TQM

Dr. WASHIO’S TRAINING SESSION ON 01 APRIL 2000

TOPICS DISCUSSED

1 S O P - STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE

2 Q C P C - QUALITY CONTROL PROCESS CHART
3 Cp /Cpk - PROCESS CAPABILITY INDICES
4 CONTROL CHARTS
5 S P C - STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

 THESE ARE TO BE FOLLOWED IN SHOP FLOOR BY

OPERATORS, SUPERVISORS & MANAGERS
1 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE

1.1 NECESSITY OF S O P

 IN ABSENSE OF S O P, QUALITY IS DEPENDENT ON

OPERATORS’ SKILL

 S O P HELPS MAINTAINING UNIFORM QUALITY BY ALL

OPERATORS

 FOR CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT ON QUALITY, SOP

( AND THE PROCESS OR OPERATION ) TO BE REVISED
FREQUENTLY
1.2 CONTENTS OF S O P

 DOCUMENT WHICH SPECIFIES

“HOW TO PRODUCE”

P D
FOLLOWING CYCLE
A C

 STAGE DRAWINGS ARE NOT S O P, BECAUSE

THEY SHOW ONLY “TARGET” TO BE ACHIEVED
AND NOT GIVING DETAILS OF SETTING,
OPERATING, CHECKING, ETC.
S O P SHOULD CONTAIN FOLLOWING DETAILS

HOW TO SET THE MACHINE P(PLAN)

HOW TO OPERATE THE MACHINE D (DO)
HOW TO CHECK THE PRODUCT
(GAGING, FREQUENCY, CHECK SHEET /
TALLY SHEET,PROCESS MONITORING CHART)
HOW TO CHECK THE MACHINE C(CHECK)
(MACHINE CONDITIONS, COOLANT,
TOOL CONDITIONS, ETC.)
CORRECTION INSTRUCTIONS
BASED ON ABOVE CHECKS A(ACT)
 Continued...

 CORRECTION INSTRUCTIONS ARE SUCH AS

ADJUSTMENT OF MACHINE PARAMETERS,
COOLANT TOPPING UP/ CHANGE, TOOL
CHANGE ETC.

 FOR ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT CHECKS ON

PRODUCT, OPERATORS SHOULD PLOT
“PROCESS MONITORING CHARTS WITH RED,
YELLOW, GREEN, YELLOW, RED COLOURED
BANDS, PREFERABLY & INSTRUCTIONS AS HOW
TO INTERPRET)
 Continued...

FOR GO/NOGO TYPE CHECKS, CHECK SHEET /

TALLY SHEET SHOULD BE USED.

LIKE PROCESS MONITORING CHARTS, “MACHINE

CONDITION MONITORING CHARTS” MAY BE USED
FOR EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF MACHINES.
 SOP SHOULD HAVE
ISSUE DATE
REVISION, REVISION DATE, REASONS, ETC.
 SOP SHOULD BE EVOLVED OUT OF A GROUP
DISCUSSION.
ALL CONCERNED & INVOLVED PERSONNEL
SHOULD FINALISE SOP AFTER DISCUSSIONS.
 ALSO REVISIONS TO SOP MUST BE DONE BY
THE GROUP CONCERNED ABOUT THE
IMPROVEMENT OF PROCESS; REASONS FOR
REVISION TO BE GIVEN (PREFERABLY AT THE
BACK OF THE SOP DOCUMENT ITSELF).
 AT LEAST TWICE A YEAR, REVISIONS ARE TO BE
MADE IN SOP.
 Continued...

 SOP MAY CONTAIN SOME IMPORTANT SAFETY

INSTRUCTIONS & SPECIAL NOTES ON VITAL
OPERATIONS.

 SOP SHOULD BE BRIEF & CONTAIN MAJOR /

CRITICAL POINTS ONLY ; ADDING VISUAL AIDS,
SKETCHES, PHOTOGRAPHS WILL MAKE IT
MORE EFFECTIVE.
 Continued...

 SOP’S ARE TO BE CONFINED TO KEY ACTIVITIES

/ PROCESSES.

 LIKE SOP FOR PROCESS / OPERATIONS,

OPERATION STANDARDS ARE TO BE PREPARED
FOR ALL OTHER DEPARTMENTAL FUNCTIONS
LIKE DESIGN, ENGINEERING, MARKETING,
PURCHASE, FINANCE, ETC. THESE CAN BE
CALLED AS “OPERATION MANUAL” OF THAT
PARTICULAR DEPARTMENT.
2.0. QCPC

2.1. NECESSITY OF QCPC

P1 P2 P3 P4 PRODUCT
SOP1 SOP2 SOP3 SOP4

CONTROL CONTROL
PLAN PLAN

QCPC

(P1,P2,P3,P4,etc, ARE OPERATIONS OF PRODUCT)

SOP IS FOR EACH ONE OF THE OPERATION /

PROCESS
WHERE AS QCPC IS ONLY ONE FOR THE ENTIRE
LINE / PRODUCT
2.2 CONTENTS OF QCPC
COMPARISON OF SOP & QCPC FOR CLEAR UNDERSTANDING

FORMAT BY WHOM FOR WHAT FORMS OF CHECK

PROCESS MONITORING CHART

SOP OPERATORS DO SIMPLE
CHECKS USL
ONLY TRACKS
C/L PRODUCT
VARIATION
LSL
X , R CHART

UCL HELPS
X MONITOR
C/L VARIATION
CHECK &
QCPC SUPERVISOR /
AND LCL RESTORE
QA PERSONNEL ACTION
CONTROL
UCL WHEN
REQUIRED
R
C/L
LCL
 SUGGESTED FORMAT OF QCPC
IN QCPC , ALL THE DIMENSIONS NEED NOT BE COVERED ; BUT
ONLY VITAL / IMPORTANT PROCESS DIMENSIONS NEED BE COVERED

SUGGESTED FORMAT :
QUALITY CONTROL PROCESS CHART (EXIT INSPECTION)

PROCESS NAME CONTROLLING METHOD

WORK CONTROL INSPEC- INSPEC-
FLOW OF THE -TION
SAMPLING & -TION
CHART PROCESS STANDARD ITEM CONTROL TOOL
PERSON
RESPON-
METHOD
(CAUSE) INSTRUCTIONS OF CONTROL -SIBILITY MEASUREMENT ITEM

AGING 222-RCG (TEMP) RC-108 CHECK SHEET WORKER FOREMAN ONCE/DAY

6-1

16
16

17
16

M1 TURNING T-23 DIAMETER T-23-2 X-R QA SUPER- 3 PIECES/

OF CHART -VISOR 2 HOURS
‘A’
3.0 Cp AND Cpk

3.1 NECESSITY OF Cp / Cpk

 ‘FRACTIONAL DEFECTIVE’ BECOMES OF NO USE

WHEN TODAY’S DEMAND OF DEFECT
MEASUREMENT IS IN PPM (SAMPLE SIZES HAVE
TO BE TOO LARGE TO RETAIN CONFIDENCE
LEVEL; FOR EXAMPLE 1% DEFECTIVE =10,000
PPM)

 HENCE QUALITY SHOULD BE EVALUATED BY

“DISTRIBUTION”. Ie. THROUGH Cp AND Cpk.
 EXAMPLE BELOW ILLUSTRATES THIS
EFFECTIVELY

A SUPPLIER FRACTIONAL
Cpk
DEFECTIVES
J 0 1.4

A 0 1.0

 ‘A’ GOES TO EXTREME TOLERANCES AT TIMES.

 GOING TO EXTREME TOLERANCES MAY RESULT IN

NOISE, VIBRATION, WEAR OUT, ETC.
3.2 DEFINITION OF Cp / Cpk

 ‘IN ANY PROCESS, IF THEY ARE LEFT TO

NATURAL VARIATIONS WITHOUT EXTERNAL
DISTURBANCES, THE MEASUREMENTS WILL
FALL UNDER “NORMAL DISTRIBUTION”
(PROBABILITY CHART)
µ
µ=MEAN (CENTRE)
σ=STANDARD DEVIATION(VARIATION)

σ
 IF VARIATION IS LOW, WIDTH OF
DISTRIBUTION CURVE WILL BE LESS
3σ
6σ
 99.7% OF MEASUREMENTS WILL FALL WITHIN 6σ
(µ+3σ, µ-3σ). (FRACTIONAL DEFECTIVE IS 0.3
WHICH IS 3000 PPM)

 “MOTOROLA’S” SIX SIGMA IS µ+6σ, µ-6σ , IN

WHICH 99.9997% OF MEASUREMENTS WILL
FALL WITHIN 12σ . THIS IS ACHIEVED THROUGH
TIGHTLY CONTROLLED PROCESSES.
(FRACTIONAL DEFECTIVE IS 0.0003 WHICH IS 3
PPM)

 Cp & Cpk ARE INDEX OF PROCESS CAPABILITY

(ABILITY OF THE PROCESS TO CONTAIN
FRACTIONAL DEFECTIVES)
 3.2.1 Cp PROCESS CAPABILITY INDEX
RANGE OF SPECIFICATION SU - SL
Cp = =
RANGE OF PRODUCT MEASUREMENT 6σ

EXAMPLE :1
µ
SL Su

3σ - (- 3σ) 6σ
Cp = = =1
6σ 6σ
- 3σ +3σ

6σ
EXAMPLE : 2

µ
SL Su

6σ

-4σ +4σ

4σ - (- 4σ) 8σ
Cp = = = 1.33
6σ 6σ
EXAMPLE : 3 (MOTOROLA)
µ

SL Su

6σ

- 6σ + 6σ

6σ - (- 6σ) 12σ
Cp = = =2
6σ 6σ

Cp IS A MEASURE OF PROCESS VARIATIONS (REPEATABILITY)

3.2.2

 Cpk PROCESS CAPABILITY INDEX

INCORPORATING PROCESS CENTRALITY
ALSO.

 Cp IS PROCESS CAPABILITY, TAKING INTO

ACCOUNT THE UPPER AND LOWER
SPECIFICATIONS OF PROCESS ONLY.
WHEREAS
Cpk IS PROCESS CAPABILITY TAKING INTO
ACCOUNT THE PROCESS CENTRALITY ALSO.
 Continued...
 EVEN WHEN PROCESS CAPABILITY IS HIGH
[Cp>1.33], PROCESS MAY BE OUT OF
SPECIFICATION BECAUSE PROCESS MAY BE
SET OUT OF CENTRE.
EXAMPLE :
8σ
SL Su µ =how much?
µ

PRODUCTS OUT
OF SPECIFICATION

8σ
Cp = = 1.33
6σ
6σ
 HENCE Cpk GAINS IMPORTANCE.
 SU - µ µ - SL
&
Cpk IS LEAST OF 3σ
FOR TWO SIDED
3σ
SPECIFICATIONS.

HENCE Cpk IS ALWAYS Cp.

EXAMPLE :

10σ
SL SU
µ
Cp = 10 σ
6σ = 1.67

Cpk = 2 σ
3σ = 0.67

2σ
3σ 3σ
 Cpk FOR ONE SIDED SPECIFICATIONS.

UPPER SPECIFICATION ONLY LOWER SPECIFICATION ONLY

4σ µ
µ SL 5σ
Su

3σ 3σ

Su -µ 4σ µ - SL 5σ
Cpk = 3σ = 3σ = 1.33 Cpk = 3σ = 3σ = 1.67

3.3 NOTE ON CALCULATION METHOD :

*  / d2 METHOD OF CALCULATION WILL ALWAYS GIVE
HIGHER INDICES THAN THE METHOD DISCUSSED ABOVE.

* HENCE ALWAYS USE ABOVE-SAID METHOD.

3.4 SUGGESTED APPROACH FOR CAPABILITY
ACHIEVEMENT IN A PRODUCT :

 FIND OUT THE MOST CRITICAL FUNCTIONAL PARAMETER

OF MAJOR INTEREST TO CUSTOMER (2 OR 3
PARAMETERS MAY BE CONSIDERED BUT NOT MANY)
 CALCULATE Cpk OF THIS SPECIFICATION AT THE FINAL
STAGE OF THE PRODUCT
 IF Cpk > 1.33, ALL PROCESSING ARE SATISFACTORY
 IF Cpk < 1.33, FIND OUT THE CONTRIBUTING FACTORS IN
SUB-ASSEMBLY / COMPONENTS MANUFACTURE
PROCESS
 CALCULATE Cpk FOR THESE PROCESSES & IMPROVE
Cpk>1.33
 LIKE THIS ALL MAJOR FAMILIES OF PRODUCTS ARE TO
BE EVALUATED
4.0 CONTROL CHARTS

4.1 NECESSITY OF CONTROL CHARTS

* VARIATION IS INHERANT IN ANY POCESS
* CAUSE FOR VARIATION CLASSIFIED INTO
CHANGE CAUSES
ASSIGNABLE CAUSES
* CHANGE CAUSES
NATURAL MACHINE VARIATIONS,
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT CHANGES,
NATURAL VARIATION IN MATERIAL ETC.
MAGNITUDE OF VARIATION MAY NOT BE HIGH
REMEDY FOR CHANCE CAUSES IS DIFFICULT
 Continued...
 ASSIGNABLE CAUSES
POOR MATERIAL,
POOR TRAINING,
POOR MACHINE SETTING, ETC.
MAGNITUDE OF ` HIGH
REMEDY IS EASY

 IF VARIATIONS IN A PROCESS IS DUE TO CHANCE

CAUSES ONLY, THE PROCESS IN A STATE OF CONTROL
 IF VARIATIONS ARE DUE TO ASSIGNABLE CAUSES,THE
PROCESS GOES OUT OF CONTROL
 METHOD FOR DETECTING THIS CONDITION IS MUST, TO
CONTROL PROCESS VARIATIONS WITHIN LIMITS
 TOOL FOR THIS IS “CONTROL CHART”
4.2 CONTROL CHARTS

 IN CONTROL CHARTS THERE IS A CENTRELINE

CORRESPONDING TO AVERAGE VALUE OF PROCESS AND
LINES CORRESPONDING TO UPPER AND LOWER
CONTROL LIMITS
 THE LIMITS ARE CHOSEN SUCH THAT THE VALUES
WITHIN THESE LIMITS ARE VALUES DUE TO CHANCE
CAUSES.
 HENCE VALUES BEYOND CONTROL LIMITS ARE
INDICATING PROCESS OUT OF CONTROL
 THIS WARRANTS CORRECTIVE ACTIONS TO BRING
PROCESS INTO CONTROL BY FINDING OUT CAUSES &
ELIMINATING THEM
4.2.1 TYPES OF CONTROL CHARTS

 - R CHART: MEAN OF SAMPLE ( ) PLOTTED IN A GRAPH

& RANGE OF THE SAME SAMPLE (R) PLOTTED IN
ANOTHER GRAPH

 P CHART:PERCENTAGE DEFECTIVE OF A SAMPLE

 Pn CHART: NUMBER OF DEFECTIVE OF A SAMPLE

 C CHART: NUMBER OF DEFECTS ON PREVIOUSLY GIVEN

UNIT IN A SAMPLE

 U CHART: NUMBER OF DEFECS PER UNIT AREA

 X - R CHART : TYPICAL SAMPLE SIZES

3 RANDOM SAMPLES / 2HOUR

UCL
SAMPLE SIZE
SUB GROUP
X C
L

LCL TYPICAL SUB GROUPS

UCL 2 HOUR

R C 4 HOUR
L RATIONAL
SHIFT SUB GROUPS
LCL
DAY

SELECT THE BEST SUB GROUP BY TRIAL & ERROR

4.2.2 NOTES ON CONTROL CHARTS
NOT OK

UCL OBSERVATION : SAMPLE TO SAMPLE

VARIATION MUCH NARROWER
THAN CONTROL BAND
X CL CAUSE : SAMPLING TOO FREQUENT
LCL
REMEDY : MAKE THE SUB GROUP WIDER
NOT OK

UCL OBSERVATION : SAMPLE TO SAMPLE

VARIATION EXCEED CONTROL
X C BAND TOO OFTEN
L
CAUSE : SAMPLING TOO UNFREQUENT
LCL
REMEDY : MAKE THE SUB GROUP
SMALLER
OK
UCL OBSERVATION : SAMPLE TO SAMPLE
VARIATION COVERS 2/3
X OF THE CONTROL BAND AND
CL OCCASIONALLY VALUE
LCL EXCEEDS CONTROL LIMIT
SAMPLING AT RIGHT FREQUENCY
5.0 SPC

5.1 NECESSITY OF SPC

 TO KNOW WHERE WE ARE
WE HAVE TO USE THE
 TO MAINTAIN QUALITY
 TO IMPROVE QUALITY STATISTICAL TOOLS

5.2 SPC IN SHOP

 OPERATOR PROCESS MONITORING CHART
 QA PERSONNEL - R CHART
 Continued...

 EVENTHOUGH A PROCESS IS WITHIN TOLERANCE SPEC.

AS OBSERVED IN OPERATOR MAINTAINED PROCESS
MONITORING CHART, - R CHART MADE BY QUALITY
PERSONNEL WILL INDICATE IF ANY VALUE GOES OUT OF
CONTROL LIMIT.

 THEN THE ASSIGNABLE CAUSE FOR THE OUT OF

CONTROL CONDITION IS REMOVED.

 HENCE Cpk IMPROVED & QUALITY IMPROVED.