1 Fundamental Concepts (Assembly work has a very long history. Ancient people already knew how to create a useful object composed of multiple parts. However, the objective of modern assembly processes is to produce high quality and low cost products, A number of important ideas have been developed to facilitate assembly work. First of all, assembly parts are standardized. Parts of the same type must be subject to the same specifications. This also implies uniform parts quality. Parts from different sources then can be put together as a finished product. Another innovation in the history of assembly manufacturing is the division of the assembly job. If an assembly task has a long process time or involves too many parts, the work may be broken into a number of smaller tasks. Each task builds a part of the assembly. By progressively adding parts to an assembly, a finished item is produced. Since each task has a relatively limited content, skill can be developed in a short time. Thus, assembly speed may be increased and quality improved. In many cases, nonassembly operations may be needed, For instance, parts preparation, inspection, and testing operations may be introduced to assure the product quality level, and facilitate assembly work. Since an assembly is composed of multiple parts and parts are assem- bled by multiple operations, material flow becomes relatively complex. On the other hand, moving physical material is a rather simple and me- chanical task, as compared with an assembly task. Operator productivity n be further improved by introducing a dedicated material-handling system and letting operators concentrate their efforts on assembly tasks where skills are needed. As a consequence, automated material-handling 12 Chapter 1 systems have become very popular in modern assembly lines. Manu- facturing cost is reduced due to prompt material delivery, smaller space requirement, better inventory accountability, less handling damage, and less labor. Engineers and scientists have engaged in multidisciplinary analyses, learning that proper work conditions (e.g., job content, tooling and fixtures, workstations, etc.) provide operators with safer and more productive jobs. ‘Time and motion study, analysis of human performance, and ergonomics have been introduced to industry. At this stage, assembly job design begins to integrate human behavior into workstation design. Consequently, effi- ciency at the workstation level is greatly improved. As more and more components are included, line efficiency eventually becomes a problem. Efficiency improvement at the component level does not guarantee overall performance efficiency. Line-integration concepts therefore are introduced. The line designer must take a system view and a structural approach. First, a cost objective must be defined based on both market analysis and manufacturing conditions. Then the product cost structure must be understood. Usually, this is defined by the product characteristics and the manufacturing environment. By comparing the cost objective and the cost structure, the line designer may conduct a study for production feasibility and affordability. At this stage, questions such as resource availability, production capacity, the speed of scale-up, and engineering skills must be answered. Derived from this study is a line- design concept that involves a number of interrelated subjects, e.g., tooling strategy, material-handling system, line size, line configuration, flexibility needed for future engineering changes or line-capacity adjustment, and space strategy. The mission of line design is then to convert the design concept into a physical line. 1.1 The Nature of the Line Design Problem Although it is not difficult to develop a logical procedure for line design, problems may still come from several different sources. First, all the information needed for line design may not be available; the line designer must deal with unknowns. Then, among all the available information, some items are subject to change. Third, even if all design parameters have been firmed up, stochastic phenomena in an assembly line are inevitable. Due to lack of deterministic regularity, line problems can be very complex. Finally, problem complexity may also come from the organization of the design team. Poor communications between design groups responsible for different functions will cause schedule delay, poor design, and high cost.Chapter 1 are the mean process time, the average yield, the mean time between failures, the mean repair time, and so on. From a capacity-planning point of view, however, variability of a parameter is as important as its average value. This thought can be clarified by a simple example as follows: Consider a sequential line with two workstations. Both work- stations have the same process time, say 2 minutes per opera- tion cycle. If the process times are constant, the two stations start and complete their operation cycles at the same time epochs. The line throughput is clearly 0.5 per minute. Sup- pose that the process times are subject to a simple distribution: with an equal probability, the process time is either 1 or 3 min- utes. The mean process time remains the same. If both stations are in a 1-minute or a 3-minute cycle, they can still start and complete their cycle at the same moments. But if their pro- cess times happen to be different, then one station must wait for the other. In this case, the production cycle becomes 3 min- utes, Since the probability of a 1-minute cycle is 0.50.5 = 0.25, the line throughput is equal to 1/(0.25 x 1+ 0.75 x 3) = 0.4 per minute. If the line has more than 10 workstations, the produc- tion cycle is almost always 3 minutes and the line throughput is reduced to 0.333 per minute. Compared to unknowns or uncertainty, the problem of variation is relatively easy to deal with. The line designer may try to reduce the variability, for instance, by introducing automation or improved work methods. In many cases, an adaptive line operation strategy can be invoked to adjust the line operation mode. One common strategy is to regulate line flow by introducing buffers for work- in-process between operations, so that operations become nearly independent of each other. Sometimes, assigning a fast operator to the operation with high variability may also help to increase line productivity. The last resort is to plan for more resources such as adding more workstations. Complexity A line-design problem often has a complex structure due to multiple line components, e.g., tooling, operators, parts, material- handling facility, yield management, information system, and so on. For each single component, a number of design alternatives may exist. The problem can easily become unmanageable if the line designer has to consider all the possible combinations of these al- ternatives. Therefore, the problem of complexity must be handledChapter 1 are the mean process time, the average yield, the mean time between failures, the mean repair time, and so on. From a capacity-planning point of view, however, variability of a parameter is as important as its average value. This thought can be clarified by a simple example as follows: Consider a sequential line with two workstations. Both work- stations have the same process time, say 2 minutes per opera- tion cycle. If the process times are constant, the two stations start and complete their operation cycles at the same time epochs. The line throughput is clearly 0.5 per minute. Sup- pose that the process times are subject to a simple distribution: with an equal probability, the process time is either 1 or 3 min- utes. The mean process time remains the same. If both stations are in a 1-minute or a 3-minute cycle, they can still start and complete their cycle at the same moments. But if their pro- cess times happen to be different, then one station must wait for the other. In this case, the production cycle becomes 3 min- utes. Since the probability ofa 1-minute cycle is 0.50.5 = 0.25, the line throughput is equal to 1/(0.25 x 1+ 0.75 x3) = 0.4 per minute. If the line has more than 10 workstations, the produc- tion cycle is almost always 3 minutes and the line throughput is reduced to 0.333 per minute. Compared to unknowns or uncertainty, the problem of variation is relatively easy to deal with. The line designer may try to reduce the variability, for instance, by introducing automation or improved work methods. In many cases, an adaptive line operation strategy can be invoked to adjust the line operation mode. One common strategy is to regulate line flow by introducing buffers for work- in-process between operations, so that operations become nearly independent of each other. Sometimes, assigning a fast operator to the operation with high variability may also help to increase line productivity. The last resort is to plan for more resources such as adding more workstations. Complexity A line-design problem often has a complex structure due to multiple line components, e.g., tooling, operators, parts, material- handling facility, yield management, information system, and so on. For each single component, a number of design alternatives may exist. The problem can easily become unmanageable if the line designer has to consider all the possible combinations of these al- ternatives. Therefore, the problem of complexity must be handledFundamental Concepts Table 1.1 Problem Solving Strategy Problem Solution Unknown — Generality Uncertainty Flexibility Variation Adaptability Complexity Analysis, Communication ee by a structural approach. For a given product and a given manufac- turing environment, the design objective and constraints should be clearly defined. Then the problem may be partitioned into a number of subproblems. Since the scope of each subproblem is limited, a complete analysis becomes possible. Results of analysis should help to reduce the number of alternatives at the subproblem level and, consequently, to simplify the overall design problem. The line design problem can also be complicated due to the requirement of multiple disciplines. For any sizable line, the de- sign project usually involves people from different groups such as material control, quality assurance, production control, facility en- gineering, and information system. Consequently, communication between people is often a major obstacle. Solutions to this problem include: (i) Keep the design team small. (ii) Effectively use meeting and other communication means. (iii) Document design assump- tions, and (iv) to make the direction clear to all team members. The above discussion is summarized in Table 1.1. 1.2 Line Components To alleviate complexity of a design job, an assembly line may be subdivided into a number of logical or physical components. The design team usually includes members from several departments; each is responsible for one or more components. The subdivision method and the definitions of com- ponents are application-dependent. One possible breakdown is given as follows: 1. Process design 2. Line balance 3. Test strategy 4. Yield management TL6 Chapter 1 5. 6. 7. 8. Material handling Maintenance policy Work-in-process management Parts procurement 9. Parts feeding 10. Human resource 11. Line size 12. Line layout 13. Information system The first thing that one should consider is how a complete product can be assembled, Assembly process design is a very critical area. A good process design should lead to a well-balanced line and appropriate job content for each operation. Often assemblies must be tested or inspected for quality assurance. Through testing or inspection, assembly problems will be detected and analyzed. The results then can be used for problem corrections. Hence, a good testing strategy should reduce the amount of rework and scrap, and increase line productivity by improving product yield. Material handling is another area that deserves intensive study. Al- though this function does not add value to a product, it facilitates assembly process flow. If an assembly line has two or more workstations, products must be moved from one to another. Furthermore, assembly parts also need to be delivered to workstations. Any material-handling delay or damage will degrade line performance and may become costly. Since both workstations and material-handling systems may be subject to failure, a maintenance function becomes necessary. Compared to many other functions, a maintenance operation is relatively simple (e.g.fewer parts and fewer persons involved), but may require a high skill level. The material-handling function is closely related to work-in-process (WIP) management. The latter is responsible for determination of in- process inventory, from the parts-staging area to product shipment. A WIP. management policy also regulates line flow and parts-feeding speed. In many assembly lines, labor is still indispensable. Problems of manual operations include the learning process, ergonomic considerations, human inconsistency, performance deviations, and job assignment. An effective training program and a good job-assignment policy are essential to efficient production. Since market demand is based on forecasts, it is difficult to match the line capacity with the demand. To avoid the problem of overinvestment or insufficient capacity, design strategy should emphasize line flexibility, i.e., the ability to quickly adjust capacity at a minimal cost. Both line size and layout are important subjects in this area.Fundamental Concepts The rapid development of modern data processing also has a significant impact on line design, Sophisticated software programs can assist line management, including data collection, process control, failure analysis, parts tracing, and shop flow control. Information systems play a key role for both yield management and flow control, From an analytic point of view, it is convenient to subdivide a line into a number of components, and to deal with individual components separately. On the other hand, components must be designed in an integrated manner. To achieve design integration, interrelated components must be considered under the same design function. Five functions are identified: Line flow and configuration Line operation Material logistics Product yield and quality Information management Veen The first function deals with the physical line, where the key prob- lems are (i) compatibility of line layout with process flow, (ii) interface between material handling-system and workstations, (iii) equipment utiliza- ton, (iv) compatibility of material handling system with WIP management policy, and (v) line flexibility. For a given assembly line, the next problem is how the line should be operated. A common problem is that line operation policy has not been carefully analyzed during the design phase. Consequently, the actual line throughput may be considerably lower than the targeted capacity. Operation management problems, such as line scheduling, parts feeding, WIP management, job dispatching, flow control, and maintenance policy, should be regarded as a part of line design problem. Since assembly involves multiple parts, material logistics can be a major Problem. Typical logistics problems are parts ordering, delivery, parts Staging, and feeding. The right kind of parts should be delivered in the right quantity to the right place at the right time in the right manner. In some cases, parts preparation serves an important function. For clean room operations, assembly parts must be cleaned before assembly. For automated stations, parts may have to be placed ina kit with the appropriate orientation, The fourth function consists of components that may affect product yield and quality. First, a high-quality product must have high-quality parts Next, during the assembly process, testing or inspection functions may be established to examine product quality. Test results should be used for Process control so that both product quality and yield can be improved.8 Chapter 1 Table 1.2 Functional Relations Between Line Components Flow and Line Material Yield and Information configuration operation logistics quality | management Process design x x Line balance x Test strategy x x x x Yield management x x x Material handling x x Maintenance policy x x x WIP management x x x x x Parts procurement oe x x Parts feeding x x x Human resource x x x Line size x Line layout x Information system x x x x x In addition, tool calibration and maintenance can be important for high- yield production. Finally, all operators must be appropriately trained and supervised to follow the process instructions. Management of line information can be vital to the success of a mod- ern manufacturing business. Manufacturing information systems have been widely used for many purposes. Problems in this area involve data- requirement definition, computer and network capability, information re- trieval or data base system, and line management support. The relations between line components and design functions are sum- marized in Table 1.2. These relations define a “map” for line integration. Each function links a number of interrelated components together, while each component may be responsible for one or more function. This map will help the line designer make sure that components are both logically and physically compatible and that design assumptions at function levels are consistent and realistic. 1.3 Measures of Effectiveness An important problem sometimes overlooked is design optimization. For example, in high-technology industries, a company can profit by its product innovations. Even if its manufacturing efficiency is poor, the company may still have a high profit margin because it is offering a unique product. How-