cooking oil. Consequently, the
achieved share of biofuels in total fuels
consumed within the transport sector
amounted to only 0.08 percent for 2008.
References
DOMAC, J., JELAVIC, B. 2000. Bioen-
ergy in Croatia - State of the Art and
Future Prospectives. World Rene-
wable Energy Congress VI / UNES-
CO, Brighton: 1262-1268.
RISOVIC, S., DOMAC, J., KAJBA, D.,
SEGON, V., BOGDAN, S. 2004. Bio-
energy in Croatia: How to Bridge the
Gap Between Resource Potential
and Implementation? 2
nd
World
Conference on Biomass for Energy
and Industry, Rome: 2404-2407.
MARTINOV, M., SCHOLZ, V., SKALJIC,
S., MIHAILOV, N., DOMAC, J., IL-
EV, B., FARA, L., ROS, V. 2006.
Prospects of wooden biomass
production in Southeastern Europ-
ean agricultural areas. 34th Internati-
onal Symposium on Agricultural
Engineering, Opatija: 97-111.
Final Report of EC PRO-BIOBALKAN
project (FP6-2002-INCO-WBC/SSA-
3): Promotion of Cost Competitive
Biomass Technologies in the West-
ern Balkan Countries, 2005-2006.












Final Report of EC ACCENT project
(FP6-2002-INCO-WBC/SSA-3):
Acceleration of the Cost-Competitive
Biomass Use for Energy Purposes,
2006.
Final Report on the Implementation of the
Acquis on Renewables in the Energy
Community Contracting Parties. Pre-
pared by the Energy Institute Hrvoje
Pozar for the Energy Community
Secretariat, 2008.
Energy in Croatia 2008 Annual Energy
Report, published by the Ministry of
Economy, Labour and Entrepre-
neurship of the Croatian Govern-
ment, December 2009
WISDOM CROATIA - Spatial woodfuel
production and consumption analy-
sis applying the Woodfuels Integra-
ted Supply/Demand Overview Map-
ping (WISDOM) methodology, Re-
port published by the UN Food and
Agriculture Organisation within the
project TCP/CRO/3101 (A) Develop-
ment of a sustainable charcoal in-
dustry in Croatia; J. Domac and M.
Trossero (editors), 2009

104



BIOMASS ENERGY RESOURCE IN SERBIA
Dr Branko Glavonjic, Full Professor, Ljiljana Pajovic
University of Belgrade Faculty of Forestry
Belgrade, Republic of Serbia

ABSTRACT
The paper presents research results of potentials and current usage of biomass in
Serbia. Results include potentials by amount and energy value and overview of spatial
distribution of agricultural and woody biomass in the Republic of Serbia is also
presented. Separate part of the paper shows current situation of biomass potentials in
forestry and wood processing with calculations of assortment structure and amounts.
Important segment of researches referred to the current biomass policy and future
measures which stimulate its usage for energy production. In that sense, the paper
presents the most significant elements and measures from the Action Plan for Biomass
of Serbia.
Key words: biomass, potentials, energy, policy.

1. INTRODUCTION

Despite the long tradition of using
wood as energy-generating product
(mostly for heating), fossil fuels are still
used in Serbia, which are imported in
large amounts and at high prices. In
recent years, natural gas has increasingly
started to replace wood, often with the
assistance of international donation prog-
rams, which have at that ignored po-
tentials that exist in wood as one of the
cleanest and renewable energy sources,
carbon neutral and available in needed
amounts. District heating systems based
on oil derivatives such as heavy fuel oil
exist in many towns, many of which are in
poor condition. There have been attempts
to renew these systems as a part of
various international donations, to extend
their life and improve their efficiency, but
few of them involved the change of fuel
source, despite the fact that Serbia has
significant amounts of wood at disposal
(Glavonjic B. 2008).
Experience from developed countri-
es shows that well organized and prac-
tically founded promotional activities have
had mass market effects which resulted
in sudden increase of woody biomass
usage that lasts for many years, and ac-
cording to forecasts this trend will conti-
nue in future as well. Therefore, today in
these countries woody biomass has
become one of highly present energy-ge-
nerating products in total energy produc-
tion and consumption. Thus, for example,
participation of woody biomass in Finland
in total energy production was 22% in the
middle of 2007 (Kalle K. 2007).
Analyses of the substitution of fossil
fuels with wood are very complex. They
include industrial, social, economic and
cultural aspects as well as tradition and
effects of price, technical and structural
changes.

105

2. SCOPE, OBJECTIVE AND
METHOD OF THE PAPER
Starting from the interdisciplinary
role of wood as carbon accumulator, the
material used for various purposes and
renewable energy source, the main
subject of this paper is woody biomass in
Serbia. In that sense, potentials and
available amounts of woody biomass in
the sector of forestry, wood processing
and woody biomass outside forests were
researched. Objective of the paper was to
determine technically available amounts
of woody biomass which can be offered
to the market for fuel production in
Serbia.
Pursuant to the defined objective of
the paper, adequate methodology was
used for analyses and calculation of
woody biomass potentials. Data on the
condition and characteristics of forest
fund from the National Forest Inventory
as well as data from forest industrial
bases of certain forest estates were used
for the analysis of potentials and
possibilities of forest fund. Apart from this,
data on annual allowable cut, size and
structure of wood assortment production
within forest estates in Serbia were used
as well. For determining potentials and
available amounts of woody biomass
from the process of industrial wood
processing, data on utilization percenta-
ges of industrial roundwood were used
particulary for hardwood and softwood in
sawmill and further phases of wood
processing. Thereat the needs for heating
and wood drying of the companies where
woody biomass is generated were taken
into consideration. Beside the calculation
of woody biomass which appears in the
form of wood residues, the calculation of
fuelwood consumption in households in
Serbia was also done by using national
balances for the consumption of certain
energy-generating products in Serbia,
number of households, equipment of
residential buildings with certain types of
installations, foreseen amounts of energy
needed for heating a single household
and thermal power of the most significant
wood species present in Serbia at
moisture content of 35%.
3. ENERGY POLICY IN THE FUNC-
TION OF INCREASED BIOMASS
USAGE IN SERBIA
Total annual energy consumption of
primary energy in Serbia is about 15
Mten, with more than symbolic partici-
pation of energy from renewable sources
of 1.5%. Energy obtained from fossil fuels
has the highest participation in the con-
sumption of primary energy in Serbia,
among which energy obtained from coal
is singled out as it participates with more
than in the total consumption (graph 1)
(Kragic R. 2007).

Graph 1. Participation of different fuels in
total primary energy consumption in
2007. (Mtoe, %)
Strategy for Energetics Development
of the Republic of Serbia until 2015,
within Priorities of selective usage of re-
newable energy sources, highlights in
particular that the Republic of Serbia has
special advantages and needs for orga-
nized utilization of renewable energy
sources. Technically usable energy po-
tential of renewable energy sources in
Serbia is very important and assessed at
over 3.83 million toe annually (POSRES
2007).

106

Starting from the abovementioned
potentials, Government of the Republic of
Serbia has set objectives for the pro-
duction of electric power from renewable
energy sources to increase the par-
ticipation of electric power produced from
renewable energy sources by 2.2% by
the end of 2012, observed in comparison
with total consumption of electric power in
2007 and that the presence of biofuels
and other fuels from renewable sources is
at least 2.2% on the market compared to
the total fuel consumption in transport
calculated based on energy content. Ac-
cording to the Regulation on Amend-
ments of the Regulation on Determining
the Program for Implementing the
Strategy of Energetics Development of
the Republic of Serbia until 2015, for the
period 2007-2012 the main objectives of
the program regarding biomass in Serbia
are the following:
- efficient usage of available resour-
ces for energy production,
- reduction of GHG emission,
- reduction of import dependence and
- creation of new jobs (Action Plan for
Biomass of the Republic of Serbia, 2010).
In the Strategy which sets industrial
development of the Republic of Serbia in
the period 2006-2012, selective usage of
new and renewable energy sources was
recognized as one of the priorities with
the purpose to decelerate growth rate of
energy-generating products import, redu-
ce negative environmental impact and
create additional activities for national
industry and employment of local popu-
lation, including the harmonization with
the European Union practice and regula-
tions in this area.
National program for environment
protection recognizes a big importance of
the substitution of fossil fuels and non-
renewable energy sources with renewab-
le ones for the purpose of preserving
natural values, as well as the necessity of
wider usage of renewable energy sources
for the purpose of reducing negative im-
pact of energetics sector on environment.
4. BIOMASS POTENTIALS IN SERBIA
As a country with large areas of
cultivable agricultural land and land under
forests, Serbia has a large potential for
biomass production. Biomass participates
with 63% in total potential of renewable
energy source (graph 2). Forests cover
29.1% of the territory and about 55% of
the territory is cultivable land. Beside
residue from crop farming, there are big
possibilities for dedicated cultivation of
biomass which will not be competitive to
food production.



Graph 2. Participation of certain sources
in total potentials of renewable energy in
Serbia (Stojadinovic 2009)

Technically usable annual energy
potential of biomass in the Republic of
Serbia is about 2.7 Mtoe. Energy po-
tential of biomass from forestry and wood
industry (wood logging and remains from
wood produced during primary and/or
industrial wood processing) is estimated
at approximately 1.0 Mtoe, while about
1.7 Mtoe originates from agricultural bio-
mass (agricultural waste and residue from
crop farming, including liquid manure)
(picture 1) (Action Plan for Biomass of
Serbia 2010).


107



Picture 1. Spatial distribution of forest and agricultural biomass in Serbia
(according to Stojadinovic 2009)

The most perspective opportunities
for using biomass in Serbia identified in
the Action Plan for Biomass of the
Republic of Serbia are as follows:
- heating of space in households and
buildings by using biomass pellets or
briquettes,
- co-combustion or full replacement of
heavier oils for heating or coal as fuel in
heating plants,
- production of electric power by using
residues from agriculture and from wood
and
- production of biofuels for transport.
However, in order to maximally use
potentials of renewable energy sources in
Serbia it is necessary to improve market
conditions, among other issues.
Having in mind the abovementioned,
Government of the Republic of Serbia
has adopted the Action Plan for Biomass
in the middle of 2010 where a line of
short-term measures are identified (by the
end of 2012) as well as numerous
measures and recommendations with
long-term character.
Adopted objectives for biomass
utilization until 2012 are shown in table 1
and adopted incentive measures for the
production of electric power are given in
table 2.




108

Table 1: Targets for biomass utilization in 2012
Electricity generation (toe)
Biomass Biogas Total
4,000 10,660 14,660
Transport (toe)
Biofuels and other renewable fuels Total
58,390 58,390

Table 2: Feed-in tariffs for electricity generation in Serbia
Biomass CHP cC/kWh
Installation up to 500 kW 13.6
Installation between 500 kW and 5 MW 13.845-0.489*P
Installation larger than 5 MW 11.4
Biogas cC/kWh
Installation up to 200 kW 16
Installation between 200 kW and 2 MW 16.444-2.222*P
Installation larger than 2 MW 12
*P Installed capacity in MW

Purchase price is guaranteed and
fixed during the period of 12 years. The
level of purchase price is set in such a
manner to provide the return of the
invested capital within 12 years, along
with covering all operation costs which
occur in the same period. Additional
criterion for determining incentive tariffs is
that internal rate of return is at least 14%,
i.e. that it is not below this percentage.
Target share of biofuels in transport up to
2.2% (calculated based on energy con-
tent) in 2012 will be realized through the
introduction of the obligation regarding
minimal volume content of biodiesel in
diesel fuel.

5. POTENTIALS OF WOODY
BIOMASS IN SERBIA

Woody biomass (together from fo-
restry and wood processing) is the se-
cond most important renewable source in
Serbia for energy production (biomass
from agriculture takes the first place).
Current situation in forestry sector is
characterized by measures for increasing
areas under forests, completion of forest
certification process and promotion of
using wood as renewable energy source.
Results of the national forest inventory
which was completed in 2008 show that
total area under forests in Serbia is 2.25
million ha, which is 29.1% of the total
area of Serbia. Standing volume in Ser-
bian forest fund (without Kosovo and
Metohija) is 362.5 million m
3
or 160.9
m
3
/ha, which is an increase of 127.5 mil-
lion m
3
compared to the registry from
1979 (235.0 million m
3
). This increase
results from the increase of areas under
forests, quality upgrade of stands as well
as the application of new methodology
and state-of-the-art methods of forest
inventory which has been done in Serbia
in the previous two years (Ministry of

109

Agriculture, Forestry and Water Manage-
ment of the Republic of Serbia, 2008).
Similar as the increase of standing
volume, there was also an increase of
annual increment in the period 1979-
2007. In 2007, annual increment was 9.1
million m
3
or 4.0 m
3
/ha. Compared to
1979, annual increment in 2007 was
higher by about 3 million m
3
. Increase of
annual increment is a result of the same
factors described for standing volume.
Concerning ownership, the participa-
tion of state owned forests is dominant.
With the surface of 1.19 million ha, state
forests participate with 53% in total areas
under forests in Serbia. Forests in private
ownership participate with 47%, which is
1.058 million ha (Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Water Management of the
Republic of Serbia, 2007).
After the completion of the national
forest inventory, possible scope of log-
ging on annual level was assessed. Ac-
cording to the stated assessment (Vasi-
ljevic 2008) possible scope of logging in
Serbian forests is 4.6 million m
3
/annually,
out of which 2.4 million m
3
in state forests
and 2.2 million m
3
in private forests.
Participation of fuelwood and pulpwood
ranges from 51-55% of the total amount
of logged wood in state forests for several
years back. Out of the total amount of
logged wood in private forests 80% is
assessed to be fuelwood (there are no
accurate data so far).
Due to the lack of more accurate
data on available forest biomass resour-
ces as well as the condition and terms for
its utilization, Forest Authority has started
an initiative in the FAO organization to
prepare a project on woody biomass
utilization in Serbia. Results of the con-
ducted researches in recent phases of
project implementation show the follow-
ing:
- For the calculation of the amount of
wood residue in forestry sector, starting
point was possible scope of logging by
certain regions and forest managements
as well as the percentage of wood resi-
due occurring in logging and the produc-
tion of forest assortments in them. Per-
centages of wood residue for state fo-
rests are obtained from the Public En-
terprises Serbiaforests and Vojvodinafo-
rests by forest managements and they
refer to 2008.
- Percentages of wood residue for pri-
vate forests are also adopted in consulta-
tions with experts from the Public En-
terprises Serbiaforests and Vojvodinafo-
rests in charge of private forests sector,
where these percentages are estimated
based on forest condition, participation of
technical and fuel wood in the structure of
total production and recorded loggings in
2008.
- Adopted percentages of wood resi-
due do not include roots but most fre-
quent forms such as braches, twigs, tops,
stumps, needles,
- Based on the conducted calcula-
tions, theoretical amount of 636 thousand
m
3
was reached (calculated at the mo-
ment and immediately after logging and
forest assortment production). Since the
stated amount of forest residue cannot be
fully utilized (e.g. stumps), it is assessed
that available amount of forest wood
residue is about 572 thousand m
3

annually;
For observing the situation regarding
amounts and consumption of wood resi-
due from sawmill wood processing in
Serbia, it was necessary to start from the
available data on recorded logging and
structure of produced forest assortments,
their foreign trade and consumption. In
that sense, for the purpose of analyses in
this paper, the year of 2008 was selected
as reference year because 2009 was
extremely unfavorable for most wood
processing companies in Serbia due to
the effects of global economic crisis.
In 2008, total consumption of Indus-
trial and technical wood in Serbia was 1.8
million m
3
. Taking into consideration the
stated amounts of industrial and technical
roundwood used in wood processing in
Serbia in 2008 as well as average utili-
zation percentages and participation
structure of large and small residue in

110

sawmill wood processing, total amount of
woody biomass which can be assigned to
wood fuels production is 627 thousand m
3

annually. The stated amount was reach-
ed by taking into consideration the
following elements:
- According to the conducted resear-
ches among leading wood processors in
Serbia, about 30% of the total amount of
wood residue is currently used for own
needs (heating of space and wood
drying) while the rest is sold on the
market;
- In small sawmills wood residue is
almost fully sold on the market since they
do not have the capacities for drying
sawn timber;
- Biggest buyers of wood residue from
sawmill wood processing in Serbia are
producers of wood-based panels and
pellet producers, and smaller portion is
purchased by households for heating
(situation in the middle of 2010);
Beside woody biomass from forestry
and industrial wood processing, when
balancing woody biomass, fuel wood as
energy-generating product in particular
should be taken into consideration as well
as wood residues outside forests and
municipal waste (old furniture, palettes
and other wood products). At this mo-
ment there are no assessments on the
amount of woody biomass in the form of
municipal waste, therefore table 3 gives
collective values of amounts and structu-
re of woody biomass from forestry (inclu-
ding fuelwood), industrial wood process-
sing and wood residue occurring outside
forests in Serbia.

Table 3. Possible woody biomass for energetics from the forest fund including the
residue from wood processing industry in Serbia
TITLE
m
3

%
Firewood (8.002.548 stacked m 0,69) 5 521 758
80.7
Forest residue 572 000
8.4
Wood processing industry residue
627 200
9.2
Wood from trees outside the forest
120 000
1.7
TOTAL 6 840 958 100

Data from table 3 clearly show that
there are significant potentials of woody
biomass in Serbia both in the form of
fuelwood and in the form of wood resi-
due. At this moment, fuelwood is fully
used for heating in households and
woody biomass from wood processing is
used for the production of wood pellets,
briquettes and wood-based panels. Due
to the factories for wood pellet production
as well as the two factories for parti-
cleboard production, demand for woody
biomass from wood processing is big so
that most amounts of woody biomass
from wood processing are fully utilized.
Unlike wood processing, biomass which
occurs as wood residue in forestry is not
used yet; it remains and rots in forests.
There are numerous reasons because of
which it is not used yet and relatively high
prices in pricelists of public enterprises for
forest management stand out, as well as
the lack of interest of companies that
perform logging services and wood
assortment production for collecting and
processing wood residue and no market,
i.e. public and private heating systems
utilizing wood chips.

111

6. CONCLUSIONS

Results of the conducted analyses
clearly show that potentials of biomass in
Serbia are significant both by amount and
energy value. Certain amounts of bio-
mass, especially woody biomass, are
significantly used but there are large
amounts which are not used due to
numerous reasons. Assessments of cer-
tain experts are still used in the calcu-
lations of available amounts because
unique methodological concept is not
developed or applied yet for monitoring
availability and woody biomass utilization
based on internationally accepted rules
and standards. Definition of the stated
methodology is of great importance for
future monitoring of activities in this area
as well as for defining long-term objec-
tives and measures for increased bio-
mass utilization as renewable energy
source in Serbia. Methodology for moni-
toring potentials and utilization of woody
biomass will be defined through the im-
plementation of FAO project while the
definition of methodology for agricultural
biomass is still uncertain.

Literature:
1. Biomass Action Plan for The Re-
public of Serbia 2010 - 2012,
Ministry of Energy and Mining of the
Republic of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
2. Glavonjic B. 2009. Definition, Objec-
tives, Challenges in South-East
Europe, Workshop: Policy options









for wood energy, 17-20, November
2009, Cavtat, Croatia
3. Glavonjic B. 2008. Trziste energije
na bazi drveta u Srbiji aktuelno
stanje i perspektive razvoja, Konfe-
rencija: Drvna biomasa izbor Srbi-
je za XXI vek, Beograd, 02-03. De-
cembar 2008.g. str.38-46, Beograd,
Serbia
4. Kragic R. 2007. NOVI I OBNOVLJIVI
IZVORI ENERGIJE U SRBIJI, semi-
nar: Strategija odrzivog razvoja
Sremskih Karlovaca, Sremski Kar-
lovci
5. POSRES (PROGRAM OSTVARIVA-
NJA STRATEGIJE RAZVOJA EN-
ERGETIKE REPUBLIKE SRBIJE
DO 2015. GODINE ZA PERIOD OD
2007. DO 2012. GODINE), Minis-
tarstvo energetike i rudarstva Re-
publike Srbije, Beograd, 2007.
6. Stojadinovic D. 2009. Perspectives
for Renewable Energy of Serbia.
Round table. Utrecht .The Nether-
lands
7. Strategija razvoja energetike Repub-
like Srbije do 2015. godine. 2005.
Sluzbeni glasnik RS broj 44/05, Beo-
grad, Srbija Strateski okvir za koris-
cenje drvne biomase u Srbiji. 2007
8. Ministartsvo poljoprivrede, sumars-
tva i vodoprivrede RS, Uprava za su-
me, Beograd. Interni podaci kompa-
nija za preradu drveta u Srbiji

112



POTENTIAL OF WOOD BIOMASS IN SLOVENIA
MSc Jure Leben, Bojan Pogorevc

SUMMARY
More than 58,5 % of all area we have under the forest. Wood stock in Slovenia
grew rapidly in the last years. In back days the stock was between 150 to 180 cubic
meters per hectare, now it is more than 300 cubic meters per hectare. The biggest
problem in Slovenian forests is that have more and more old trees. Do not cut enough
(66%). We have a lot owners (more than 300 t.), with very small property (average 2,7
ha per owner). During this we dont cut a lot, special in private forest (74%). The
problem is to lose economic value in the forest. We do not have quality trees for
industrial use; instead we have old forests with old trees. For better understanding of
benefits of wood biomass we should prepare special oriented educational training
programs.
Keywords: Wood biomass, heating systems, energy potential in public sector
In Slovenia we have beautiful forests
but it is necessary to change some things
in management if we would like to have
from forest bigger economical benefit
than we have now. More than 58,5 % of
all area we have under the forest. Wood
stock in Slovenia grew rapidly in the last
years. In back days the stock was
between 150 to 180 cubic meters per
hectare, now it is more than 300 cubic
meters per hectare. The biggest problem
in Slovenian forests is that have more
and more old trees. Do not cut enough
(66%). We have a lot owners (more than
300 t.), with very small property (average
2,7 ha per owner). During this we dont
cut a lot, special in private forest (74%).
The problem is to lose economic value in
the forest. We do not have quality trees
for industrial use; instead we have old
forests with old trees. Below we can see
forest stock in Slovenia.
Moreover, in Slovenia will be pro-
duced in 2010 300.000 cubic meters of
high quality logs. In majority it will be
transported and sold to Austria. The big-
gest advantage of selling logs in Austria
is regular and on time payment which
Slovenian industry is not capable to do.
On top of this, Slovenian technology for
manufacturing of logs is very old because
of very little investments in new saw
capabilities in the last 20 years. In the
table below we can see the potential
capacity for cutting of wood in Slovenian
forests in the period between 1996 and
2009 in cubic meters.
Wood biomass was and still is an
important source of energy for rural
population in Slovenia.
According to official data more than
30 % of Slovenian households are using
wood or wood waste for heating. Beside
small users there are 78 medium size
wood biomass heating installations in
industry and few biomass district heating
systems.

113


Source: Slovenian forest service

Source: Delo
Because of the similar problems be-
fore 2000 and dependency on imported
energy, Government of Slovenia deve-
loped a program for use of wood biomass
in Slovenia for the period from 2001 to
2010. One of the important results of this
program would be, that with its imple-
mentation the share of renewable sour-
ces of energy in primary energy would
rise for 1,8 % and the emissions of CO2
would lower for 1,6 %. (Program for use
of wood biomass).
Objectives of the program are to
construct:
50 new biomass district heating sys-

114

tems
100 new biomass systems in indus-
try
5.000 small biomass heating sys-
tems
The main goals of this program are
to enlarge the share of renewable sour-
ces in primary energy consumption and to
reduce CO2 emissions. Furthermore, aim
of the program is to contribute to
sustainable development of forests and to
influence on rural development and use
of all potential.
Expected benefits of the program
are:
Fossil fuel savings (20 milli. C / year),
Increased added value in the region
(337 milli. C / year),
reduction of CO
2
emissions (320.000
t CO
2
/ year)
job creation in rural regions (7.818
man year).
Increased use of wood biomass 38.7
%.

FORESTS IN SLOVENIA
The growing stock of Slovenian fo-
rests amounts to 300,000,000 cubic me-
ters or 257 cubic meters per hectare. The
share of growing stock of coniferous trees
is 47.4 %, of deciduous trees 52.6 %. In
Slovenian forests there is an annual
increment of 7,985,000 cubic meters of
wood or 6.74 cubic meters per hectare
(Slovenian forest service).
Yearly cut in Slovenia is at around
3.374.191 million cubic meters of trees.
Below is presented a table with figures
showing yearly cut in Slovenian forests
from 1991 to 2009.

Source: Delo
In Slovenia we produce 450.000 ton
of dry wood biomass per year. Regular
forest management (thinning, etc.) is
necessary for use of greater potential. If
we execute better management, we can
produce more wood for energy use. At
the moment most of this wood is still
remaining unused in the forest which is
bad for economy. On top of this, we have
also great potential in wood processing
industry with 360.000 tons of waste wood
that can also be used for production of
energy. Some of this material is used at
the moment directly at the industry
premises for industrial heat or directly by
the forest owners.
POTENTIAL IN EDUCATION AND
HEALTH SECTOR
In Slovenia we can lower emission
while producing electricity and heat by
2/3 if we switch to wood biomass. With

115

combination to solar, hydro or geothermal
energy can be this figure much higher.
Heating systems on biomass is existing
and working technology. We have in Slo-
venia bigger systems such as Ljubljana
and smaller ones in the valley Logarska
dolina. Biomass systems have low level
of CO2 per unit of energy when using
cogeneration for heat and electricity. This
field offers in Slovenia great potential for
innovations, development and new
employment opportunity.
The biggest challenges are in orga-
nization of all system and not in eco-
nomics of the project. Awareness of citi-
zens on the field of climate protection is
great; therefore usage of heat from the
systems can be assured. Bigger energy
companies such as Petrol already
identified the opportunity and started to
invest in biomass heating systems. A lot
of work will need to be done in constant
supply of wood biomass from the forest to
end users. Below we can see the forest
coverage and the owner structure. A lot
of forest coverage is in private hands and
until the government does not start to
encourage private owners do exploit the
forest potential, Slovenian forest will stay
untouched. Table below shows owner
structure in Slovenian forests.


Source: Delo
Slovenia has a great potential in
education and health sector to make
heating more efficient with wood biomass
systems. Education and health sector
together account for about 4 to 5 million
square meters of buildings.
Suppose the energy consumption for
heating is 200kWh for every square
meter, which is the same as for house-
holds. We can also assume that bigger
buildings on the one hand have relatively
small losses due to size, but also they
have less careful management of indoor
temperatures.

116

At the same time lets say that 300g
of CO
2
for each kWh of thermal energy is
produced. Heating whole area of educa-
tional and health institutions, therefore,
lead us to 270 thousand tones of CO2
emissions. Emission savings with the use
of wood biomass would then be around
the same size, given the optimization of
processes in the field of forestry, pro-
cessing and production of biomass.
The average energy estimated num-
ber for heating of school facilities is 160
kWh/m2a and for electricity consumption
30 kWh/m
2
a.
With an anticipated savings of 15%,
resulting from organizational and aware-
ness-raising measures, we can estimate
the energy savings potential of schools:
An annual savings in heating: 106
GWh, which represents 32,000 tones of
CO
2

An annual saving in electricity
consumption: 20 GWh, which means
13,000 tons of CO
2
.

The total annual energy savings
would therefore amount to 126 GWh,
which would reduce total CO
2
emissions
by 45 thousand tons. That means cost-
saving energy for heating per year C 6.5
million savings in electricity use and C 2
million a year, a total of 8.5 million C.
The estimated annual cost savings
represent approximately 20% of energy
savings in public facilities that provide
sustainable energy development program
(621 GWh per year). Total final energy
use in the public sector is approximately
1,850 GWh per year.

CONCLUSIONS
Slovenia is country with a lot of
forests capital and unused wood biomass
potentials. In the past wood biomass was
an important source of energy for rural
population. The situation has changed in
last 30 years when oil became very
cheap and oil stoves became available
for low costs. The importance of wood
biomass as an energy source has grown
in last 5 years in connection with lowering
CO
2
emissions and energy indepen-
dency. Today in 2010 we can say that
wood biomass is becoming popular again
among people.
There is still a lot of insecurity about
new technologies. The main reasons for
this situation are insufficient information,
lack of knowledge and unclear govern-
mental policy. To overcome this problem
we need to transfer information to target
groups and create an action plan inclu-
ding the following fields:
Establishment of unitary government
office for wood processing sector
To develop wood processing centers
Guaranty scheme for purchase of
winter wood
Communication of wood and edu-
cation
Innovation research institute
Promotion of wood biomass
Broaden mandate and activities of
Slovenian forest service
Establishment of public company for
heating systems and supply of ener-
gy wood biomass.

Target groups can be divided in four
categories:
urban population
rural population
forest owners
policy makers
For better understanding of benefits
of wood biomass we should prepare spe-
cial oriented educational training prog-
rams. The purpose of such training for
forest owners is transfer of knowledge on:
The potentials of wood biomass
Various technologies for the prepa-
ration of wood biomass and its use
Economy of various technologies
To get better understanding of bene-
fits of wood biomass we should launch a
larger campaign for all target groups.

117

References:
Programme of use of wood biomass in
Slovenia (2000) Proposal to the
governoment., Ministry of the
environment and spatial planning

Resolution on Efficient Energy Supply
and Use in Slovenia (1996). Ministry
of economic affairs

Yearly working programe (2009).
Slovenian forest service








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3. OTHER RES IN MACEDONIA





119
































120



STATE OF SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATION
IN MACEDONIA
Ass.prof.Sanja Popovska-Vasilevska
St.Kliment Ohridski University, Faculty of Technical Sciences-Bitola
ABSTRACT
Macedonia has excellent geographical and climate conditions for solar energy
utilization. Despite that, the solar energy application is at minimal level. The reasons
are multiple having political, economic, educational, awareness background.
Solar thermal systems are mostly used for sanitary warm water preparation, while
the PV systems are at the very beginning phase. The paper gives general overview of
the current situation with the solar energy application and related legal and regulatory
treatment in Macedonia.
Keywords: solar energy, state of application, Macedonia
INTRODUCTION
Sun is a symbol of Macedonian
territory. Since the ancient history it is
prevalent as a mark which can be found
on monuments, scripts, epitaphs etc.,
whereas in the recent times it is a part
from the state back and flag.
Consequently, suns meaning and role
have been respected since ancient times.
Macedonia has on disposal a rich
solar irradiation and many solar days
(more than 260). The greatest applica-
tion is observed in passive form as in:
agriculture (e.g. cultivation of grape
cultures with distinguished quality due to
the prolonged insolation), greenhouse
production (solar light and heating during
the day greenhouse effect), tourism
solar baths (Ohrid-Prespa region, Dojran,
etc.). Sad to say, but in Macedonia the
sun has weak appli-cation as energy
resource. Solar en-ergy is even not
mentioned in the en-ergy balance of the
republic, since the participation is less
than 0,001%. In the time of ex-Yugo-
slavia, in Macedonia there has been
production of solar thermal collectors and
compo-nents. Also, there are lot of
installed systems from that period, mainly
for hotels and hotel complexes. Pity, after
the republic has became independent, all
such activities are terminated and greater
part of the existing systems are either
abounded or out of operation. Due to
the bad economy situation in the country
in the so called transition period (still in
flow), as also unreal price of the elec-
tricity, there is no interest for solar energy
(for other RES, too). However, the bu-
siness sector, having access to the
foreign knowledge and experience on
RES and their social-economic impor-
tance, makes the initial steps and efforts
for solar market penetration. But, the list
of limitations is long and still they inhibit
the wider application of solar thermal
energy. During the last 30 years we are
witnessing the rapid growth of solar
energy application in many countries, but
most distinctive are the examples from
China, Greece, Austria, Germany, and

121

recently France and Spain. Maybe the
solar application in Greece and Spain is
nothing to wonder due to the favorable
climate conditions, but the rapid growth in
Germany and Austria is really interesting.
Obviously the climate predispositions are
not the only factor, whereas the status in
Macedonia indicates that it is not even
important.
The leading countries in solar energy
application have proven and yet they are
demonstrating that rapid economical and
energy feasible growth is possible, ac-
companied with great social benefits,
when public support is ensured with long-
term and continual positive policy.
1. Availability of solar energy in
Macedonia
Figure 1 is the global solar irradi-
ation map of Europe, where beside the
average annual global solar intensity
irradiation in [kWh/m
2
], also the geo-
graphical location of the country can be
observed. Figure 2 is depicted from the
previous map where Macedonia is shown
with enlarged dimensions. Daily annual
average of solar irradiation in Macedonia
is in the range between 3,4 kWh/m
2
in the
northern part (Skopje) and 4,2 kWh/m
2
in
the south-western part (Bitola). Therefore,
the total annual solar irradiation is
between 1250 kWh/m
2
and 1530 kWh/m
2
,
i.e. in average it is 1385 kWh/m
2
(figure
9). [1]
Beside the advantageous irradiation
position, there are more than 260 clear
sunny days during one year in Mace-
donia. This characteristic offers the pos-
sibility of all year round utilization of the
available solar energy.
2. Solar energy application in
Macedonia
In Macedonia, solar thermal energy
is mainly used for sanitary warm water
preparation, with simple thermo-siphon or
pumping system. In the tourist places
such as are Ohrid, Struga, Dojran
where swimming possibilities exist, there
are also larger solar systems for sanitary
warm water installed on the hotels and
hotel complexes. Recently, few individual
combined solar systems for space heat-
ing and sanitary warm water have been
installed. Swimming pool heating with
solar energy is not a practice in Mace-
donia (neither swimming pools are
heated out of the heating season), either
there are few such examples. Total
installed capacity in operation for
production of thermal energy (flat plate
and evacuated collectors) is 13.5 MW
th

(fig.3) or 6.6 kW
th
per 1000 inhabitants
(fig.4). [7]
Concerning power production with
solar energy, presently there is three for-
mally grid connected photovoltaic plants
benefiting from the feed-in tariff. The
installed capacity is accordingly 10.2 kW
(Sieto 1 in Skopje), 49.72 kW (Petro M in
Skopje Ilinden) and 49.72 (Geo-link
group in Skopje), or in total 109,4 kW.
There is great interest for investments in
such power plants (with larger capacity),
but the process of provision of all
necessary licenses and documents is
very slow. Beside this, the maximal
possible total capacity which can be
installed and con-nected to the grid is
limited to 10 MW.
Despite the advantageous geogra-
phical position and climate offering great
energy potential, in Macedonia the solar
energy application is at minimal level. The
reasons for this situation are mul-tiple,
and some of them are:
ignorant attitude concerning RES from
the state policy for a long-time, espe-
cially concerning the heat production
for years backwards unreal price of the
electricity
low economy standard
lack of public and politic awareness
lack of legislation which will offer long-
year support, strategic determi-nation
and dedication
lack of permanent financial support and
implementation mechanisms
lack of legislation regulations and me-
chanisms for quality maintenance and
control of the installed solar systems

122

lack of mechanisms to register the
installed capacities and their opera-
tiveness
unprofessional designing and install-
lation of the solar systems
unaesthetic integration of the systems
in the buildings
not established good business practice
for guaranties, regular maintenance
and service, etc.


Figure 1 Global solar irradiation map of Europe [kWh/m
2
] [7]

Figure 2 Global solar irradiation map of Macedonia [kWh/m
2
]

123

3. Solar energy treatment in
Macedonia
The factors for successful pene-
tration of solar thermal energy application
are represented at figure 5. Obviously,
central position has the ambitious targets,
where the other factors successively
complement, such are: R&D, awareness
rising, obligations, financial support, de-
monstration projects, trainings. All factors
are mutually connected and dependent.
The cited factors originate from the
experience of the countries where the
application of the solar thermal energy
has maximal penetration. What is the
situation in Macedonia?


Fig.3 Total operation capacity of glazed flat-plate and evacuated tube collectors at
the end of 2007 [7]

Fig.4 Total operation capacity of glazed flat plate and evacuated tube collectors per
1000 inhabitants [7]

124

Ambitious targets in Macedonia, it has
been endorsed that concerning the solar
energy priority is the power generation,
i.e. the one is supported with preferential
tariffs depending on the installed capa-
city. But, due to the high feed-in tariff, as
also the capability for grid connection, the
maximal total installed capacity is limited
to 10 MW of which 2 MW for units with
nominal power of up to 50kW (first feed-in
tariff of 460 C/ MWh, than changed to 380
C/MWh, finally in July 2010 changed to
300 C/MWh) and 8 MW for larger
capacities (up to 1 MW) (feed-in tariff of
C/MWh, than 340 C/MWh, actual 260
C/MWh). There is no limitation in total
installed power for solar thermal plants.


Figure 5 Factors for successful penetration of the solar thermal energy application
[ESTIF]
Macedonia has no own production of
photovoltaic panels and the amount of
the feed-in tariffs is entirely covered by
the electricity consumers. Due to this
reason high penetration of PV plants in
Macedonia is not planned either there is
great interest for investments due to the
high feed-in tariff. It is foreseen that 10-30
MW capacity is going to be installed up to
2020 with generation of 14-42 GWh
annually, and 20-40 MW up to 2030 with
generation of 28-56 GWh annually. The
upper limits are realizable in the case of
considerably higher market price of the
power energy and development of cheap-
er technologies for utilization of the solar
energy for generation of electricity.[1]
Concerning the solar thermal ener-
gy, the one is treated as unserious po-
tential and in the newest documents ([1]
and [6]) the following is stated:
The utilization of the solar as thermal
energy is foreseen preferably in the
households. Up to 2020 60000-90000
units in the households are planned,
giving 60-90 GWh annual utilization in
total (together with the commercial and
service sector and industry). Up to 2030
80.000-150.000 installations are planned
in the households. With this the utilization
of the solar as thermal energy in all
sectors would be 83-155 GWh annually.
[1] With other words, the foreseen
installed collector area up to 2030 is 160-
300.000 m
2
, which will be reached even
without support and special efforts (the
current installed collector area is around
20.000 m
2
).
Altogether, there are no ambitious
targets, neither there is intention to be
set; for solar power generation the targets
are limited due to real barriers, for solar
thermal energy production there are no
limitations, but neither is supported.
Research and development - In Ma-
cedonia there are around 10 technical
faculties in the frame of the state uni-
versities St.Cyril and Methodious, St. Kli-
ment Ohridski and Goce Delcev, as for:
mechanical engineering, electro-techni-
cal, technical, technical-technological,
etc. In the faculties under-graduate and
graduate programs subjects devoted to
the unconventional energy sources, their
technologies and plants are included.
However, except at the graduate studies

125

of the Faculty for natural sciences (Univ.
St.Cyril and Methodious), there are no
programs devoted exclusively to the solar
energy. There are information on parti-
cipation in projects dealing with RES and
solar energy, but most of them are de-
dicated to transfer and dissemination of
experiences, knowledge and technologi-
es.
On the other hand, there are some
initiatives from the business sector for
development of own products and opti-
mization of system concepts. Such initi-
atives have resulted with few develop-
ment projects co-financed from the Mi-
nistry of Science and Education of R.
Macedonia, realized in cooperation with
the technical faculties and the private
business sector.
In the period from 2005 to 2008 the
project Solar Water Heaters Training of
Experts & Professionals and Improve-
ment of the Technology & Production,
has been realized. This project has been
financed by the Austrian Development
Agency and co-financed by the Ministry
of Economy of RM. One of the outcomes
of this project are the following recom-
mendations aimed to improve the solar
situation in Macedonia [5]:
1. To build up a regional solar thermal
competence centre:
o To build up a virtual regional solar
thermal competence centre, that includes
training, research and testing capacities
for Macedonia.
o To integrate all relevant Macedonian
stake-holders in the competence centre
in order to create a strong and
sustainable knowledge base on solar
thermal energy in the country.
o To build up human resources (pool of
experts) able to train installers, designers,
architects and other stakeholders from
the whole region at a high level.
o Training on new applications like solar
combi-systems for hot water preparation
and space heating, solar plants for multi-
family houses, hospitals, hotels and
industry as well as on solar air
conditioning.
o To extend the training activities to the
neighbouring countries. At all training
activities interested groups from the
neighbouring countries should be invited.
o To organize 2 regional solar thermal
conferences within 3 years.
o Further training of the solar test centre
staff in order to enable the staff to carry
out not only collector but also systems
tests.
o To expand the solar test centre to the
level of a regional centre and to imple-
ment the activities into the EU network of
solar test centres and Solar Keymark.

2. Demonstration of medium sized so-
lar thermal plants
o In order to increase the knowledge of
the Macedonian solar companies and to
open the market for new applications,
training on design of medium sized
systems would be needed.
o To create a regional technological
leadership in the design and installation
of medium sized solar thermal systems.
Demonstration of this type of systems at
social institutions would be needed.
o Also an accompanying awareness
campaign for the new applications would
be needed.

3. Assistance to policy and administration
o Advise to policy and administration in
the implementation of support measures
for solar thermal energy should be
continued.
o Defining and introducing the evaluation
procedure for the support measures.
o Support of the definition of a renewable
energy goal for Macedonia based on the
EU 20% renewable targets for 2020.
o It is necessary to have information
transfer concerning developments in the
field of renewable energies in the EU.
Awareness raising many awareness
raising campaigns for the citizens and
state administration have been conveyed
in the frame of projects financed by the

126

EU or bilateral. In principle, positive re-
sults have been achieved in sense of
increased interest for solar thermal sys-
tems, but it cannot be stated that wider
application is realized. The reasons for
this are the same as the ones listed in
section 2, for which noting has been done
to be mitigated or removed.
Financial support As it has been
already discussed, the production of el-
ectricity from solar energy is supported
through feed-in tariff system. This is a
long-term support since each producer
signs contract to use the same tariff
during 20 years.
Concerning solar thermal energy, in
2007 and 2008 yr., for each year, the
Government of R. Macedonia has dedi-
cated 150.000,00 euros to support the
application of solar thermal systems. The
subsidy has been 30% of the invoiced
cost of a system or maximum 300 C per
system. With these short-term supporting
programs about 1.000 solar thermal
systems for sanitary water heating have
been installed, with total collector area of
about 2.500 m
2
.
In 2007 yr., preferential value added
tax has been introduced for solar thermal
collectors and components. [9]
Despite these recently introduced
financial support measures, there is no
significant increase in the application of
the solar thermal systems. Obviously, the
short-term subsidy programs (as it is
emphasized in the world informative
literature and suggested many times) not
only that are not positive, but they also
draw many negative consequences, such
are: opening of phantom companies
aimed to earn quick money; stop go
effect to the solar market most of the
citizens expect next cycle of state
financial support to provide solar thermal
system; no any criteria for quality
guarantee of the installed systems have
been applied, therefore a wave of
dissatisfaction from most of the users is
expected, i.e. anti-campaign. Also, the
preferential value added tax is not
recommendable measure, since it doesnt
give visible results and in principle
interventions in the state tax obligations is
not encouraged. Obviously, also in
Macedonia such measure did not
resulted with increased application of the
solar thermal energy.
Demonstration projects in the
frames of the project [5] 9 demonstration
projects (public buildings) have been
realized, one of them is combi-system
with 40 m collector area and 2.000 litre
storage tank, whereas the others are for
sanitary warm water preparation with
collector area between 4 to 23 m and
storage tanks between 200 to 1000 litres.
All systems have been subjected to
inspection and monitoring, and served as
examples to improve the design and
realization of the systems for the solar
companies.
Trainings There are no regular
training courses on designing and ins-
tallation of solar systems. In the frames of
the project [5], during 2006
th
and 2007
th
,
three seminars have been organized
whose main goal has been training on
design of small and medium sized solar
thermal systems. 20 participants have
been trained within the seminars mainly
coming from solar thermal companies,
but also from academic sector.
By the end of 2009 and beginning of
2010, upon suggestion and initiative of
the Handicraft Chamber of Macedonia
and regional chambers of Stip and Kuma-
novo, in organization of the Balkan Office
for Small Economies and Handicraft in
the frame of the Handicraft Chamber of
Koblentz from Germany, a training for
installation of PV panels and solar ther-
mal collectors has been organized. The
training has been realized in two cycles
each lasting 5 days, first cycle being in
Macedonia and second in Germany.
There are no available data on trained
professionals, what kind of knowledge
and skills have been gained.
Obligations The solar obligations
can be considered from two aspects:
1. States obligations from the aspect of

127

increased participation of RES in the
energy balance. The EU target is 20%
RES participation in the frame of the
union by 2020, and there are an-
nouncements for adoption of 90-100%
participation by 2050.
2. Obligations from the aspect of mini-
mum quality provision which will enable
guarantied energy gains from the solar
systems, as also minimum durability of 25
years (it is assessed that 12-13 years are
necessary only to return the energy
invested in the system production).
Not long ago, the RES in Macedonia
have been treated as not serious and
infeasible potential, especially for thermal
energy production (even today this
attitude is not changed). The actuality of
being member of EU has changed this
treatment, but only declarative since no
any concrete steeps are undertaken for
increased RES participation. As it was
already explained, attention is put only to
the electricity production, from wind, sun
and small hydro capacities. But, even for
these the achieved results are neglecting.
Obviously, it is not sufficient to bring only
legal acts, on the contrary they should be
based on exhaustive analyses to ascer-
tain the real and ambitious targets whose
accomplishment requires legal backgro-
und, but also mechanisms for imple-
mentation, financial support, promotion,
etc.
Concerning the obligation for mini-
mal quality provision for the solar com-
ponents and systems, in Macedonia such
mechanism does not exist. In the frame of
the project [5], a laboratory (test station)
for solar thermal collectors and tanks
testing has been provided, with future
vision for testing solar thermal systems,
too. The initial purpose of the test station
is to enable testing, impro-vement and
optimization of the Mace-donian
products, than in few years to merge in
accredited laboratory as indispensable
part of the procedures for quality
ascertain and guarantee (solar label -
Solar Keymark). The test station is
located and is under responsibility of
Hydro-meteorological Service. Sad to
say, already third year the test station is
not working due to lack of profess-
sionalism, interest and competency.
Treatment of solar energy in legal
regulations and strategic documents:
Energy Law (Official Gazette of RM
no.63/2006) [8]. Energy law represents
general frame of the energy sector and
defines the national energy policy. Solar
energy in the frame of this law is treated
together with the other renewable sour-
ces:
with this law, among others, the
promotion of the RES use is regulated
among others, the aim of this law is to
provide motivation of the RES
exploitation
for realization of the laws targets it is
necessary to plan and dedicate financial
means
it is necessary to identify the possi-
bilities for larger introduction of RES
it is necessary to adopt measures and
activities for realization of the agreed
programs
procedures and responsible institutions
for preferential production of power
energy produced from RES.
New Energy Law is in preparation.
Law for modification and amending
the law for value added tax (Official
Gazette of RM no.114/2007) [9] With this
law the solar thermal components and
systems gain right for preferential value
added tax of 5%.
Ordinance for the way of issuing
guarantee of origin of power energy
produced from RES, as also the content,
shape and way of keeping register for
issued guarantees of origin of power
energy produced from RES (Official
Gazette of RM no.127/2008) [10].
Ordinance for RES for production of
power energy (Official Gazette of RM
no.127/2008) [11].
Ordinance for the way of getting
status of preferential producer of power
energy produced from RES, as also the
content, shape and way of keeping

128

register of preferential producers of power
energy produced form RES (Official
Gazette of RM no.29/2009) [12]
Energy development strategy of
Republic of Macedonia up to 2030,
Skopje 2010 [6]
Authority institutions:
o Ministry of Economy of RM, Energy
Department The minister authorized for
the energy sector gives closer appoint-
ment of the way and method for under-
taking measures for RES exploitation.
o Energy Agency of RM issues and
conducts register for issued origin gua-
rantee certificates of the electricity pro-
duced from RES and high-efficiency com-
bined plants in R. of Macedonia.
o Energy Regulatory Commission as-
certains preferential tariffs for electric en-
ergy which is sold by the preferential pro-
ducers of electricity and producers of el-
ectricity from high- efficiency combined
plants.

CONCLUSIONS
Solar energy might be important en-
ergy resource for Macedonia. There is no
doubt that the solar resource is plentiful,
but dedicated work is required to ensure
suitable conditions for its wide-spread
use. The examples which can be followed
are numerous, showing that it is worth
investing in this ecological resource.
Figure 6 shows the installed capacity of
flat-plate and evacuated tube collectors
from 2000 to 2008. At the same graph the
economic growth rate can be observed.
No other industrial sector can praise with
such large growth rate. Therefore, there
are no doubts that it is economically
viable to develop the solar market.
Solar energy is viable energy sour-
ce. The initial assessments made (on so-
lar thermal) give indication that if 10 year
investment is made for 1 million m
2
col-
lector area, considerable participation in
the energy balance can be achieved
(such 1,55% from the gross energy con-
sumption in 2006 yr.), and the return
period of the investment is maximum 12
years.
The assessed price for 1 kWh pro-
duced thermal energy is 0.017 euro [5].
No any thermal plant can even come
close to such characteristics.



Figure 6 Annual installed capacity of flat-plate and evacuated tube collectors from
2000 to 2008 [7].

129

The ecological influence is definitely
positive since the solar systems opera-
tion is not connected with emission of
dangerous gases.
However, probably the most impor-
tant attribute is the social benefit since
the development and growth of the solar
market creates plenty new jobs in dif-
ferent sectors like in research and deve-
lopment, education, trainings, production,
design, installation, service, maintenance,
trade, etc. This fact must not be neg-
lected and will for sure contribute in
decreasing the indigence, reviving of the
economy and increasing of the life stan-
dard.
References
1. Basic Study on Renewable Energy
Sour-ces in Republic of Macedonia,
MANU, Skopje 2009 (draft)
2. Energy Balance for Republic of
Macdonia for 2007 and 2010,
www.economy.gov.mk
3. Increasing the Solar Energy
Application in Macedonia for a Better
Future, Project proposal (submitted by
Solar Macedonia), USAID Development
Grants Programme, April 2010
4. Renewables Global Status Report,
Update 2009, REN21
5. SOLAR WATER HEATERS Train-
ing of Experts & Professionals and Im-
provement of Technology & Production,
Project Number: 8047-00/2004, financed
by ADA, 2005-2008







6. Energy Development Strategy for
Republic of Macedonia up to 2030,
Skopje 2010, www.economy.gov.mkSolar
Heat Worldwide, Markets and contribution
to the energy supply, Edition 2009,
W.Weiss, I.Bergmann, R.Stelzer, AEE
INTEC, IEA-SHC
7. Energy Law (Official Gazette of RM
no.63/2006)
8. Law for modification and amending
the law for value added tax (Official
Gazette of RM no.114/2007)
9. Ordinance for the way of issuing
guarantee of origin of power energy
produced from RES, as also the content,
shape and way of keeping register for
issued guarantees of origin of power
energy produced from RES (Official
Gazette of RM no.127/2008)
10. Ordinance for RES for production of
power energy (Official Gazette of RM
no.127/2008)
11. Ordinance for the way of getting
status of preferential producer of power
energy produced from RES, as also the
content, shape and way of keeping
register of preferential producers of power
energy produced form RES (Official
Gazette of RM no.29/2009)
12. Slave Armenski, Solar Energy, 260
pg., Skopje, 2008
13. S.P-Vasilevska, I.Nasov, H.K-Bosko-
va, V.Ristov, Solar Thermal Systems
Integrated into Roofs and Facades, Solar
Macedonia, Skopje, 2009









130



GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN MACEDONIA
- First Signs of Recovery -
Kiril Popovski, Sanja Popovska Vasilevska, Eftim Micevski
Macedonian Geothermal Association (MAGA), Skopje, Macedonia

ABSTRACT:
Republic of Macedonia passed twenty years of stagnation in geothermal deve-
lopment. Some of previously developed large projects have been abandoned or des-
troyed. There were no investments in explorations and new projects development.
Geothermal energy production in 2010 dropped down for nearly 50%, compared to the
situation in 1991.
Recently, first signs of economy recovery of some users and finalized privatization
process resulted with several investments in reconstruction and optimization of geo-
thermal projects. There is interest of the others to do the same and some home and
foreign investors are trying to get concession for development of new projects.
Review of presently known geothermal fields and their production capacities,
running projects, abandoned or destroyed projects and new activities, i.e. recon-
struction and modernization of existing, organization of new projects and possibilities to
develop either the geothermal energy resource or its exploitation is made in this paper.

Key words: Geothermal Energy, State-of-the-Art, Development Possibilities

1. INTRODUCTION
Macedonia has been one of the lead-
ing European countries in direct uses de-
velopment during the 80-ies of last cen-
tury. Even rather modest, the state in-
vestments in geothermal explorations ga-
ve opportunity to the scientists and eco-
nomy sector to develop three successful
big and several small geothermal pro-
jects. However, when positive influence of
that began to give results, i.e. when state
planned some new larger invest-ments,
political and economy transition process
from the beginning of 90-ies re-sulted
with a complete collapse of the state
economy and, with that, lost of in-terest
for any further investments in the
geothermal energy development. Even
more, thanks to the collapse of the heat
users, some of the existing projects have
been abandoned.
Recently, first signs of the economy
recovery of some users resulted with se-
veral investments in geothermal projects
reconstruction and optimization. There is
interest of others to do the same, and
new candidates are trying to get con-
cession for development of new projects.
However, the process is very much slow-
ered due to the list of constraints, mainly
in the legal and financing sector. There is
no any strategy for development in the
country, no concrete institution respon-
sible for its implementation and no con-
crete programs for supporting renewable
energies development. If something has
been done, it was more a result of enga-
gements of several scientists and grants

131


Fig.1. Republic of Macedonia

Fig.2. Geological map of Macedonia (1. Q-sediments;; 2.Pg;Ng-send, clay; 3. Pg;Ng-
tuff; 4. Pg-Ngdacite and andesite; 5.T-marbeled limestone; 6 J-gabros.; 7. J peridotites;
8. K-flycsh 9. Pz-granites 10. Pz-slates and other metamorphic rocks 11. Pc- marbles;
12. Pc-gneisses)

of more developed European countries.
Existing pressure of WB and EC to work
more on the environmental protection can
have a positive influence for removing the
constraints but it can be predicted that
the process shall last at least 4-5 years,
according to the experience with the
other legislative changes and improving

the possibilities for financing new deve-
lopments.
The country update gives information
about the present state of geothermal
investigations and use in Macedonia, with
identification and comments about possi-
bilities to remove the negatively influen-
cing factors.

132

2. GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE AND
POTENTIAL (Micevski, 2003)

2.1. Geological Framework and
Tectonic Settings

Rocks of different age occur, starting
from Precambrian to Quaternary at the
territory of Macedonia. Almost all litho-
gical types are represented. The oldest,
Precambrian rocks, consist of gneiss,
micaschists, marble and orthometamor-
phites. The rocks of Paleozoic age mostly
belong to the type of green schists, and
the Mesozoic ones are represented by
marble limestones, acid, basic and ultra-
basic magmatic rocks. The Tertiary sedi-
ments consist of flysch and lacustrine se-
diments, sand-stones, lime-stones, clays
and sands.
With respect to the structural relati-
ons the territory can be divided into six
geotectonic units: The Cukali-Krasta
zone, West Macedonian zone, Pelago-
nian horst anticlinorium, Vardar zone,
Serbo-Macedonian massif and the Krais-
thide zone (Fig.2). This tectonic setting is
based on actual terrain and geological
data without using the geotectonic hypo-
thesis (Arsovski, 1998). First four tectonic
units are parts of Dinarides, Serbo-Ma-
cedonian mass is part of Rodops and the
Kraisthide zone is part of Karpato-
Balkanides distinguished on the Balkan
peninsula as geotectonic units of first
stage.
2.2. Geothermal Background
(Gorgieva, 2002)
The territory of the Republic of Ma-
cedonia belongs to the Alpine-Himalayan
zone, with the Alpine sub-zone having no
contemporary volcanic activity. This part
starts from Hungary, across Serbia, Ma-
edonia and North Greece and stretches
to Turkey. Several geothermal regions
have been distinguished including the
Macedonian region, which is connected
to the Vardar tectonic unit. This region
shows positive geothermal anomalies
and is hosting different geothermal sys-
tems. The hydrogeothermal systems, at
the moment, are the only ones that are
worth for investigation and exploitation.
There are 18 geothermal known
fields in the country with more than 50
thermal springs, boreholes and wells with
hot water. These discharge about 1.000
l/s water flow with temperatures of 20-79
C. Hot waters are mostly of hydro-car-
bonate nature, according to their domi-
nant anion, and mixed with equal pre-
sence of Na, Ca and Mg. The dissolved
minerals range from 0.5 to 3.7 g/l.
All thermal waters in Macedonia are
of meteoric origin. Heat source is the
regional heat flow, in the Vardar zone is
about 100 mW/m
2

and crust thickness 32
km.
2.3. Geothermal Fields in Macedonia
(Fig.4, 5, Table 1)
There are 18 localities where geo-
thermal fields occur and geothermal
energy is in use for different proposes.
The most known areas are listed below:
2.3.1. Kochani valley (Popovski, 2002)
The main characteristics of the Ko-
cani valley geothermal system are: pre-
sence of two geothermal fields, Podlog
and Istibanja, without hydraulic connec-
tion between them. The primary reservoir
is build by Precambrian gneiss and Pa-
leozoic carbonated schists and the high-
est measured temperature in Macedonia
of 79C is obtained by drilling to it. Pre-
dicted maximum reservoir temperature is
about 100C (Gorgieva, 1989). Kocani
geothermal system is the best inves-
tigated system in Macedonia. There are
more than 25 boreholes and wells with
depths of 100-1.170 m.(Gorgieva, 2002).

2.3.2. Strumica valley (Popovski, 2002)
The main characteristics of this field
are: the recharge and discharge zone
occur in the same lithological formation-
granites; there are springs and boreholes
with different temperature at small dist-
ances; maximum measured temperature
is 73C; the predicted maximum tempe-

133


Fig.3. Hydrogeological map of Macedonia

Fig.4. Zone geology map of Macedonia with location of geothermal reservoirs

134

rature is 120C (Gorgieva, 1989); the re-
servoir in the granites lies under thick
Tertiary sediments. Bansko geothermal
system has not been examined in detail
apart the drilling of several boreholes with
depths of 100-600m. (Gorgieva, 2002)
2.3.3. Gevgelia valley (Popovski, 2002)
There are two geothermal fields in
the Gevgelia valley: Negorci spa and
Smokvica. The discharge zone in both
geothermal fields are fault zones in
Jurassic diabases and spilites. These two
fields are separated by several km and
there is no hydraulic connection between
them, despite intensive pumping of ther-
mal waters. The maximum temperature is
54C, and the predicted reservoir tempe-
rature is 75-100C (Gorgieva, 1989).
Geothermal system in the Gevgelia valley
has been well studied by 15 boreholes
with depths between 100-800 m. (Gor-
gieva, 2002)
2.3.4. Skopje valley (Popovski, 2002)
There are two geothermal fields in
the Skopje valley: Volkovo and Katlanovo
spa. There is no hydraulic connection
between them. The main characteristics
of the Skopje hydro-geothermal system
are: maximum measured temperature of
54.4C and predicted reservoir tempera-
ture (by chemical geothermometers) of
80-115C (Gorgieva, 1989); the primary
reservoir is composed of Precambrian
and Paleozoic marbles; big masses of
travertine deposited during Pliocene and
Quaternary period along the valley mar-
gins. There are only five boreholes with
depths of 86 m in Katlanovo spa, 186 and
350 m in Volkovo and 1.654 and 2.000 m
in the middle part of the valley. The last
two boreholes are without geothermal a-
nomaly and thermal waters because of
their locations in Tertiary sediments with
thickness up to 3.800 m. (Gorgieva,
2002)
3. GEOTHERMAL UTILIZATION
Thermal waters utilization consists of
7 geothermal projects and 6 spas. All are
completed before and during the 80es of
last century. Present state of the projects
is as follows:

3.1. Istibanja (Vinica) Geothermal
Project
Project consists of 6 ha greenhouse
complex geothermal heating in combina-
tion with a heavy oil boiler for covering
the peak loadings. It has been one of the
worst completed projects before the
crisis, however after the privatization in
2000 it has been reconstructed and
optimized with Austrian and Dutch grants
and now properly covers the heat require-
ments of the roses production for export.
Owners are interested to follow inves-
tigations in order to enable geothermal
heating of additional 6 ha of greenhouses
but cannot resolve the problem of getting
necessary concession.
3.2. Kocani (Podlog) Geothermal
Project (Geoterma)
That is presently the largest geother-
mal project in Macedonia, consisting of
18 ha greenhouse complex geothermal
heating, and geothermal space heating of
some buildings in the center of the town.
Due to the economic crisis in the country,
geothermal use in paper industry, vehicle
parts industry and rice drying have been
lost as consumers of heat during the last
12 years. However, thanks to two Aus-
trian grants, two additional boreholes ha-
ve been drilled, partial reinjection of used
water completed and monitoring system
introduced in the system. Presently, acti-
vities to finalize the completion of rein-
jection of the effluent water and con-
nection of public buildings in the center of
the town is in flow, again with the use of
Austrian grant in combination with local
financial sources. Project works as a pub-
lic utility and its organizational structure is
good covered by the existing team. Only
problem in work is the price of supplied
heat, which is kept very low by the State
Regulatory Committee and doesnt con-
sist funding for all necessary mainte-
nance works and system development.

135


Fig.5. Location of geothermal projects in Macedonia
3.3. Bansko Geothermal Project
The bankrupt of Agricultural Combine
Strumica and slow process of its
privatization resulted with collaps of the
organizational structure and proper use of
the geothermal system, particularly during
the period of 1999-2000 when heating of
the greenhouse complex was out of work.
That was used by the other users
(existing and new ones) with the increase
of agreed geothermal water flows. In
2001, when again the greenhouse
heating started with work, a trial for
introduction of new organizational
structure has been made but without suc-
cess, because not consisting centralized
governing of the system exploitation.
Introduction of centralized governing of
the geothermal system and new explo-
itation boreholes are an absolute need for
its proper work, due to the increased
number of users and escorting not co-
vered peak loadings. Also, a list of recon-
structions and optimizations are neces-
sary is necessary in order to put it in
proper technical order.
Presently, an action with the help of
Italy is in flow, with the aim to perform a
reconstruction and modernization of the
existing geothermal system, increase its
capacity with completion of two explo-
itation boreholes and introduction of cen-
tralized organization of exploitation.
3.4. Smokvica (Gevgelia) Geothermal
System
Once the largest geothermal system
in Macedonia covering the heat require-
ments of 22,5 ha glasshouses and about
10 ha soft plastic covered greenhouses is
now out of exploitation. Unproper privati-
zation resulted with division of the proper-
ty to 10 entities and they cannot find a
common language for covering the costs
of geothermal system exploitation. Mean-
while, also the biggest exploitation bore-
hole has been lost. Renewal of the sys-
tem exploitation is nearly impossible be-
cause conditioning large investments with
doubtful economy due to the present
production capacity of the users. Some
interest is shown to make a new project
with different type of users (spa, recre-
ational centre, etc.) but still, there are no
concrete actions for their implementation.
3.5. Negorci (Gevgelia) Spa
Reconstruction of the heating install-
lations has been finalized and now all the
hotel and therapeutical projects are heat-

136

ed with geothermal energy. However,
realization of additional reconstructions
and improvements of heating and sani-
tary installations is necessary. For their
realization, a more complete approach to
3.6. Other Spas in Macedonia
Even planned, reconstruction of
heating systems and their orientation
towards geothermal energy use in Mace-
donian spas has not been realized due to
the un-defined property of them and ab-
sence of funds. Activities to find possible
investors are in flow in Katlanovo Spa,
Kezovica Spa and Bansko Spa.
4. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
According to the information and
data on disposal, it can be expected that
the following activities and projects com-
pletion shall be realized during the period
of the next five years: -Preparation of the
Geothermal Atlas of Macedonia -
Preparation of the feasibility study
Strategy of Geothermal Development of
Macedonia -Preparation of the feasibility
study Geothermal District Heating of
Kocani and partial realization of the town
district heating system (already in flow)
- Preparation of the feasibility study
Geothermal Potential of the South/West
Macedonia
- Completion of the second phase of
the reinjection system of the Kocani
geothermal system (already in flow)
- Recompletion of the Bansko geo-
thermal system (preparation activities in
flow)
- Reconstruction of the existing heat-
ing installations in Hotel Car Samuil in
Bansko.
- Orientation towards geothermal en-
ergy use in Katlanovo Spa, Kezovica
Spa, Debar Spa and Kosovrasti Spa, and
probably
- Beginning of development of the
Kratovo, Dojran and Debar geothermal
field.
Real realization shall mainly depend
on the change of state policy for RES
development and access to foreign fi-
nancial funds for financing necessary
investigations and investments. Present-
ly, there is no any political or financial
support to both.

4. DISCUSSION
Present state-of-the-art of geother-
mal energy use in Macedonia is mainly a
consequence of the process of the poli-
tical and economic changes in flow. The
economy collaps of the country, unsolved
problems with the privatization of pro-
duction capacities of the geothermal
energy users, a list of legal constraints,
absence of a strategy for development,
absence of the state support for the
necessary explorations and investigations
and very hard conditions for financing
necessary reconstructions and new
investments in the sector resulted with a
complete stagnation for the period of last
20 years. Real change of the situation
cannot be expected before resolving the
problem of listed constraints.
Therefore, even the process of
elimination of them is already in flow (new
laws for energy, for mineral and water
resources, and for concessions, etc.), it is
not possible to expect serious changes
during the period of next 5 years.

REFERENCES
Arsovski M. (1997). Tektonika na Make-
donija,Stip
Konstantin Dimitrov, Mirjana Gorgieva
and Kiril Popovski GEOTHERMAL
ENERGY RESOURCES AND
THEIR USE IN THE REPUBLIC OF
MACEDONIA, Proceedings World
Geothermal Congress 2000 Kyushu
Tohoku, Japan, May 28 -June 10,
2000
Mira Georgieva. SUMMARY OF FUN-
DAMENTALS FOR EVALUATION
OF THE GEOTHERMAL POTENTI-
AL OF THE VARDARIAN ZONE
AND SERBIAN-MACEDONIAN
MASS AT THE TERITORRY OF

137



138

TABLE 2. GEOTHERMAL PROJECTS IN MACEDONIA
Geothermal
Geother-
mal
Applica-
tion
Heat
Power
Heat
Power
Heat Users
Location Field
Total
kW
Geother
kW

Istibanja Kocani
Heating of
a green-
house
17.500 7.480
Aerial pipes and
vegetative
(Vinica) complex heating,
plus heating of
benches
Bansko Strumica Geothermal
District
Heating
System
10.350 10.350 Heating green-
houses: -Aerial
steel pipes in
combination
with corrugated
plastic pipes -
Soil heating
Space heating: -
Aluminium radi-
ators Air heat-
ing system
Sanitary warm
water preparati-
on -Swimming
pool
Podlog Kocani Geothermal
District
Heating
System and
balneology
40.700 40.700 Heating green-
houses: -Aerial
steel pipes
Space heating: -
Aluminia radia-
tors Iron radia-
tors
Smokvica Gevgelia Abandoned
Negorci Gevgelia Space
heating and
balneology
250 250 Space heating: -
Aerial steel
pipes -Aluminia
radiators
Sanitary warm
water
preparation
Katlanovo Skopje Balneology
Kumanovo
Kumanov
o
Balneology

Kezovica Stip Balneology
Kosovrasti Debar Balneology
Banjiste Debar Balneology
Banja Kocani Balneology Abandoned
TOTAL 68.800 58.780

139

THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA,
Annual Workshop of MAGA, Ohrid
2003
Mirjana Gorgieva; Dusko Gorgiev; Kiril
Popov-ski; Kostadin Dimitrov; Saso
Manasov INFERRED SECTION OF
THE MAIN (LOW-TEMPERATURE)
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN THE
REPUBLIC OF MA-CEDONIA,
Proceedings World Geother-mal
Congress 2000 Kyushu -Tohoku,
Japan, May 28 -June 10, 2000
Mirjana Gorgieva; Kiril Popovski; Dusko
Gorgiev GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
IN MACEDONIA,STATE-OF-THE-
ART AND PERSPECTIVES, Inter-
national Geothermal Days of ISS
GREECE 2002, Proceedings,
Skopje 2002.
Eftim Micevski. GEOTERMALEN PO-
TENCIJAL NA JUGO-ZAPADNIOT
DEL NA MAKEDONIJA, Annual
Workshop of MA-GA, Ohrid 2003
Kiril Popovski. Feasibility Study on
POSSIBLE INVESTMENTS IN
GEOTHERMAL PROJECTS IN MA-
CEDONIA, WB study, Skopje 2002
Kiril Popovski. Geothermal Energy Use
in Macedonia, International Confe-
rence GEAIA, Athens 2004
Kiril Popovski, Eftim Micevski, Sanja Po-
povska Vasilevska, Macedonia
Country update 2005, World Geo-
thermal Congress WGC 2005,
Antalya 2005




























140



HYDROENERGY IN MACEDONIA

Dr. Sotir PANOVSKI, Dr. Gordana JANEVSKA
University St. Kliment Ohridski
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Bitola

ABSTRACT
In Republic of Macedonia there is substantial unused hydro potential for building
of large and small hydro power plants (HPP). Recently an increase in interest for small
HPP has been observed. In the Development Programme of the Republic of
Macedonia government investment in large and small HPP is one of the priority parts
within the development of energy sector. In 2007 the concession for building of small
HPPs has begun with the Ministry of Economy announcing four calls for tender
concession applications over 140 locations for small HPP with installed capacity of 35
kW to 2500 kW.
The article gives a view of the Hydro Power Plant (HPP) as a plant for electricity
production from renewable energy source. The present situation in the Republic of
Macedonia has been discussed. The article points out the needs and possibilities for
building of HPP in Republic of Macedonia. The hydro potential: technically available
hydro potential and also the hydro potential used with small and large HPP are given
through the concrete data. The article discusses the future plans and scenarios for
utilization of hydro potential in Republic of Macedonia.
1. ITRODUCTION
Republic of Macedonia (RM) takes
place on the Balkan Peninsula. It is a
small country with 25.713 km
2
and 2
million inhabitants. The mountain area
with numerous rivers and continental
climate are predominant.
Macedonia, as an Eastern European
country, is into transition process since
1989 as a consequence of the political
and economic changes within the society.
Macedonia was one of the republics in
the former Yugoslavia until its desinte-
gration on 1991, since when RM has
been an independent country. In 2006,
the European Union accepted Macedo-
nia's application and at present RM is a
country candidate for member-ship in the
EU.
Since declaring independence of the
country and undergoing transition, some
steps have been made in the area of
investment policy and development of en-
ergy sector. Future energetics solutions
and development will also need to ac-
count for the continuous transition period
and take on board such experiences of
the developed countries, especially the
positive experiences of the small EU co-

141

untries.
Respecting the present situation, the
energy problems, the future energy
needs, the experiences of developed co-
untries and also the size of RM, we note
that for development of energetics and
energy policy in RM good supplying of
the consumers with needed energy must
be assured as well as good prices in the
energy sector, energy market, different
property types, qualitative legislation and
big state efforts into promoting the rene-
wable energy, energy efficiency, trans-
portation, energy distribution and con-
sumption and also environment protec-
tion.
From the view point of this situation
the electro-energetics and hydro-ener-
getics, as a part of it, take a significance
place.
The Macedonian energy policy was
built in the framework of the collective
Yugoslav policy till the country indepen-
dence in 1991. At that time, nearly 50%
of the electricity needs in RM were
provided from the domestic production,
and the rest 50% were assured from the
joint Yugoslav electric network. Shortly
after the independence, the overall
electricity needs in RM were provided
from the own production, which resulted
from transition process, degradation of
the industrial production, closing a lot of
factories down, aggravation of the living
standards and so on. In the last few
years, the restart of some bigger in-
dustrial facilities as well as the start of
some new facilities resulted in increasing
of the electricity consumption. Nowadays
the electricity import is significance and it
is to expect that this trend will continue.
2. HYDROENERGETICS
2.1. Hydropower plants as producers
of renewable energy
In terms of hydropower plants, until
recently, only small hydro power plants
were considered as renewable energy,
not only here but in Europe and beyond.
The limit for definition of small hydro-
power plants is different in different co-
untries. According to the European Small
Hydropower Association the recom-
mended limit is hydropower plants up to
10 MW to be considered as small
hydroelectric plants. There is no official
document to define the term small
hydropower plant in RM. Until recently,
hydro power plants up to 5 MW were
considered as small. Lately, the limit up to
10 MW has been practiced for small
hydro in RM (Ministry of Economy, etc...).
Today in Europe, officially according
to the Directive 2009/28/EC for promotion
of renewable energy [1], as well as
according to the prior Directive 2001/
77/EC for promotion of green electricity in
the internal market, the renewable energy
sources include wind, solar energy,
geothermal energy, wave energy, the tide
and ebb tide energy, hydro energy,
biomass, landfill gas, gas from the plants
for waste water treatment and biogas.
Under the Rules for electricity ge-
neration from renewable sources adopted
by the Minister of Economy (Official
Gazette No. 127/2008) [2] facilities that
use renewable sources for electricity
generation are hydro power plants, wind
power plants, biomass power plants,
biogas power plants, solar power plants
and geothermal power plants.
In any case, the separation of small
and large hydropower plants in terms of
renewable energy sources is past, i.e.
hydro plants that use renewable sources
of energy include all hydro power plants,
the small once as well as the large.
2.2. Current general situation
Republic of Macedonia, as a mo-
untain country with continental climate,
has a beneficial hydro stage. There is
one big river (Vardar), as well as several
smaller ones in addition to numerous
small mountain rivers. There are several
artificial lakes which are multipurpose but
mostly of them are used as an ac-
cumulation for existing hydro power
plants.

142

According to the last water economy
basis (since 1974) [3], as it is mention in
the paper [7] the total water potential in
RM is 8.913 GWh, technically used water
potential is 6.436 GWh or 72,2%.
The water potential of river basins in
R.Macedonia, classified according to the
official documentation and surveys [6] is
presented in Table 2.2.1 (source: Stra-
tegy for utilization of renewable energy
sources in Macedonia by 2020 [4])
The best sites for hydropower ge-
neration facilities are located in the wes-
tern part of Macedonia, i.e. the right side
of the river Vardar. Therefore, already
built hydropower plants as well as candi-
dates for future building of hydropower
facilities are located in this part of RM.
The hydro plants in Macedonia, ac-
cording to the river basin can be divided
into HPP of the river Crn Drim, which
flows into Adriatic Sea, and HPP that
belong to watersheds of major tributaries
of the river Vardar, which are river
Treska and river Crna. Mavrovo hydro-
power plants can be classified separately.
They use water from mountain Shara
belong to the confluence of the Vardar
River, which flows into the Aegean Sea.
The bulk of the estimated technical
energy potential belongs to the Vardar
basin with about 4270 GWh, followed by
the confluence of the river Grn Drim with
about 880 GWh, and all together, without
small basins, makes potential of about
5150 GWh. Small basins have an
additional technical potential of about 440
GWh, so that the total water potential in
RM is estimated at about 5600 GWh.
From this total energy potential, the so far
built hydro power facilities utilized around
1470 GWh, for average hydrology, which
is 26 % of technical potential. According
to the planned candidates, hydropower
facilities with a potential of about 2500
GWh can be build in the future, which is
additional 44 %, thus reaching a total
usable water potential of about 3900
GWh, i.e. about 70% of technical po-
tential.
2.2.1. Existing large Hydro Power Plants
Large hydropower plants are pro-
duction capacities which are connected
on the global electric network, and they
contribute to the smoothing of variable
energy. Depending on the accumulation
size, installation characteristics and head,
hydropower plants may be with multi-
seasonal, seasonal, as well as with
weekly or daily regulation possibility.
With exception of HPP Kozjak and
HPP St. Petka (which is under cons-
truction), most large HPP in Macedonia
have been built in the sixties and
seventies of last century, and they have
been revitalized after nearly forty years of
operation. Large parts of electrome-
chanical equipment have been replaced
within the revitalization project, which has
increased lifespan of hydropower plants,
while the improved performance of
turbines and increased their power. Table
2.2.1.1 notes the existing HPP in RM and
their basic technical characteristics.
HPP Vrben, Vrutok and Raven ma-
ke the Mavrovo hydropower system with
significant regulation capability. HPP
Globochica and Shpilje together with the
Ohrid Lake as an accumulation make
cascade on the river Crn Drim. The third
important hydropower complex is placed
on the river Treska with HPP Kozjak,
HPP St.Petka and HPP Matka. HPP
St.Petka is under construction and it is
expected to start operating by 2011. At
the beginning of 2009 HPP Matka has
been revitalized when the installed flow
was doubled, and regulating the outlet of
the hydro system into the river Vardar
was activated. The total installed capacity
of existing large HPP in RM is about 550
MW, with about 1400 GWh average an-
nual production for average hydrology.
2.2.2. Large Hydro Power Plants candi-
dates for investments and building
in the future
As future candidates for investments
and building of large HPP in RM are
taken those items for which the technical

143

Table 2.2.1 - Water potential of the r.Vardar and r.Crn Drim basins
Theore
.
Techni
c.
Built Built/T
ech.
Planed Pl./Tec
h.
Total Tot./Te
ch.
River
GWh GWh GWh % GWh % GWh %
Vardar
above
Treska
1202 1084 488 45,02 140 12,92 628 57.93
Treska 377 347 190 54,76 60 250 72,05
Kadina and
Markova
97 87
Pchinja 265 201
Topolka
and
Babuna
46 35
Bregalnica 270 205 17 8,29 17 8,29
Crna 1098 944 184 19,49 604 63,98 788 83,47
Boshava 38 33
Vardar
main flow
1454 1336 1336 100,00 1336 100,00
Vardar 4847 4272 879 20,58 2140 50,09 3019 70,67
Radika 438 338 134 39,64 134 39,64
Crn Drim 710 548 513 93,61 513 93,61
Crn Drim -
total
1148 886 513 57,90 134 15,12 647 73,02
Vardar
and
Crn Drim
total
5995 5158 1392 26,99 2274 44,09 3666 71,07
Small HPP 671* 440** 76 17,27 197 44,77 273 62,05
Total 6666 5598 1468 26,22 2471 44,14 3939 70,36
*All 400 SHPP (total power 255,5 MW and CF=0,3)
**SHPP > 1 MW (total power 167,5 MW and CF=0,3)according to the Study about 400
SHPP in RM




144

Table 2.2.1.1 - Existing HPP in RM - Technical data

HPP

Basin
Aggreg.
(No.)
Q
inst
/aggr.
(m
3
/s)
H
(m)
V
10
6
m
3

P
inst

(MW)
W
year

(GWh)
Star-
ted
year
Vrben Mavrovo 2 4,6 193 0 12,8 45 1957/
1973
Vrutok Mavrovo 4 9 574 277 172,0 390 1959/
1973
Raven Mavrovo 3 10,6 66 0 21,6 53 1959
Tikvesh River
Crna
4 36 100 272 116,0 184 1966/
1981
Kali-
manci
Bregalni
ca
2 9 13,8 17 2006
Globo-
chica
Crn
Drim
2 27 110
,9
228 42,0 213 1965
Shpilje Crn
Drim
3 36 95 212 84,0 300 1969
Kozjak* Treska 2 50 100 260 80,0 150 2004
Matka** Treska 2 20 28 1,1 9,6 40 2009
Total 551,8 1392
*Kozjak, at extremely high water level, has option for operation with H=108 m and
P=88 MW
**Matka is treated as large HPP (Ther is an accummulation, and it has ~10 MW)
documentation and hydrological bases
existed. Table 2.2.2.1 gives the basic
technical characteristics of large HPP
candidates for investments and building
in the future in R.Macedonia (source: the
documentation from the company ELEM
Macedonian Power Plants).
Some of the HPP candidates are
under construction, some of them are into
tender procedure, and for some once the
tender procedure has been already com-
pleted. However, there are hydropower
facilities that are longer time in research,
but the procedure for activating the build
is not yet started.
A necessary prerequisite for cons-
truction of HPP of Vardar Valley is to car-
ry out displacement of railroad Skopje -
Gevgelija, with additional funds, into new
route with a modern solution for two-way
traffic and high speeds. Procedure for
railroad displacement has not been star-
ted yet, so that the realization of this pro-
ject could not be completed before 2020.


145

Table 2.2.2.1 The basic technical characteristics of large HPP candidates for
investments

Basin
P
inst

MW
W
year

GWh
Investments
M C
Construction period
year
St. Petka Treska 36 60
Boskov Most Radika 68,2 117 70 4
Lukovo Pole Mavrovo 5 163 45 4
Galishte River Crna 193,
5
264 200 7
Chebren River Crna 333 340/84
0
319 7
Gradec Vardar 54,6 252 157 7
Veles Vardar 93,0 300 251 7
10 HPP
Vardar Valley
Vardar 176,
8
784 486 7
Total 960 2280/
2780
1528

A necessary prerequisite for cons-
truction of HPP of Vardar Valley is to car-
ry out displacement of railroad Skopje -
Gevgelija, with additional funds, into new
route with a modern solution for two-way
traffic and high speeds. Procedure for
railroad displacement has not been star-
ted yet, so that the realization of this pro-
ject could not be completed before 2020.
From the HPP candidates for build-
ing, HPP Galishte and HPP Chebren are
in the tendering procedure and they will
be built according to the system of public
private partnership. HPP Chebren and
HPP Galishte, together with the down-
stream installed HPP Tikvesh, establish
hydropower complex on the river Crna.
HPP Chebren, because of the low water
inflow and large installed capacity, is
planned to be pumped storage scheme,
which will improve the operational ca-
pability of the power system and also will
provide more efficient variable potential
with positive financial impact.
Another significant hydro project is
the system on the accumulation Lukovo
Pole together with downstream HPP Crn
Kamen, which will increase the pro-
duction of the Mavrovo hydropower com-
plex for additional 163 GWh.
It is also planed to start construction
of HPP Boskov Most.
HPP Veles and HPP Gradec are
objects on the Vardar River that require
higher investments and additional cons-
truction works as an displacement of the
railroad, and they should be built as an
integrated solution to the Vardar Valley
along with the remaining 10 smaller HPP
on the river Vardar.

146

The total installed capacity of large
HPP candidates for investments is about
960MW, with about 2290 GWh average
annual production for average hydrology,
or with about 2790 GWh average annual
production for average hydrology when
the production from pumped storage HPP
Chebren will be included.
The total production of electricity
from large HPP candidates may vary
depending on the hydrology, but of
course depending on the technical
implementation of the HPP Cebren and
HPP Galishte as pump storage hydro
power plants or as ordinary. Investments
in these facilities are estimated at about
1530 million C.
2.2.3. Candidates of 10 unified HPP on
the river Vardar
According to the feasibility study, as
well as to the Study for integrated
management of the Vardar Valley, 12
HPP in a cascade on the Vardar River
are foreseen, shown in Figure 2.2.3.1.


Fig. 2.2.3.1. Sites of HPP on the Vardar River
Two of these HPP, Veles and
Gradec, according to installed capacity
and production, are treated separately.
Table 2.2.3.1 gives the remaining 10 HPP
foreseen by integrated management of
the river Vardar. Each of them has
installed capacity from 17MW to 24MW.
The total installed capacity of these
10 unified HPP with the same flow is
about 177 MW with average annual
production of about 784 GWh. The total
planned investment for these hydro
facilities with consideration of dislocation
of the railway is about 486 million C.
2.2.4. Existing Small Hydro Power Plants
Small hydropower plants are pro-
duction capacities with installed power up
to 10 MW.
Table 2.2.4.1 notes the existing
small HPP in RM and their basic technical
characteristics. From the existing small
HPP, the most of them are the property of
the Company EVN Macedonia, and a
smaller number are owned by enterprises
for water management. One small HPP
(SHPP Dabniste) is in a private property.

147

Table 2.2.3.1 - Candidates of 10 unified HPP on the river Vardar

HPP
Q
inst

(m
3
/s)
H
(m)
P
inst

(MW)
W
year

(GWh)
Investments
M C
Babuna 240 8,5 17 56,9 36,65
Zgropolci 240 8,5 17 55,5 39,80
Gradsko 240 8,3 17 66,6 44,34
Kukuricani 240 8,3 17 79,5 43,88
Krivolak 240 8,3 17 80,0 43,88
Dubrovo 240 8,3 17 80,2 52,50
D.Kapija 240 12 24 116,4 61,90
Miletkovo 240 8,2 17 80,3 53,89
Gjavato 240 8,2 17 83,2 60,66
Gevgelija 240 8,3 17 85,1 48,50
Total 177 783,7 486,01

The total installed capacity of the
existing small HPP is about 30 MW with
average annual production of about 82
GWh.
2.2.5. Small Hydro Power Plants candi-
dates for investments and building in
the future
Small Hydro Power Plants candi-
dates for investments can be divided into
two groups. One group consists of SHPP
wich are already given or it is planning to
be given in the tendering procedure
through the Ministry of Economy, and the
second group are other potential SHPP
ownership of water management organi-
zations and other hydro systems.
A relevant Study about possible
SHPP in the Republic of Macedonia was
made in 1980 [8]. This Study takes the
HPP with installed capacity up to 5 MW
as a small. The Study points to possi-
bilities for building of 400 SHPP with total
installed capacity of 255 MW and esti-
mated average annual electricity pro-
duction of 1.100 GWh. However, accor-
ding to the average production from the
existing SHPP, the annual production of
these 255 MW would be 670 GWh. Some
of these sites in the meantime have been
further explored through research and
feasibility projects, and the Ministry of
Economy gives the best and the most
promising locations gradually in tendering
process for building. Up to date, the
Ministry for Economy announced four
calls for tender concession applications
over 121 locations for SHPP with total
installed capacity of 93 MW. The
estimated annual electricity production of
these 121 SHPP is about 245 GWh. So
far the procedures for the first three
tenders have been completed and 35

148

Table 2.2.4.1 Existing small HPP in RM - Technical data

SHPP
Q
inst

(m
3
/s)
P
inst

(MW)
W
year

(GWh)
Pena 2 x 2 3,3 9,43
Zrnovci 3 x 0,4 1,4 4,19
Pesocani 2 x 0,6 2,7 10,29
Sapuncica 2 x 0,4 2,9 9,96
Doshnica 3 x 0,7 4,1 15,02
Turija 2 x 2,3 2,2 5,20
Modric 1 x 0,4 0,2 0,43
Babuna 3 x 1,24 0,7 2,70
Belica 1 x 1 0,3 1,00
Glaznja / 2,1 /
Popova Sapka 4 x 0,6 4,8 18,00
Strezevo 1 / 2,4 /
Strezevo 2 / 0,1 /
Strezevo 3 / 0,38 /
Strezevo 4 / 0,46 /
Lukar (Kavadarci) 4
SHPP
/ 1,21 /
Dabniste / 0,032 /
Total 29,282 76,2

agreements on concessions with total
installed capacity of 21 MW have been
signed.
2.2.6. Small Hydro Power Plants candi-
dates on other hydro systems
Apart from SHPP given in the
tendering procedure through the Ministry
of Economy, it is planned and there are
opportunities for building SHPP on other
hydro systems, such as water supplying
systems or irrigation systems. Such a

149

Table 2.2.6.1 SHPP candidates on the HS Zletovica

SHPP
Q
inst

(m
3
/s)
H
(m)
P
inst

(MW)
W
year

(GWh)
Zletovica 1 3, 2 235 3,1 8,96
Zletovica 2 3,2 163 2,5 7,23
Zletovica 3 3,5 133 1,9 5,49
Total 7,5 21,68

case is the Hydro System Zletovica,
where 3 SHPP are planed for building
(Table 2.2.6.1).
HS Zletovica is under construction
and the first stage provides the
construction of the dam and the system
for supplying drinking water to the
eastern region of the country, as well as
water for irrigation. Hydropower plants
are provided in the second construction
phase of the HS Zletovica. Each HPP is
provided with two equal units. Total
installed capacity of all three HPP is 7,5
MW with average annual production up to
22 GWh. Table 2.2.6.2 gives the installed
capacity and average annual production
for the SHPP in R.Macedonia planned by
the tender from the Ministry of Economy,
as well as for the SHPP on the HS
Zletovica.

Table 2.2.6.2 Small HPP candidates for investments

SHPP
P
inst

MW
W
year

GWh
Tender from ME 93 245
HS Zletovica 7,5 22
Total 100,5 267

Besides the listed SHPP, also seve-
ral small HPP are planned on other hydro
systems: HS Studencica, HS Lisice, HS
Boshava e.t.c., but still there is no specific
technical data for these SHPP.
2.2.7. Comparison of existing and plan-
ned hydroelectric potential
The Strategy [7] makes a compa-
rison of existing and planned hydro-
electric potential in R.Macedonia. Table
2.2.7.1 gives an overview of existing and
planned hydro potential in RM (source:
Strategy [7]). Graphical presentations of
installed capacity and corresponding
production for existing HPP and for
planned HPP separately, as well as in
total for existing and planned HPP in
Macedonia are given in images 2.2.7.1
and 2.2.7.2.

150

Table 2.2.7.1 Installed capacities and annual production of existing and planned HPP
in RM
Existing Planned Total
P
ins
W
year
P
ins
W
year
P
ins
W
year

HPP (MW) (GWh) (MW) (GWh) (MW) (GWh)
Large 552 1392 960 2280 1512 3672
Small 27 76 100 267 127 343
Total 579 1468 1060 2547 1639 4015


Fig. 2.2.7.1 Installed capacities Fig. 2.2.7.2 Average annual production
HPP planned to be built in future in
Macedonia will be with total installed
capacity of about 1060 MW; and 960 MW
from the total installed capacity will be in
large hydropower facilities, and about 100
MW will be in small hydro. Reciprocal
total average annual production will
amount 2550 GWh, with about 2280
GWh of large HPP and about 270 GWh
of small HPP. According to announ-
cements of concession of additional sites
for construction of small hydro it is
expected that by 2020 the contribution of
new small hydro can reach installed
capacity within 80 to 120 MW with an
annual production from 210 to 310 GWh.
It is also expected that construction of
other small HPP will be completed in the
period 2020-2030. The revitalization of
existing HPP can give additional pro-
duction of electricity.
With these planned hydro facilities,
the hydro potential in Macedonia in the
coming period until 2030 should be
increased up to total installed capacity of
about 1700 MW with average annual
production of about 4400 GWh.
2.2.8. Feed-in tariffs for SHPP in
Republic of Macedonia
According to the Energy Law of the
Republic [9], feed-in tariffs and the
installed power of the hydropower plants
for acquisition of right of use feed-in tariffs
are determined by the Regulatory Com-
mission of the Republic. Regarding feed-
in tariffs for SHPP, Regulatory Commis-

151

sion has been adopted Rules for the
method and procedure for determining
and approving the use of feed-in tariffs for
sale of electricity produced in small
hydropower plants [10]. Under the Rules,
feed-in tariffs apply to quantities of el-
ectricity supplied from the newly cons-
tructed run-of-river SHPP with installed
capacity up to 10,000 kW which have
acquired the status of preferential pro-
ducer. Preferential producer is obliged to
use the feed-in tariffs, for the use of
which has received a Decision on
approval, for a period of 20 years. The
Operator on electricity market is obliged
to buy the entire quantity of electricity
supplied by the preferential producer at
feed-in tariffs for which the Energy
Regulatory Commission has been
adopted a Decision approving the use
from this preferential producer.
Also, the Energy Regulatory Com-
mission has been adopted a Decision on
determining the tariffs for sale of
electricity produced and supplied by small
hydro which acquired the status of
preferential producer. These tariffs are
given in Table 2.2.8.1.

Table 2.2.8.1 Feed-in tariffs for the electricity produced and furnished from the SHPP

Unit
monthly furnished
electricity [kWh]
annual furnished
electricity [kWh]
Feed in tariffs
[C cents/kWh]
I 1-85000 1-1020000 12,00
II 85001-170000 1020000-2040000 8,00
III 170001-350000 2040001-4200000 6,00
IV 350001-700000 4200001-8400000 5,00
V above 700001 above 8400001 4,50

2.2.9. Planned utilization of hydro energy
in Republic of Macedonia by 2020
and by 2030
In the future it is planned increased
use of energy from renewable sources.
According to the Strategy for Energy
Development in Macedonia by 2030 [12],
there are technical potential of hydro
energy for annually electricity production
of around 5500 GWh at average hydro-
logy in Macedonia. Up to date, there are
hydropower plants with total installed
capacity of 580 MW (Tables 2.2.1.1 and
2.2.4.1) and average production of about
150 GWh which represents 27% of
available potential. According to the
mentioned Study, it is planned utilization
of additional hydro power plants with
production of about 2500 GWh, so that
the total production will increase up to
4000 GWh or 73% of available technical
potential.
The baseline scenario of the menti-
oned Strategy [12] are planning the con-
struction of 6 large hydro power plants in
the period until 2020 (HPP St.Petka by
2010, HPP Boskov Most by 2015, Lukovo
Pole with HPP Crn Kamen and HPP
Galishte by 2016, HPP Gradec by 2017
and HPP Cebren by 2019) with total
installed capacity of about 690 MW and
average annual production of about 1200
GWh (Table 2.2.9.1 Upper Limit (UL)).
Having on mind that tenders for the
concession ended in failure on several
occasions, there is possibility for some
extension of the construction of these

152

hydropower plants. With several years
delay in their construction, it is to expect
that construction of HPP Gradec and
HPP Cebren will end after 2020. In this
case, in 2020 the production from the
new large hydropower plants would
amount about 600 GWh (Table 2.2.9.1
Lower Limit (LL)). As a realistic scenario it
is foresees some delay in construction of
hydropower plants with only HPP Gradec
cross over 2020. According to this
scenario, by 2020 there will be new large
HPP with a total capacity of 635 MW and
annual production of 940 GWh (Table
2.2.9.1 Planned Scenario (PS)).
In the period by 2030, beside the
aforementioned, it is also foresees cons-
truction of HPP Veles and remaining 10
smaller HPP of Vardar Valley. Thus, the
total installed capacity of newly built
hydro power plants will amount 960 MW
with average annual production of about
2280 GWh.
The available potential for construc-
tion of small hydro power plants on 400
possible locations is estimated to 255
MW. According to the average production
of the available small hydro power plants,
the annual production from these new
255 MW would be 670 GWh. The
locations for building small hydropower
plants have been given under concession
through tendering by the Ministry of Eco-
nomy. Also, there are small hydro power
plants planned for building on water
supplying systems, as well as on irriga-
tion systems. Despite some administra-
tive problems, and problems with unclear
hydrology of sites, the realistic scenario
expects by 2020 construction of small
hydro power plants with installed capacity
of 80 MW and annual production of 210
GWh; and by 2030 it is expects 160 MW
in small hydro power plants with annual
production of 420 GWh. Also, there is an
optimistic scenario which by 2020 fore-
sees construction of small hydro power
plants with installed capacity of 120 MW
and annual production of 310 GWh; and
by 2030 it is foresees 240 MW in small
hydro power plants with annual produc-
tion of 620 GWh.
3. CONCLUSION
Today it is generally accepted and
clear, as it is explained in this text too,
that all hydro power plants (large, as well
as small) belong to renewable hydro
energy sources. The limit for small
hydropower plants (10 MW), recom-
mended by the European Small Hyd-
ropower Association, which is also used
in the R.Macedonia, is in function of
application the feed-in tariffs for electricity
generation from small hydro hydropower
plants.
In R.Macedonia there is conside-
rable hydro energy potential, which is
estimated to be around 5600 GWh tech-
nically usable hydro potential. Today, it is
used around 1470 GWh which is only
about 26% from this potential.
The Strategy for utilization of rene-
wable energy sources in R.Macedonia [4]
gives four scenarios depending on par-
ticipation of renewable energy in total
final energy consumption. In all four sce-
narios it can be expected that R.Mace-
donia by 2020 can realistically achieve
21% participation of renewables. Sce-
narios C2 and C3 appear as the most
likely. C3 scenario is based on final en-
ergy consumption scenario with enhan-
ced energy efficiency measures under
the Strategy for Energy Development in
Macedonia [12], so that it represents a
target option. The C2 scenario foresees
final energy consumption as it is in the
basic scenario of the Strategy [12]. For
realization of scenarios C2 and C3 or any
option between them, by 2020 it is
needed to use hydro energy from large
HPP in amount of 2000 - 2350 GWh
(construction of HPP St. Petka, HPP
Boskov Most, Lukovo Pole with HPP
Crn Kamen and HPP Galiste under the
C3 scenario; and according to the C2
scenario construction of the above listed
HPP plus HPP Cebren), as well as hydro
energy from small HPP in amount of 350
- 360 GWh. Moreover, the percentage
participation of large and small HPP in

153

the total amount of renewable energy by
2020 is: according to the C2 scenario
large HPP participate by 34.1% and small
HPP by 5.2%, and according to the C3
scenario large HPP participate by 30.9%
and small HPP by 5.4%. The Strategy [4]
predicts the participation of HPP elec-
tricity generation in the final energy con-
sumption in the limits 3430 - 4410 GWh
from large HPP and in the limits 510 - 710
GWh from small HPP by 2030.

Table 2.2.9.1 Large HPP candidates for investments

HPP

P
inst

Annual production
(GWh)
(MW) UL LL PS
St. Petka 36 60 60 60
Boskov Most 68 117 117 117
Lukovo Pole 5 163 163 163
Galishte 193 264 264 264
Chebren** 333 340 340* 340
Gradec 55 252 252* 252*
2020 Total 690; 302; 635 1196 604 944
Veles 93 300 300 300
10 HPP Vardar
Valley
177 784 784 784
2030 Total 960 2280 2280 2280
*Starting after 2020
**According to Directive 2009/28/EC the production from pumped water not inclouded
REFERENCES

[1] Directive 2009/28/EC for promotion
of renewable energy.
[2] Rules for electricity generation from
renewable sources, Official Gazette
No.127/2008, Republic of Mace-
donia.
[3] Water economy basis of Republic
of Macedonia, 1974.
[4] Strategy for utilization of renewable
energy sources in Macedonia by
2020, Macedonian Academy of
Sciences and Arts, Skopje 2010.
[5] Energy Sector Development Stra-
tegy for Macedonia Final Report,
Ministry of Economy, Research

154

Center for Energy Informatics and
Materials of the Macedonian Aca-
demy of Sciences and Arts and
Electrotek Concepts Inc., July 2000.
[6] Panovski S., Janevska G., Traj-
cevski Lj., Concessions possibilities
for small hydro power plants
(SHPPs) in Macedonia with em-
phasis on the model DBOT as a
special case study, Hidroenergia
2010, Lausanne, Suisse, 16-19
June 2010.
[7] Study about possible mini and
small HPP in SR of Macedonia,
Republic Committtee for Energetics
of SR of Macedonia, 1980.
[8] Energy Law, Official Gazette
No.63/2006, 36/2007 and 106/2008,
Republic of Macedonia.
[9] Rules for the method and pro-
cedure for determining and appro-
ving the use of feed-in tariffs for
sale of electricity produced in small
hydropower plants, Official Gazette
No.16/2007, Republic of Mace-
donia.
[10] Decision on determining the feed-
in tariffs for sale of electricity pro-
duced and supplied by small hyd-
ropower plants which acquired the









status of privileged producer, Offi-
cial Gazette No.16/2007, Re-public
of Macedonia.
[11] Strategy for Energy Development
in Macedonia by 2030, Macedonian
Academy of Sciences and Arts,
2010.
[12] Rulebook on the manner of issuing
guarantees of origin for electricity
produced from renewable sources,
and the content, form and manner
of keeping the register of issued
guarantees of origin for electricity
produced from renewable sources,
Official Gazette No.127/2008, Re-
public of Macedonia.
[13] Rules on the conditions, manner
and procedure for issuing, modi-
fying, extending and revoking li-
censes for performing energy ac-
tivities, Official Gazette No.31/2009,
Republic of Macedonia.
[14] Rules on the manner of acquiring
status of privileged producer of
electricity produced from renewable
sources, and the content, form and
manner of keeping a register of
privileged producers of electricity
produced from renewable sources,
Official Gazette No.29/2009, Re-
public of Macedonia.

155





























156











4. SUSTAINABLE INCORPORATION OF BIOMASS
AND OTHER RES IN MUNICIPAL AND
NATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT


157












































158



POSSIBILITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE INTRODUCTION OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AT THE MUNICIPALY
LEVEL

V. Segon, J. Domac
North-West Croatia Regional Energy Agency, Zagreb, Croatia

Abstract: Renewable energy sources (RES) are being increasingly considered as one
of the key elements of future development strategies on a national, regional and local
level. This paper discusses the methodological approach proposed by the authors and
identifies the most important drivers for application at the regional or local (i.e.
municipality) level. This approach is different to the previous top-down or strategic
assessments as seen many times in the past in most Western Balkan countries and is
expected to herald a new future for the local community ownership and buy-in to
renewable energy resulting in the greater probability of individual project success
providing local stakeholder sympathy is retained. The implementation of the developed
approach is demonstrated on Karlovac County (western Croatia) which has
considerable potential for the utilisation of different RES. The main outcomes are
described: approved Regional strategy for utilisation of renewable energy sources in
the Karlovac County, number of individual projects identified, supported and launched
and a Regional energy agency created as the implementing body for future renewable
energy projects.
Keywords: Renewable energy, Planning methodology, Croatia, Karlovac County
1. INTRODUCTION
Regional policies and plans can be
critical for promoting clean energy and for
regulating renewable energy develop-
ment activities. Community-based efforts
to inform and influence policymaking at
the regional level are also helping
accelerate progress toward a sustainable
energy supply and use structure.
While the kind and extend of rene-
wable energy vary considerably from
country to country, most regions would
like to see the increased deployment of
these technologies, largely thanks to their
perceived socio-economic benefits. The
exact number of jobs which would be
generated as well as other socio-econo-
mic benefits are hard to predict and the
figures produced depend largely on the
methodology used to obtain them. How-
ever, examples of European regions like
Styria (Austria) [1], Vxj Municipality
(South-eastern Sweden) [2] and many
others that were extremly succesful du-
ring last decades in developing renewab-
le energy schemes confirm that impact of
renewable energy on regional economy.
An encouraging trend is that in many
regions policy makers are beginning to
perceive the potential economic benefits
of renewable energy e.g. employment/

159

earnings, regional economic gain,
contribution to security of energy supply
and all others. This represents a
significant policy shift with regards to the
old view in which renewable energy
sources (RES) were viewed only as a
non-commercial or rural energy sources.
The County of Karlovac is situated in
the central part of Croatian state territory
and covers an area of approximately
3,622 km which makes this county one
of the largest among 20 counties existing
in Croatia. Because of its transit, traffic
and geostrategic position, the County of
Karlovac is one of the most important in
the whole country. As of the census of
2001, there are 141,787 people and
49,621 households residing in county.
The population density is 39 persons km.
In Karlovac County there is sig-
nificant potential for utilisation of different
types of RES. There are several on-going
projects of RES utilisation in the area of
the County, especially small hydro-power
plants. In addition, more than a few
preliminary analysis and start up projects
for various RES types have been written.
In that respect, it is reasonable to say that
Karlovac County has gained significant
experience in RES utilisation which
positively influenced the public opinion.
It is important to emphasise that the
County leaders already recognise note-
worthy socio-economic impacts (employ-
ment, regional and local business activity,
circulation and retention of income within
the region/local community, investments,
profit and taxation) of RES utilisation on
the regional level. This was the main
reason that RES are included in an
already existing important strategic
document - the Regional Operational
Plan (ROP) and some of the projects
from the ROP are submitted for funding
within various development funds of the
EU [3].
2. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
TO REGIONAL ENERGY PLAN-
NING AS A KEY FOR MORE RE-
NEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS
IN LOCAL COMMUNITIES
The planning of the energy sector
development is usually carried out on
three different levels: global, national and
regional. Each level has its own rules,
requirements, domains and limits, and
none of them can be neglected because
each represent a real dimension of the
energy sector and market. The requi-
rements of planning on a global scale
stem in the first place from the specific
issues in energy production and consum-
ption due to the limited availability of
energy sources, but also due to the
requirements regarding environment pro-
tection and global climate change. Plan-
ning on a national level in order to ensure
the proper functioning of the energy
sector is the responsibility of each
national government, which has this obli-
gation not only towards its citizens but
also to the international community. This
type of energy planning, often called top-
down was very often in the past in
Croatia due to overall lack of experience
and infrastructure as well as an early
stage of energy sector development. This
resulted sometimes in rather ambitious
but unrealistic national planes or some-
times in underestimation of a real poten-
tial and possible role of renewable energy
in national energy balance.
The regional level of energy planning
is connected directly to the interests and
status of energy consumption within the
region, as well as the direct impact on its
citizens regarding the quality of energy
supply, clean environment, economic de-
velopment, quality and standard of life
etc.
The process of strengthening of in-
terest and widening of impact of local
communities, and consequently the in-
crease of significance of regional energy
planning, is connected to other processes
which determine the development of
modern, democratic and market oriented
societies. Thus, it can be expected that in
Croatia the regional level of planning and

160

responsibility for the energy sector de-
velopment will in time increase, in parallel
with the development of the energy mar-
ket, but especially regarding the activities
connected with energy efficiency and
renewable energy sources utilisation. The
Croatian legislation recognises the impor-
tance of local and regional government
involvement in the energy sector and
envisages strong involvement of local
and regional authorities in the creation of
energy strategies and their implementa-
tion. Furthermore, examples of regional
energy planning can be found in all EU
members, where towns, municipalities
and regional authorities successfully for-
mulate and implement their own energy
plans.
In Croatia, the basic entity which is
responsible for regional energy planning
is the county, and thus the development
of models and concepts for such planning
was tailored specifically at that level. The
first significant activities related to regio-
nal energy planning in Croatia started in
1995 within the Programme for develop-
ment and reconstruction of the Croatian
energy sector (PROHES) started by the
Croatian Government. Within the activi-
ties performed in recent years, the con-
cept and procedure of regional energy
planning was developed and was tested
on several counties. This concept is
based on the Integrated Energy/Resour-
ce Planning (IRP) approach and consists
of two main phases:
Establishing the base platform
(current status);
Development of energy plan and
strategy.
Within the first phase (base platform
or current status) the energy balance of
the county is established, based on the
data of energy companies, national and
regional statistical data, households and
industry surveys and other means of data
acquisition. Other important activities of
this phase include analysing of current
environmental conditions or concerns,
precise estimation of existing RES po-
tential and identification of available and
future energy technologies which could
be utilised in that area [4].

Figure 1. Overview of regional energy planning concept based on the IRP approach
Energy
Database
ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Existing
energy

RES
potential
Current
environmnet
al conditions
Available
and future
energy
Future energy
consumption

Future energy supply
from large energy
Introduction of
decentralised
Socio-economic
modelling
Adjustments
according to IRP
Environmental policy and
targets
External emission and
Pollution and impacts from other
sectors

161

The second phase encompasses ac-
tivities aimed at estimating the potential
of various energy sources (including re-
newable energy sources and energy ef-
ficiency measures), their mathematical
modelling in order to compare their eco-
nomic, environmental and social para-
meters, and finally the creation of plans
regarding the future energy supply within
the region and long-term development of
the energy sector. Figure 1 illustrates the
concept of the regional energy planning
based on the IRP approach.
All aforementioned activities are har-
monised with the current changes in the
energy sector of the Republic of Croatia.
Namely, structural changes in the energy
sector lead towards greater responsibility
of a region in the energy planning and
security:
Public Administration and Local (Re-
gional) Self-government are obliged to
include energy demand and sources of
energy supply in their development docu-
ments. In addition, those documents have
to be harmonised with the Strategy of
Energy Development and Programme for
Implementation of the Strategy of Energy
Development (Article 7, Law on Energy,
O.B. 68/01, Law on Amendments on the
Law on Energy, O.B. 177/04) [5].
3. REGIONAL ENERGY PLANNING
METHODOLOGY
IMPLEMENTATION
3.1 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICY AND TARGETS
The foundations of the environmen-
tal policy of the Karlovac County are set
in the Statute of the County, which
already in the preamble emphasises the
ecological diversity of the landscapes and
natural resources as one of the important
merits of the County. Furthermore, the
Statute obliges the Council to take spe-
cial care about the protection of natural
features of the County, watercourses and
environmental management [6]. These
basic postulates are further elaborated in
the Regional Operational Plan (ROP),
which defines sustainable natural resour-
ces management and environmental pro-
tection as one of the three goals of the
development plan. To fulfil this goal the
ROP identifies three priority areas: up-
grading of environmental protection, envi-
ronmental infrastructure improvement and
upgrading of nature protection. For each
of the priority areas the measures to be
undertaken are prescribed. Among others
the measures include Setting of the
Natural Resources Management
Programme - for Watercourses, Forests,
Soil and Air, Upgrading of Energy
Systems and Protection of Landscapes
and Biodiversity.
When assessing these aims and
measures within the perspective of the
development of the County, only the
integration of these measures with the
economic and social measures can as-
sure sustainable development. In that
sense, actions directed towards the RES
utilisation can be viewed as a tool that
can be employed in accomplishment of
multiple goals on both regional and
national scale. On one hand, it can bring
economic and social benefits to the local
communities of the Karlovac County,
while on the other side, the utilisation of
such a great RES potential can contribute
to the reduction of GHG emission
reduction that is significant on the
national scale. Along with this, if
managed sustainably and according to
the national energy strategy and national
environmental protection strategy it can
both indirectly and directly contribute to
better implementation of nature protection
measures.
The National Environmental Strategy
identifies the energy sector as the sector
that imposes the most significant impacts
on the environment. Thus, considering
the objectives and aims of the Strategy, it
designates the energy sector to be pri-
ority sector where the changes have to
be made [7]. Apart from the necessary
institutional changes the Strategy calls for
impelling of the RES utilisation and ho-
rizontal integration of environmental pro-

162

tection postulates into all national and
regional development strategies.
The Regional Operational Plan of
the Karlovac County is an example of a
strategic document that refers to all the
national development strategies and
transfers the national objectives and
goals to the regional level, where the
actions are to be taken. In that way it is a
top-down support for the implemen-
tation of the projects related to RES
utilisation in the Karlovac County, whe-
ther they are initiated by private parties,
NGOs or the local government.
3.2 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING EXPE-
RIENCES AND PROJECTS OF
RES UTILISATION IN THE
COUNTY
Despite the fact that the collected
experiences of the Karlovac County in
RES utilisation are relatively modest,
some of the most important national
projects (especially biomass and small
hydropower plants) are situated there
which singles the Karlovac County out
from the rest of counties. The experience
and awareness of the possibilities and
impacts of RES utilisation represent
crucial preconditions for future activities
of the County.
In respect to biomass energy uti-
lisation, the Karlovac County is quite ad-
vanced compared to other parts of Cro-
atia. The only heating plant on forest bio-
mass that is not incorporated in a wood
processing industry is situated in Ogulin.
It was established in 1995 by Uprava
suma Ogulin (Hrvatske sume Ltd.) with
the capacity of 1 MW, which is used for
heating the office buildings of Uprava
suma Ogulin. Apart of Ogulins heating
plant, there are several saw mills and
wood processing plants that are partially
utilising the wood residues. One of the
largest heating plants is in DIP Karlovac,
which has the processing capacity of 60
m
3
shift
-1
of trunks. Total amount of wood
residues per year is estimated to be
around 16 kt and is partly utilised for their
own purposes and partly sold to the
locals while the bark is still being dispo-
sed as waste. Forests cover 118,637 ha
of the Karlovac County which represents
5.75 percent of the total forest fund of the
Republic of Croatia. Annual cutting is
estimated at 373,400 m
3
, out of which
fuel wood and low quality wood make
almost 45 percent. Fuel wood remains
one of the most important energy sources
for household heating, despite of the
partial introduction of natural gas network
in the County. Annual fuel wood consum-
ption in the households has been esti-
mated to around 50,000 cubic meters.
The fuel wood is supplied, apart from the
Hrvatske sume Ltd., from private forests,
orchards, garden trees, etc. [8]. In May
2006, the first biodiesel processing plant
has started its production in Ozalj. The
plant has an annual capacity of 20 kt and
is owned by private company MODIBIT
Ltd.
Utilisation of small hydro power
plants has a long tradition in the County.
The first hydro power plants were built in
the turn from 19
th
to 20
th
century. There
are three small hydro power plants in the
category of several MW of installed capa-
city and they are all owned by Hrvatska
elektroprivreda : Gojak in Ogulin (48
MW), HPP Ozalj I and Ozalj II in vicinity
of Ozalj (in total 5.82 MW) and small
hydro power plants within the complex of
Pamucna industrija Duga Resa (1.16
MW). Currently, HPP Lesce (42 MW) is in
the phase of construction.
Solar and geothermal energy utili-
sation is on the level of data collection,
such as recording of solar radiance (me-
teorological stations Karlovac and Ogulin)
and investigation of geothermal potentials
(INA-Naftaplin Ltd.).
Although a certain potential for wind
energy utilisation exists, especially at the
uplifts of the Karlovac County, there were
no data collection or research activities to
support utilisation of this type of RES.
3.3 ESTABLISHING GOALS FOR RES
UTILISATION IN THE KARLOVAC
COUNTY

163

The set up of goals for RES utili-
sation in the Karlovac County represents
the ratio between energy demand (exclu-
ding transport) and potential contribution
of certain types of RES, taking into the
account the existing experience and level
of the each RES type utilisation.
3.3.1 Present energy consumption
analysis
Energy demand is divided into de-
mand for heat and demand for electricity
in households, service and industry sec-
tors.
Thermal energy in households is
usually utilised for satisfying three basic
needs (space heating, sanitary hot water
preparation and cooking). Each of these
three needs depends on its own para-
meters. Space heating depends on the
age of the building, heating area, isolation
and the standard of living. It is commonly
known that the living standard influences
the share of the heating area of the
household. Namely, the heating area is
increasing with the standard of living until
it passes a certain level on which the
whole household is being heated. Pre-
paration of sanitary hot water is primarily
related to the hygiene habits and needs,
which is, again, closely related to the
level of the standard of living. In the
calculations for heat energy demand per
household, there are two contradictory
trends: decreasing number of household
members and increasing need for hot
water per household member. The con-
sumption of energy for cooking depends
on the same factors as the space heating
energy. After taking into the consideration
the aforementioned interrelations and
available data for the Karlovac County,
assessment of heat energy demand per
households for separate settlements and
towns has been made. The sum of the
projected heat energy demand per
households makes 2.55 PJ for the year
2001.
Energy utilisation in the service sec-
tor has the same pattern as the house-
holds consumption with the difference in
the criteria for consumption assessment.
Namely, besides the criteria applicable
both for households and service sector,
there are additional parameters for the
service sector, such as the business
activity and working hours to consider.
The parameters for the industry sector
are even more complex. Besides the
space heating, energy consumption is
closely related to the industry process in
place. In general, the industry processes
could be divided into two main categories
which are: low-temperature processes
where the fuel is converted into the hot
water energy and/or steam that are
further used in the technological process,
and high-temperature processes where
the heat represents energy used in the
energy process without being converted.
Based on the previous studies and ana-
lysis of the Energy Institute Hrvoje Pozar,
the heat energy consumption for the
Karlovac Countys industry and service
sectors is estimated at 1.42 PJ and 0.45
PJ, respectively, for the year 2003
(Figure 2).
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
H
e
a
t

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
P
J
)
PJ 2,553 2,896 3,201 3,534 4,025
2001 2005 2010 2015 2020

Figure 2 Current and future heat con-
sumption within the Karlovac County
The data on electric energy con-
sumption for the Karlovac County are
taken from the 2004 reports by HEP
Distribucija Ltd., DP Elektra Karlovac [9].
It is possible to accurately assess the
consumption of the electric energy ac-
cording to the individual consumer cate-
gories (Table 1) as the measurements
are executed for each individual
consumer depending on the voltage level.

164

Table 1 Consumption of the electric ener-
gy in the Karlovac County by consumer
categories
Consumer
category
Consumption
(GWh)
Industry consumers 128.94
Entrepreneurship 95.57
Households 212.03
Public lighting 17.35
TOTAL 453.89

Like consumption, the electric ener-
gy production is measured for each
individual power plant. It is interesting to
point out that, in the Karlovac County, the
production of the small hydro power
plants was 1.18 GWh or 0.26 percent of
the total consumption in 2004 (Figure 3).
GWh
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
i
t
y

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
G
W
h
)
GWh 212,03 239,75 255,23 268,16
2004 2010 2015 2020

Figure 3 Current and future electricity
consumption within the Karlovac County
3.3.2 Purpose of utilisation and possi-
ble contribution of each RES type
The possible projects of RES utilisa-
tion have been identified for the Karlovac
County continuing on the demand and
supply relationships described above.
The projects were identified by technical
staff employed within the County, muni-
cipality leaders and independent experts
from the Energy Institute with previous
experience in that area. All proposed
projects were evaluated and their feasi-
bility was estimated according to the utili-
sation purposes and possible contribution
of the each RES type.
1) Small hydro power plants: In 2004,
small hydro power plants produced 1.18
GWh or 0.26 percent of the total
consumption of the Karlovac County [10].
Based on the current state and possible
total potential, the following development
dynamics for the electricity production
from hydro power plants have been
projected:
2010: production of 2.36 GWh with
linear growth,
2015: production of 4.00 GWh with
linear growth.
2) Biomass: The projected growth
dynamic of installation of biomass plants
for heat energy generation and/or
cogeneration is based on the current and
planned projects along with the biomass
availability, climate and business factors
and other relevant parameters:
2010: installation of 3 MW thermal,
2015: installation of 10 MW thermal.
3) Solar energy: The current average
of installed solar thermal collectors in the
EU amounts of 26 m
2
1,000 persons
-1

inhabitants which would make 3,686 m
2
for the Karlovac County. Together with all
positive governmental regulations regar-
ding solar energy and planned educa-
tional activities, the following dynamic of
growth has been assumed:
2010: total of 1,500 m
2
installed,
2015: total of 3,600 m
2
installed.
4) Geothermal energy: No specula-
tions have been made on geothermal
energys contribution to the energy supply
of the County for two basic reasons:
Its utilisation, in general, depends on
specific circumstances and special agre-
ement with the INA-Naftaplin Ltd. and
Geothermal field Karlovac needs ad-
ditional research in order to precisely
assess its energy potential which, again,
depends on INA-Naftaplin Ltd.
However, utilisation of geothermal
energy confidently could bring valuable

165

benefits. Thus, it is worth bearing in mind
that there is certain geothermal potential
in the area of Karlovac County and inclu-
ding it in all future activity programmes
and plans.
5) Wind energy: Considering the cur-
rent lack of experience in wind energy
utilisation in the Karlovac County and
absence of data on wind energy potential,
it is not realistic to expect production of
electric energy from wind until 2010. In
order to set up realistic goals and assess
the possible contribution of wind energy,
it is necessary to execute detailed data
collection. In that way, it will be possible
to assess the total wind energy potential
of the Karlovac County and identify the
most prosperous locations for the wind
power plants.

3.3.3 Identification of the possible
project of RES utilisation in the
Karlovac County
Biomass seems to be the primary
RES type to be used in the Karlovac
County. The arguments lie in significant
area of forest cover, dominantly con-
tinental climate and long heating season.
Moreover, the tradition and habits of the
inhabitants and development of infra-
structure and economy are in favour to
the biomass utilisation. The total energy
potential of biomass (excluding the
biomass from cattle breeding, solid waste
and waste waters) is projected to be
around 2.5 PJ per year, which represents
around 6.7 percent of the total technical
potential of biomass of the Republic of
Croatia. Unutilised potentials of biomass
in the Karlovac County can be organised
according to the type and origin:
1) Forests: total area of maintained
forest in the County is 1,186.4 km
2
, out of
which 37 percent belongs to new stands.
Annual cutting in the region amounts to
373,399 m
3
where 44 percent goes to fuel
wood and low quality wood and other
56% are used in wood processing in-
dustry. Unplanned cutting in the region is
10,660 m
3
while the annual contribution
of forest residues makes 46,111 m
3
.
2) Abandoned agricultural area: bush-
es, shrubs and other types of degraded
forest cover that cover approximately 20
percent of the total surface of the County
- however there is no data on how much
of this could be sustainable harvested
each year and biomass crops on that are
were not considered in the past;
3) Agricultural area: residues from the
agricultural production (around 30 per-
cent of total biomass produced), and
especially from corn growing and straw,
although there is no example of current
utilisation;
4) Wood processing industry: total an-
nual amount of wood residues is esti-
mated to be 17 kt which is only partly
used in industrial heating plants and for
heating of local households in vicinity of
wood processing industries.
Utilisation of biomass energy has
been assessed through cogeneration
plants in the industry, district heating sys-
tems and small furnaces and individual
heating systems (micro-grids). In that
respect, considering the gasification
plans, a gradual implementation has
been proposed for all aforesaid techno-
logies targeting at different consumer
groups:
District heating systems with pos-
sibility of cogeneration: inhabited parts of
towns and municipalities due to the ener-
gy consumption density (settlements Za-
kanje, Ribnik, Netretic, Vojnic, Slunj,
Plaski, Lasinja, Bjelolasica and town
Ogulin);
Cogeneration systems: larger con-
sumers of heat and electricity such as
industrial plants, business zones and
public buildings (DIP Karlovac, Kordun);
Educational and promotional bio-
mass utilisation: primary and secondary
schools, other public buildings and tour-
ist-recreational facilities (HOC Bjelo-
lasica);
Small biogas plants at cattle and
poultry farms.

166

Based exclusively on the available
data from the registry of small water
flows, its total energy potential amounts
a little over 35 MW electric of installed
capacity or 136 GWh of produced elec-
tricity [10]. It is important to emphasise
that the energy potential of the Karlovac
County has been estimated for only a
certain number of water flows, namely
those that have the specific power higher
than 50 kW. The Table 2 shows the exis-
ting and possible potential of utilisation of
energy from small hydro power plants in
the Karlovac County.

Table 2 Net potential of small water flows in the Karlovac County
With defined utilisation sites
Name of the
water flows
Total possible number
of utilisation routes at
the water flows
Total installed
capacity (kW)
Possible annual
production of electric
energy (GWh)
Bistrica 1 50 0.20
Dretulja 10 466 2.57
Glinica 12 1,734 6.04
Korana gornja 39 8,455 32.64
Kupa gornja 15 14,244 41.55
Kupcina 16 1,041 4.13
Slunjcica
(Slusnica)
7 1,945 7.60
Tounjcica 22 3,200 9.14
Vitunjcica 6 1,258 3.68
Total 128 32,393 107.55
Without defined utilisation site:
Name of the water
flows
River basin
Total installed
capacity (kW)
Possible annual
production of
electric energy
(GWh)
Globornica Donja Dobra 402 3.52
Radonja Korana 570 4.99
Glina Kupa 1,135 9.94
Kravascica Kupa 90 0.79
Utinja Kupa 373 3.27
V. Trepca Kupa 426 3.73
V. Utinja Kupa 250 2.19
Total - 3,246 28.43

In respect to the geothermal ener-
gy, only two deep research wells were
investigated: Karlovac-3 (production well)
and Karlovac-2 (injection well). The pre-
liminary research data show that Karlo-
vac-3 has greater abundance both in

167

quantity and temperature. While its bot-
tom temperature is 140C, with optimised
production flow the acquired temperature
on the well-head would be 93C [11].
The well Karlovac-3 is intermediate
enthalpy resource that is appropriate for
both direct use and production of electric
energy. The most common utilisation
technologies are binary plants, direct use,
heat exchangers, and heat pumps. For its
optimal use multiple (cascading) utilisa-
tion of geothermal energy could be con-
sidered with possible re-heating to reach
more options for its utilisation. The re-
commended utilisation for geothermal
wells of these characteristics are nume-
rous such as food processing, distillation
of water for drinking purposes, cement
drying and other organic mater drying,
cooling, greenhouses and space heating,
in fermentation process, de-frosting, fi-
sheries and agriculture. Those possibili-
ties for the utilisation should be incor-
porated in the needs of the already exis-
ting business activities such as Karlovac
pivovara - top beer exported and located
in Karlovac, approximately ten kilometres
from the Karlovac-3 as well as planned
business activities, such as business
zones [12].
Due to the relatively high investment
costs in solar energy utilisation, active
part of the County seems to be crucial for
achieving its goals:
Education of solar system technici-
ans;
Setting up of demonstration solar
collector system on targeted public buil-
dings of the County;
Motivate installation of solar collec-
tors on school buildings in order to achi-
eve educational impact (primary school
Zakanje, Craft and technical school in
Ogulin, Technical school Karlovac);
Reaching the European solar collec-
tors average of 26 m
2
1,000 persons
-1
on
the level of the County.
Considering the little data on the
energy potential of wind of the Karlovac
County, the priority in wind energy
utilisation is erection of four or five new
measuring stations, 40 meters high, in
order to establish systematic data col-
lection on the wind [13]. The County has
complex orthography as well as wind-
climate diversity, and thus it is necessary
to establish zones of smaller areas in
order to maximise the local character-
ristics of wind currents. Additionally, that
would help optimal positioning of the
measuring stations.
4. CONCLUSIONS
After years of utilising fossil fuels,
the global scenario is in recent times
changing and renewable energy sources
are being increasingly considered as one
of the key elements of future develop-
ment strategies on a national, regional
and local level. This paper described the
work that has been undertaken in the
Karlovac County where there are consi-
derable possibilities for the utilisation of
different renewable energy sources.
The current situation and existing
experience regarding renewable energy
sources utilisation within the county have
been used as the starting point for the
setting of future targets, whilst the energy
potential of each renewable energy sour-
ce (small hydro, biomass, geothermal)
was also determined. At the end, re-
commendations regarding organisational
measures for the implementation of re-
newable energy projects have been pre-
sented, which include public and experts
education, necessary planning and stra-
tegic documents, domestic and internatio-
nal cooperation and the setting up of a
regional energy agency as the implemen-
ting body for renewable energy projects.
Based on the results presented in
previous sections, it is possible to con-
clude that there are significant potentials
of RES utilisation in the Karlovac County.
Presented results were already utilised in
the County that made some significant
moves forward - official Regional strategy
for utilisation of renewable energy sour-
ces in the Karlovac County was appro-

168

ved; number of individual projects were
identified, supported and launched; and a
Regional energy agency was created as
the implementing body for future rene-
wable energy projects.
Therefore, results and conclusions
presented in the paper represent only the
first step in the implementation of the
programme for renewable energy sour-
ces utilisation. The key for the future will
be co-management, the national and
regional government to work in partner-
ship with the local communities concer-
ned. In this way communities would be-
nefit from greater self-reliance, increased
self-esteem, have fewer social problems
and become less vulnerable to change.
5. REFERENCES:
[1] Weiss G. The role of innovation
systems in the development and dif-
fusion of biomass-based district
heating plants in Austria (in Ger-
man), Austrian Journal of Forest
Science, 121(4): 225-242. 2004.
[2] Nilsson, S., Frank, B. Climate pro-
tection and bioenergy, What's in it for
a polititian. Proceedings from the
IEA Bioenergy Task 29 Workshop
Socio-Economic Drivers in Imple-
menting Bioenergy Projects: Educa-
tion and Promotion, Streatley, 15-23.
2003.
[3] Anon. Regional operational plan of
Karlovac County (in Croatian). Ava-
ilable at http://www.karlovacka-zupa-
nija.hr/rop_opcenito.asp. 2005.
[4] Domac, J. Methods for evaluating
the energy, economic and social im-
pacts of using biomass in energy
systems. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of
Power Engineering and Computing
University of Zagreb. Zagreb,
Croatia. 2004.
[5] Anon. Energy Law (O.B. 68/01)
and Law on amendments to the
Energy Law (O.B. 177/04) (in
Croatian),





available at www.nn.hr. 2004 (acces-
sed in May 2008).
[6] Anon. Karlovac County Statute (in
Croatian). available at http://www.ka-
zup.hr/. 2005.
[7] Anon. National Strategy of Environ-
ment Protection (OG 46/2002) (in
Croatian), available at http://www.nn.
hr/sluzbeni-list/sluzbeni/index.asp.
2002.
[8] Domac, J. BIOEN National
energy programme of biomass and
waste utilisation previous results
and future activities (in Croatian).
Energy institute Hrvoje Pozar,
Zagreb, Croatia. 1998.
[9] DP Elektra Karlovac (Local electric
utility). Direct communication with
Ivan Horvat on 21 May 2005.
Karlovac, Croatia. 2005.
[10] Basic, H. New approach to imple-
mentation planning for small hydro
power plants, Ph.D. Thesis, (in Cro-
atian), Faculty of electrical engi-
neering and computing, University of
Zagreb. Zagreb, Croatia. 2003.
[11] Getliher, A. Geothermal water, re-
newable, ecological and multi-fun-
ctional energy potential (in Croatian),
Regional conference on energy
security and economic development.
HGK. Zagreb, Croatia. 2006.
[12] Bosnjak, R, Golub, M, Pesut, D.
GEOEN National energy prog-
ramme of geothermal energy utili-
sation previous results and future
activities, (in Croatian), Energy
institute Hrvoje Pozar, Zagreb,
Croatia. 1998.
[13] Domac, J, Segon, V, Horvath, L,
Matic, Z. Karlovac County Regional
Strategy for RES Utilisation, Energy
institute Hrvoje Pozar, Zagreb,
Croatia. 2006.

169






















170
















5. OPEN REGIONAL FUND IN SOUTH-EAST
EUROPE -ENERGY(ORF-E), EXPERIENCE AND
OPPORTUNITIES IN WB COUNTRIES



171





























172




OPEN REGIONAL FUND IN SOUTH-EAST EUROPE-
ENERGY(ORF-E) , EXPERIENCE AND OPPORTUNITIES IN
WB COUNTRIES

The 0pen Regional Fund in South-
East Europe-Energy (ORF-E) has been
established in June 2008 as one of the
four Open Regional Funds in SEE.
Overall objective of the Fund is:
Energy supply and the use of energy
in SEE become more sustainable through
rational use of energy and the use of
renewable energy sources.
As a regional instrument of German
Technical Cooperation, the ORF-E com-
plement the efforts of the bilateral Ger-
man Development Cooperation conduc-
ted on behalf of BMZ by both GTZ and
KfW in the energy sector. By spring 2009
the ORF-E has been introduced in each
of the seven eligible partner countries:
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croa-
tia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro and
Serbia.
ORF-E sub-projects support initiati-
ves:
* in which partners from at least three
eligible partner countries cooperate,
which contribute to EU approximation and
* which sustainably strengthen the
capacity of partners to implement projects
independently.
The ORF-E sub-projects intend to
impact on the issues of EE and RE in a
wide scope of intervention:
* At a regional level through a close
cooperation with existing regional organi-
sations like the Energy Community Treaty
formed by the South Eastern European
contracting partners, to use regional
synergies.
* At national level, to improve the
regulatory framework on energy issues.
This may include, for example, advising
on strategies, plans and the legal fra-
mework, or upgrading institutional struc-
tures.
* At local level by promoting a sus-
tainable energy management for
example, through the initiative of South
East European capital cities (Zagreb,
Sarajevo, Podgorica and Skopje, sup-
ported by the German reference city of
Freiburg). This initiative aims at reducing
CO
2
in line with the goals of the European
Covenant of Mayors.
* In the private sector, via the imple-
mentation of development partnerships
with the business sector (public private
partnership approaches) with companies
and associations in short-term, high-
potential, regionally oriented approaches.
* Through cooperation with stakehol-
ders from organised civil society (non-
governmental organisations - NGOs); in
particular with a view to raising public

173

awareness about the importance of
sustainable energy use.
In the beginning, ORF E had a very
open approach related to the demand
expressed by partners (governmental ins-
titutions, local governments, civil society,
etc.). After two years of implementation of
first sub-projects, following lessons
learned can be derived from the process:
* Subprojects require a long prepara-
tion time and time necessary for building
up of partner relationship.
* ORF-E sub-projects are with short-
term implementation period (up to two
years) having a limited fund with regard to
size and scope. Therefore the coope-
ration with partners and other stake-
holders is essential for the sustainability
of the intervention.
* A purely demand driven approach is
not always possible as partners are not
able or willing to submit substantially ba-
sed proposals. Therefore, the ORF E
has to identify partners and check their
capabilities and commitment actively. *
In SEE there are a many projects,
initiatives and funds in energy sector
which could be used to foster sustain-
ability of ORF-E projects and also to find
out to meet expectation of partners.
To maintain high quality standards,
every new sub-project must besides
specific outputs-clearly express its objec-
tive (outcome) and expected impacts,
based on a results chain.
If the ORF-E wants to extend and
scale up activities, additional budgets
have to be retrieved from other partners
and donors.
Other serious international organiza-
tions offering technical assistance in field
of EE and RE are: UNDP (which is pre-
sent in most of the countries of the re-
gion) , USAID ( also present in most of
the SEE countries) and ADA ( present in
some SEE countries). ORF E has already
established cooperation with UNDP (in
Croatia, BiH and upcoming Macedonia)
on CCI project.
In order to formalize the cooperation
with partner institution as well as with
other donor organizations ORF E estab-
lished some written forms as ,,Letter of
intent and ,, Memorandum of understan-
ding. These documents are basis for the
cooperation and define the objective of
cooperation and the contribution of part-
ners.
The ORF E most important strength
is regional cooperation because of
several reasons:
- own network on the ground , sup-
ported by GTZ offices
- network of local partners (city admi-
nistrations, NGOs etc) in the region
- use of a network of local experts
capable to work in the region
Therefore ORF E can undertake so-
me actions which differ from other
bilateral projects. They are regional, but
sometimes ,,tailor made approach is
also possible for each country of the
region.
The aim of ORF E is to create a
regional network between partners (go-
vernmental institution, local authorities,
NGOs) and within EU. Further, aim of
ORF E is to develop right capacities, to
adopt organizational structures and to
establish appropriate structures on a
permanent basis-not only while the
project last. For example, in the CCI sub-
project , partner cities ( Zagreb, Sarajevo,
Podgorica and Skopje) have signed EU
Covenant of Mayors and committed to
establish energy management structures,
based on the model city from Germany
(Freiburg).
Without learning and innovation no
improvement in EE and RE will be
achieve in the region. To emphasise
these aspects some questions have to be
answered:
* How to come from knowing to
acting with regard to the use of energy?
* How to implement ,, change of beha-
viour
* What are the specific instruments for
regional learning?
* Are the knowledge-owners interes-
ted in distribution of such knowledge in
the region?

174

Different situation in different count-
ries makes it difficult to have three or
more countries in one project. For
example some of the SEE countries have
adopted EU legislation and have very
well prepared statistical data (Croatia),
some or almost all of them do not have
sufficient institutional capacity, some of
them do not have proper structure, some
still do not have proper legislation or EE
strategies etc. However, in almost all SEE
countries lack of implementation of EE
and RE measures and legislation is a
critical point. The preparation of strategic
documents as EE and RE strategies and
action plans is very important, but also
very important is a monitoring and an
evaluation of the results of the imple-
mentation.
The GTZ ORF E will support count-
ries to establish proper system for Moni-
toring, Evaluation and Verification of the
results of the National Energy Efficiency
polices as for example the NEEAPs.
Other very important aspect in imple-
mentation of EE and RE is an involve-
ment and active participation of all
political decision makers (parliamentary-
ans, government, ministries etc).
Therefore establishment of a political
dialog on national, but also on regional
level is one of the objectives of ORF E.
In this process the role of media must be
also taken in consideration, as one of the
crucial factors for creation of public
awareness with regard to rational use of
energy.
The business sector also has to be
active involved in the implementation
process. EE and RE can create additional
job opportunities and can reduce the
unemployment in West Balkan countries.
GTZ ORF E will continue to estab-
lish a strong partnership with the busi-
ness association as the Chambers of
Commerce. PPP is one of the possible
forms of the cooperation with the private
sector.
If the countries of the region will
take in consideration serious all above
aspects, we can be sure that the overall
goal 20-20-20 will be achieve until 2020
also in the SEE region. Therefore all
relevant actors must active contribute in
this process. GTZ ORF Energy will
support the partner countries in their
efforts for rational use of energy, reduc-
tion of CO
2
emission and increase the
use of renewable energy sources. The
biomass for sure is one of the renewable
sources with huge potential, which can be
use in almost all countries in the region.
However, only rational and smart use of
biomass will be useful and productive.




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Biblioteka
OBNOVLIVI ENERGETSKI IZVORI VO MAKEDONIJA

Publikacija br.5
Proceedings of the WB Workshop on
HARMONIZATION OF METHODOLOGIES
FOR ESTIMATION AND SUSTAINABLE IN-
CORPORATION OF BIOMASS AND OTHER
RES IN MUNICIPAL AND NATIONAL STRA-
TEGIES FOR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

Skopje, 2010