Presented at Coal Gen 2007 August 1-3 2007 STEAM TURBINE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUPERCRITICAL CYCLES By Justin

Zachary Senior Principal Engineer Paul Kochis Principal Engineer Bechtel Power Corporation re!eric"# $% &'()* INTRODUCTION Climate change concerns an! the rising price of coal are !ri+ing the power generation mar"et towar! more efficient cycles than the con+entional su,critical steam plant- Steam tur,ines .STs/ nee! to operate at su,stantially higher pressures an! temperatures in the supercritical .SC/ an! ultra0supercritical .1SC/ !omain- The SC steam plant !esign is rapi!ly ,ecoming the preferre! option for many owners# gi+en its cost0effecti+e use of coal# an a,un!ant !omestic fossil fuelConcurrently# there is an ongoing push to re!uce stac" emissions of all pollutants an! to capture CO&- The future will# without a !ou,t# lea! to the increase! use of 1SC technologies- 2hile the !efinition of SC con!itions is straightforwar!# the meaning of 1SC is su,3ect to interpretationTo pro+i!e a clearer un!erstan!ing of the goals of this paper# the three types of plants are !efine! ,elow4 SC is a thermal cycle with a main steam temperature of less than '#''& 5 .6)) 5C/ operating at pressures ,etween *#&)7 an! 8#))) psia1SC is a thermal cycle with a ma9imum steam temperature greater than '#''& 5 .6)) 5C/ operating at pressures higher than 8#))) psia:!+ance! 1SC is a thermal cycle with a steam temperature of '#*)) 5 .(); 5C/ or greaterRam Narula Chief Technology Officer

2hile SC technology !e+elopment continue! in Japan an! Europe for a num,er of !eca!es# a concerte! large0scale effort to reintro!uce it in the 1S has occurre! only recently- :n e9ample of this effort is EPR<=s Coal leet initiati+e# which is !esigne! to assist with the !eployment of higher efficiency# lower emissions# CO& capture0rea!y SC an! 1SC plants- To compete with alternati+e solutions for coal utili>ation .i-e-# <?CC/# SC an! 1SC plants must achie+e net plant efficiency .,ase! on higher heating +alue @AABC of the fuel/ greater than 8) percent without significantly increasing the plant=s capital costThe initial step in this !e+elopment process is thermo!ynamic cycle optimi>ation# followe! ,y an effort to increase ST o+erall efficiency ,y impro+ing the high pressure .AP/ an! interme!iate '

pressure .<P/ mo!ules- Aigher steam temperatures in particular as well as increase! steam pressure# will significantly impro+e thermal cycle efficiency- Rather than ST technology !ictating the selection of the temperatures an! pressures# cycle optimi>ation is go+erne! ,y coal properties an! the effect of aggressi+eDcorrosi+e coals on the materials selecte! for the ,oiler tu,es# hea!ers# an! other internal components- <f the coal contains !eleterious components# then thermal cycle optimi>ation shoul! focus on pressure increases rather than more0effecti+e temperature increasesEEuipment manufacturers also continue to aggressi+ely pursue upgra!ing the low pressure .FP/ tur,ine# which# in many cases# accounts for 8) percent of the power generate! ,y the tur,ineOne of the !e+elopment o,3ecti+es is to increase the si>e of the last0stage ,la!e .FSB/# which coul! re!uce the num,er of FP mo!ules an! ,oost the power output at lower con!enser pressuresOn one han!# the tren! in a!+ance! ST !esign is to achie+e greater stan!ar!i>ation in the num,er of mo!ules an! their si>es as a means of re!ucing cost an! accelerating sche!ule- On the other han!# the only way to impro+e thermal efficiency is to custom0!esign the ,la!ing of each tur,ine mo!ule# with the e9ception of the last three stages of the FP section- These approaches can ,e accomplishe! only ,y using highly computeri>e! metho!s of !esign an! manufacturingThe !iscussion co+ers the +alue of EPC contractor e9perience an! the challenges in+ol+e! in ST eEuipment selection- The paper !escri,es how contractor !ecisions are gui!e! ,y lessons learne! from the plant conceptual !esign stage through construction# startup# an! testing of a num,er of power plants using large STs from se+eral manufacturers in se+eral SC applicationsCYCLE DESIGN OPTI I!ATION This analysis i!entifies optimi>e! cycle configurations an! steam con!itions for coal0fire! power pro3ect SC an! 1SC !esigns that will yiel! the ,est o+erall ST efficiency- or a pre!etermine! plant net power output of 6)) $2# nominal matrices of thermal performance an! !ifferential costs were !e+elope! ,y +arying the main steam pressure an! the mainDreheat steam temperatures- The pressure range was set from *#;)) psia .&8) ,ar/ to 8#;)) psia .*') ,ara/# an! main steamDreheat temperatures from '#))) D'#))) .;*7 5CD;*7 5C/ to '#*)) D'#*)) .(); 5CD(); 5C/- The heat ,alances were !e+elope! for a +ariety of pressure an! temperature com,inations using commercially a+aila,le simulation programs- <n a!!ition to the ST# the ,oiler an! other ma3or eEuipment# namely the ,oiler fee! pump an! con!enser# shoul! ,e consi!ere! in o+erall plant e+aluation ,ecause their capa,ilities also affect the selection of steam con!itions for a specific siteThe optimum approach is a thermal cycle !esign that incorporates significant increases in ,oth main steam pressure an! temperature- : "ey aspect of the !esign is the !etermination of the enthalpy en! point .EEP/ or moisture le+el in the e9haust of the FP tur,ine- : thermal cycle !esign that incorporates significant increases in the operating pressure of the ST without compara,le increases in temperature can lea! to an EEP in the wet >one of the FP e9haust greater than the a+erage of ')G'& percent- Similarly# a thermal cycle that significantly increases the steam temperature without correspon!ing pressure increases can lea! to superheate! steam at

&

the EEP !uring part0loa! operation- <n a!!ition# this thermal cycle !oes not ta"e full a!+antage of the cycle capa,ility# resulting in less0than0achie+a,le cycle efficiencyThe in+estigation woul! not ,e complete without an e+aluate! cost# which inclu!es the capital cost an! the ,enefit attri,ute! to the heat rate impro+ements- Aowe+er# !ue to the +olatility of commo!ity prices for the materials reEuire! for a!+ance! SC an! 1SC plants# cost comparisons ha+e not ,een inclu!e! in this paperThe stu!y matri9 was ,ase! on four pressure le+els .*#;))# *#())# 8#)))# an! 8#;)) psia @&8)# &;;# &(;# an! *') ,ar# respecti+elyC/- our com,inations of main steam temperature .$ST/ an! hot reheat temperature .ART/H'#))) D'#))) # '#);) D'#);) # '#')) D'#')) # an! '#';) D'#';) .;*7 5CD;*7 5C# ;66 5C D;66 5C# ;I* 5CD;I* 5C# an! 6&' 5CD6&' 5C# respecti+ely/Hwere consi!ere! for each pressure le+el- The throttle pressure of *#()) psia was consi!ere! the ,ase case- :s in!icate! in igure '# an increase in operating pressure without a respecti+e increase in operating temperature is counterpro!ucti+e- The ,est results are achie+e! at the highest pressure an! temperature .8#;)) psia# '#';) D'#';) /# an impro+ement of )-*I percent compare! with the ,ase caseDelta Throttle Pressure vs. Delta NPHR Basis 3,700 psia
0.3 0.2 0.1 Delta NPHR, % 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -300 -200 -100 0 1000/1000 1050/1050 1100/1100 1150/1150

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Delta Throttle Pressure

Figure 1. Pressure and Tem era!ure Im a"! #n STG $ea! Ra!e : similar analysis was con!ucte! for the $ST an! the ART- <n the first case# ,oth the $ST an! the ART were +arie! simultaneouslyJ in the secon! case# only the $ST was +arie!J an! in the thir! case# only the ART was change!- The temperature of '#);) D'#);) was consi!ere! the ,ase case- Aowe+er# for the 8#;)) psia case# the analysis inclu!e! the higher $ST an! ART temperatures of '#*)) D'#*)) *

<n the first case .see igure &/# the heat rate was a,out & percent worse for the lowest temperature +alues .'#))) D'#))) / an! impro+e! ,y nearly * percent for the higher temperature +alues of '#';) D'#';) - 2hen the temperature was further increase! to '#*)) D'#*)) # for the 8#;)) psia pressure# the tren! in!icate! an impro+ement of nearly ( percent from the ,ase caseDelta MST and HRT vs. Delta NPHR
3 2 1 0 Delta NPHR, % -100 -50 -1 0 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 Delta Main and Reheat Steam Temperature, 50 100 150 200 250 300 4500 4000 3700 3500

Figure %. MST and $RT Im a"! #n Ne! P&an! $ea! Ra!e Ne9t# comparisons were ma!e for in!i+i!ual changes in $ST an! ARTThe main an! reheat steam temperatures of '#);) D'#);) were consi!ere! the ,ase case- :n increase in $ST of ')) .;;-;; 5C/ from the ,ase case .see igure */ impro+es the heat rate ,y nearly & percent- :gain# a temperature increase of &;) .'&' 5C/ a,o+e the ,ase case for the correspon!ing 8#;)) psia main pressure yiel!s a heat rate impro+ement close to ; percent:s e9pecte!# the impact of increasing only the ART ,y ')) impro+es the net plant heat rate ,y only '-&; percent from the ,ase case .see igure 8/- 2hen the ART is increase! ,y &;) # for the 8#;)) psia case# the impro+ement in heat rate is appro9imately * percent-

Delta MST vs. Delta NPHR Basis !,0"0#!,0"0

Delta Main Steam Temperature, -100 -50 ' ! 0 Delta NPHR, % $! $' $3 $& $" $% 4500 4000 3700 3500 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Figure '. MST Im a"! #n Ne! P&an! $ea! Ra!e

Delta HRT vs Delta NPHR Basis !0"0#!0"0
! $!00 $"0 0." 0 0 Delta NPHR % $0." $! $!." $' $'." $3 $3." Delta Reheat Steam Temperature 4500 4000 3700 3500 "0 !00 !"0 '00 '"0 300

Figure (. $RT Im a"! #n Ne! P&an! $ea! Ra!e The cycle optimi>ation analysis in!icates that the higher the main steam throttle temperature# when accompanie! ,y a correspon!ing increase in main steam pressure# the ,etter the cycle ;

efficiency- :n increase in reheat temperatures also impro+es the cycle efficiency# ,ut to a lesser !egree- Aowe+er# it is recommen!e! that this type of analysis ,e performe! for each specific site con!ition- <t is also interesting to o,ser+e the slightly !ifferent approach ta"en ,y !ifferent manufacturers in terms of power generation split ,etween the AP# <P# an! FP mo!ules- or an EPC contractor# the inlet an! outlet steam flow# pressure# an! temperature con!itions of the AP# <P# an! FP stream are important for the si>ing an! support of the interconnecting elements .pipes# hea!ers# ,ypass +al+es# an! so on/- igure ; presents the alternati+e solutions offere! ,y fi+e !ifferent original eEuipment manufacturers .OE$s/ for a I;) $2 steam tur,ine- OE$ : offere! an APK<P common mo!uleJ as a result# the FP section generate! the most power .8* percent/- OE$ % ha! the most ,alance! !istri,ution ,etween the AP# <P# an! FP mo!ulesOE$ E ha! the highest AP e9haust pressure con!itions# which e9plains the high power output generate! ,y the <P mo!ule- or the ne9t le+el of performance# manufacturers# research facilities# an! go+ernment agencies are !e+oting resources to !e+eloping new# impro+e! materials that will ,e suita,le for higher le+els of throttle pressure an! steam temperaturesPo(er Split )et(een the modules
50.0 45.0 Per.ent o/ 0enerated po(er 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 * B + -,M D , HP IP LP

Figure ). P#*er Genera!i#n S &i! +e!*een !,e M#du&es #- a .)/ M0 SC S!eam Tur+ine T"E I PACT O# INC$EASED CYCLE E##CIENCY ON CO2 E ISSIONS <mpro+ing the thermal performance of the steam cycle also plays an important role in re!ucing CO& emissions- Ta,le ' presents the impact of waterDsteam cycle efficiency on the re!uction of CO& emissions- 2hen compare! with current su,critical plants# an SC plant re!uces emissions ,y '& percent- :n a!+ance! 1SC plant with ;) percent steam cycle efficiency re!uces emissions ,y more than 8' percent .see Reference ';/-

Ta%le 1& Co2 $edu't(on and Plant E))('(en'* T,erma& C1"&e E--i"ien"1 Range 2$$345 6 **G*; *6G8) 8&G8; 86G;) ATE$IALS CO% Emissi#ns Redu"!i#n5 6 Basis '& &7 8' Remar7s ' Reheat ' Reheat & Reheat

Su,critical SC Plant 1SC Plant :!+ance! 1SC Plant

"IG" TE PE$AT+$E

The high thermal efficiency of the SC an! 1SC steam power plants cannot ,e achie+e! without the use of new alloys with higher creep strength an! impro+e! o9i!ation resistance- $ore than &) units are in operation worl!wi!e with main steam temperatures of '#)7)G'#''& .;7&G 6)) C/ an! pressures of *#8))G8#&)) psi .&*8G&I) ,ar/- Operation a,o+e '#))) was possi,le !ue to the continuous !e+elopment effort to impro+e the IG'& percent ferritic steels .TI'DPI'# TI&DPI&# T''&DP'&&/# as well as some a!+ance! austenitic alloys .TP*8(# A ?# Super *)8/2hile the most se+ere reEuirements to withstan! SC an! 1SC operating con!itions apply to ,oilers# significant constraints are also rele+ant to STs an! interconnecting har!ware such as main steam pipes# +al+es# an! so on- <t shoul! ,e note! that the high temperature strength of ferritic steels .PI&# P'&&#EI'/ is eEual to that of the low0en! austenitic alloys# ,ut their resistance to o9i!ation is lower- : ma3or pro,lem associate! with the use of PI'DPI& materials is the nee! for Euality control at the manufacturing facilities- <n pro3ect e9ecution# the Euality of the wel!ing an! post0wel!ing treatments# particularly in the fiel!# continues to ,e a concern# reEuiring that the treatments ,e monitore! closely:ttaining 1SC main steam con!itions of a,out '#*)) an! ;#))) psia .*8; ,ar/ is possi,le only ,y using nic"el an! chrome0nic"el superalloys .e-g-# <nconel (8)/# which e9hi,it the mechanical properties nee!e! for these high temperatures an! pressures<n the ongoing struggle to ,alance cost an! performance# eEuipment !esigners must also consi!er more affor!a,le materials such as austenitic stainless steel- : typical e9ample of this new generation of materials is a cast steel calle! C 7C0Plus .see Reference '/- %e+elope! using ,oth a uniEue Lengineere! microstructureM metho! that mitigates aging0in!uce! em,rittlement an! sta,le nano0scale !ispersions of N,C within the grains# this new steel has high creep0rapture !uctility as well as outstan!ing mechanical an! thermal fatigue resistance- These properties are achie+e! without using any a!!itional heat treatment proce!ures# ma"ing it an e9cellent can!i!ate for tur,ine casing applications# where large castings are necessary$a3or initiati+es to !e+elop suita,le materials are un!erway in the 1S# Europe# an! Japan- The European material !e+elopment program :% ()) .name! for its target of achie+ing ()) C @'#&I& C as the $ST/ inclu!es research institutes an! se+eral ma3or ST manufacturers# inclu!ing Siemens# :nsal!o# an! :lstom# which are acti+ely colla,orating on this effort# !espite ,eing fierce commercial competitors-

The status of material !e+elopment for ST parts use! in +arious high pressure an! high temperature applications is gi+en in Ta,le &# ,ase! on References ' an! &Ta+&e %. $ig, Pressure and $ig, Tem era!ure Ma!eria&s -#r $P Tur+ines C#m #nen! Casings .shells# +al+es# steam chests# no>>les/ Bolting 15/)/ F Cr$oB .cast/ ')Cr$oB$, 151)/ F IG')N Cr .2/ '&Cr2 .Co/ Cr$o2BN,N 15'// F C 7C0Plus CC:6'( <nconel 6&; <n ('7 Nimonic &6* IG'&N Cr$oB Nimonic '); '& Cr$o2BN,N Nimonic ''; <n ('7 2aspaloy :ll+ac ('7Plus IG'& N Cr2Co CC:6'( '&Cr$o2BN,N <nconel 6&; <nconel (8) Aynes &*) IG'&N Cr2Co 2rought ')Cr$oBC,N Ni0,ase! PI& CC:6'( 15(// F CC:6'( <nconel (8) C 7C0Plus Nimonic '); Nimonic ''; 1()) 1(') 1(&) CC:6'( <nconel (8) 2rought Ni0,ase! <nconel (8)

8&& IG'&N Cr$oB Nimonic 7): <n ('7 'Cr$oB '&Cr$oBN,N &6NiCr$oB'' ; 8&& ')Cr$oBN,N P&&

RotorsD%iscs

No>>lesDBla!es Piping

:s Ta,le & shows# the choice of the cycle main steam con!itions !epen!s primarily on the a+aila,ility an! cost of materials for the ST casingsHthe largest an! most e9pensi+e components- To minimi>e thermal an! operational stresses# AP sections of 1SC eEuipment use triple0shell construction .see Reference &/- 2ith this type of arrangement# the outer casing is not su,3ect to ele+ate! temperatures an! can ,e constructe! of tra!itional Cr$oB material- The no>>le ,o9 is e9pose! to the highest pressures an! temperatures an! shoul! ,e ma!e of forge! '&Cr$oBC,N steel:nother important criterion in material selection for stationary +anes relates to the material use! for pac"ing castings# which must ,e similar to the rotor material to match its thermal e9pansion characteristicsThe choice of material for ,olting appears to ,e relati+ely easy- The ma3or reEuirements are high resistance to stress rela9ation# thermal e9pansion compati,ility# an! low notch sensiti+ity- :s with ST rotating ,la!es# the e9perience accumulate! from the use of i!entical materials in large in!ustrial gas tur,ines operating at high temperatures is also rele+ant for these applications<t shoul! also ,e emphasi>e! that these materials must ,e intro!uce! in association with rigorous analytical pre!iction tools as well as comprehensi+e# large0scale testing programs- 2ithout con+incing +ali!ation metho!ologies to pre!ict the life e9pectancy of critical components# the eEuipment will ,e intro!uce! to the mar"et +ery slowly"P,IP DESIGN

%espite the fact that a!+ance! STs are specifically tailore! to the nee!s of the particular cycle !esign# all ST manufacturers use mo!ular ,uil!ing ,loc"s with stan!ar!i>e! components an! parts- This approach ensures fle9i,ility an! confi!ence in pro+en !esigns# without escalating eEuipment costThe ,la!es of an ST are the components that recei+e the most attention- Significant efforts are in+este! to optimi>e ,la!e !esign# which has a !irect an! powerful effect on AP an! <P mo!ules efficiency- <t is customary to use a fully !e+elope! *0% !esign# accounting for all ,la!e profile losses# lea"age losses# an! other secon!ary effects- Because the ,la!es are short# relati+ely large en!0wall losses occur at the hu, an! the shrou!- By mo!ifying the con+entional cylin!rical !esign with a fully !e+elope! *0% !esign# ,ent an! twiste! at the ,la!e hu, an! tip# a stage efficiency impro+ement of appro9imately & percent is o,taine!- :nother impro+ement for APD<P ,la!ing is the use of +aria,le reaction for each stage in the ,la!e path length instea! of the constant ;) percent reaction .see References * an! 8/- <mpro+ements of ' percent an! higher in mo!ule efficiency ha+e ,een reporte!: typical optimi>ation process for the AP or <P tur,ine coul! contain more than 8) +aria,les .such as pressure ,etween the stationary an! rotating ,la!es# enthalpy !rop across the stages# an! ,la!e0path geometry/ an! ,e su,3ect to more than ')) !esign constraints .see Reference */- :t SC an! 1SC steam con!itions# a +ery comple9# iterati+e !esign process is reEuire! to achie+e an optimi>e! geometry with minimum losses- <n the first stages of the AP tur,ine# the ma9imum allowa,le stress is +ery low# !ue to high inlet temperature# while in the last stages of the mo!ule# the stresses are high# !ue to the larger ,la!e height- The stage loa!ing must also ,e !ecrease! in the last stages to re!uce the e9it +elocity an! minimi>e profile an! e9it losses"P and IP Con)(gurat(ons : "ey !ecision centers on whether separate or integral APD<P mo!ules shoul! ,e use!- The num,er of mo!ules is an important element affecting the o+erall cost of the power plant- or cost an! sche!ule reasons# se+eral manufacturers suggest the use of a single# opposite0flow com,ine! APD<P mo!ule- This type of arrangement has ,een use! successfully for STs pro!ucing up to 6)) $2 gross power- <f the rotor can ,e shippe! pre0assem,le! into the inner an! outer casings# as one !esign in!icates# shorter erection an! commissioning times are possi,le .see Reference 8/The a!+antages offere! ,y the integral APD<P mo!ules pro+i!e manufacturers with incenti+es to propose this arrangement for e+en higher o+erall power output .aroun! 7)) $2/- Careful re+iew an! analysis are reEuire! to !etermine the optimal <P ,la!e si>e- :s the ST output approaches 7)) $2# the height of the last <P ,la!e in a single0flow <P mo!ule increases to accommo!ate a larger flow- 1ntil now# +ery few manufacturers ha+e offere! this arrangementrom the OO$ perspecti+e# splitting the AP an! <P into two !ifferent mo!ules is preferre!- This arrangement offers more e9pe!ient access to the har!ware an! a more con+enient way to assem,le an! !isassem,le interconnecting pipes# thus re!ucing outage timeSeal(ng Beyon! the use of con+entional non0contact la,yrinth seals# new sealing technologies ha+e ,een intro!uce! in a!+ance! ST !esigns# aiming to further re!uce lea"age losses- Se+eral sealing metho!ologies use! in gas tur,ines# such as a,ra!a,le seals an! ,rush seals# ha+e foun! their way into ST applications-

or the first type of seal# the seal segments in the shaft glan!s# ,alance pistons# or low0height spring0,ac"e! seals ,elow the stationary ,la!es are coate! with an a,ra!a,le material# thus re!ucing the actual clearance an! conseEuently the lea"age- <f the segments ru, against the opposite la,yrinth fins# the material wears away an! operational safety is not affecte!- This !esign can re!uce the lea"age flow ,y &) percent .see Reference 8/ compare! with that of uncoate! sealsBrush seals are ,ecoming stan!ar! features in a!+ance! STs# particularly for the AP an! <P mo!ules of SC an! 1SC STs- Brush seals pro+i!e a curtain of metal ,ristles ,etween a!3acent areas of !ifferent pressures- The ,ristles are cante! at an angle relati+e to the ra!ial !irection of the shaft# an! the sealing process starts as soon as !ifferential pressure is create!# e+en though there is still a gap ,etween the ,ristles an! the rotor- <n this type of application .see Reference 8/# a ;) percent re!uction of lea"age flow is achie+e! compare! with that of a con+entional sealThe a,sence of any clearance ,etween the ,rush an! the surface of the part re!uces the lea"age consi!era,lyH()N an! moreHan! can impro+e tur,ine efficiency ,y )-; percent .see Reference ;/LP T+$-INE DESIGN :lthough the FP tur,ine FSB is one of the most important elements in the o+erall ST !esign# !esign impro+ements in FP tur,ines are only summari>e! in this paper ,ecause these impro+ements are generic to su,critical# SC# an! 1SC tur,ines- :s !iscusse! earlier# future efforts to increase ST o+erall efficiency for a!+ance! thermal cycles will focus on impro+ing the AP an! <P mo!ules- Aowe+er# we must not ignore the fact that# in the last few years# eEuipment manufacturers ha+e initiate! am,itious plans to upgra!e the FP tur,ine- One o,3ecti+e has ,een to increase the si>e of the FSB# which coul! re!uce the num,er of FP mo!ules un!er certain con!itions an!Dor ,oost the power output at lower con!enser pressures- The eEuipment manufacturers ha+e !e+ote! consi!era,le effort to un!erstan!ing an! impro+ing the !esign of stationary an! rotating ,la!es- Changes from the e9isting tra!itional !esign ,oun!aries# such as supersonic relati+e inflow at the tip of the rotating ,la!e# ha+e ,een e+aluate! in e9tensi+e analytical an! e9perimental trials to gain user acceptanceOnly a fully !e+elope! *0% stage flow analysis can pro+i!e an optimum ,la!e profile capa,le of minimi>ing the losses from shoc" wa+es resulting from supersonic flow- The accuracy of mo!ern *0% analysis as a pre!iction tool has +astly impro+e!Hit can now account for non0 eEuili,rium con!ensation flows with !ifferent steam wetness con!itions an! phase change +ariations .see References 6 an! (/:long with aero!ynamic consi!erations# mechanical constraints also play an important role in !e+eloping new# longer FSBs- :s "ey tur,ine components su,3ect to the largest centrifugal forces# FSBs ha+e a critical impact on the performance an! relia,ility of the entire tur,ineThe allowa,le tensile ra!ial stress +alue represents the ma3or limiting factor for ,la!e lengthOther limiting stresses inclu!e the ,en!ing stress resulting from steam forces in the ,la!e root part an! the tensile stress in the rotor cause! ,y centrifugal forces-

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Continuous mar"et pressure to increase FSB length le! !e+elopers to use titanium alloys instea! of steel- Titanium alloys are less !ense .'-7 times/ an! much stronger than steel# thus allowing the use of longer ,la!es an! larger annulus areas- or e9ample# the yiel! strength of the Ti06:l0 8B titanium alloy is the same as '(08pA steel# ,ut the weight of titanium is only ;( percent of that of steel .see Reference I/- :nother ,enefit of titanium alloy material is associate! with greater resistance to wetness losses an! !amage# compare! with stainless steel- On the !ownsi!e# howe+er# titanium ,la!es are more ,rittle an! prone to scratches- Titanium alloy ,la!es ha+e ,een in ser+ice for a num,er of years- $anufacturers are currently applying lessons learne! from the first generation of titanium ,la!es as they !e+elop the secon! generation# with a ')G '; percent larger e9haust area an! more comple9 aero!ynamic an! mechanical !esignProcesses that ta"e place in the FP tur,ine section .FPTS/ account for significant efficiency losses- Nearly 7 percent of the losses can ,e attri,ute! to a Lwetness phenomenon#M which results mainly from the nucleation of moisture from superheate! steam in the phase transition >one .PTZ/# the formation an! release of liEui! films on the ,la!e surface within the PTZ# an! two0 phase flow from the FPTS into the con!enser .see Reference ')/The FSB mechanical !esign also nee!s to pro+i!e protection against erosion cause! ,y water !roplets- <n a typical cycling operation# the le+el of steam moisture +aries significantly- 2hile the a+erage steam wetness is not higher than ')G'& percent# the local steam wetness .see Reference ''/ can ,e much higher# particularly in the tip region- The higher the tip spee!# the more !angerous the effect of the coarse0graine! water that lags ,ehin! the steam an! affects the ,la!eor +ery long FSBs# the con+entional metho! of protecting against water erosionHusing Stellite strips ,ra>e! to the ,la!e surfaceHpresents new challenges .see Reference 7/- The Stellite strips create !iscontinuities in the ,la!e profile# an! if the Stellite strips ,rea"# they can also cause local !amage an! changes to the !ynamic characteristics of the ,la!e- :n e9pensi+e alternati+e .see Reference '&/ for re!ucing the moisture is internal steam heating of the stationary ,la!es:nother new metho! for protecting against erosion is the laser har!ening of the ,la!es- This metho! !eli+ers similar or ,etter results for '608pA material relati+e to the flame har!ening of con+entional steels .see Reference '&/The e9haust loss of an ST is proportional to the sEuare of the ratio of the +olumetric flow o+er the tur,ine e9haust annulus area- Better performance is attaine! ,y employing a larger e9haust area# either ,y !ecreasing hu, !iameter an! increasing ,la!e length# or ,y re!ucing ,la!e length o+er a larger hu, !iameter- The lower the "inetic energy of the steam lea+ing the tur,ine# the higher the ST efficiency reali>e!- Since the ST Llast three stages systemM can ,e use! for a num,er of configurations an! operating con!itions# !esign optimi>ation shoul! not consi!er system ,eha+ior at a single operating point ,ut# rather# shoul! e+aluate performance at se+eral !ifferent flows an! pressures-

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EPC CONTRACTOR PERSPECTI3E Im #r!an"e #- ST E8 erien"e <n general# the continuous e+olution of the ST presents many challenges for EPC contractors# such as Bechtel# which are responsi,le for selecting eEuipment an! functionally integrating it with other power plant components2or"ing on the customer=s ,ehalf to ma"e technology0neutral !ecisions in selecting an! integrating plant eEuipment# the EPC contractor relies on the e9perience an! e9pertise it has gaine! using eEuipment from many manufacturers# in many pro3ect settings- Bechtel=s e9perience with STs co+ers com,ine! cycle as well as con+entional steam plants- STs use! for con+entional steam cycle plants on Bechtel pro3ects are liste! in Ta,le *- Two recent pro3ects are STs operating at SC con!itions- Se+eral other pro3ects are in the initial !e+elopment stagesTa+&e '. S!eam C1"&e Pr#9e"!s
N#mina& Gr#ss P#*er 2M04 6(( 8;) 8&) *I6 8I) 8I) *(( ''8 &I; &7; R#!a!i#na& S eed 2RPM4 *#6)) *#6)) *#))) *#))) *#6)) *#6)) *#6)) *#6)) *#6)) *#6)) T#!a& Casings: LP Casings *D& &D' &D' &D' *D& *D& &D' &D' &D' &D' Las! S!age B&ade Leng!, 8) 8) *' 8' *) &6 **-; *;-( &6 &I Las! S!age B&ade Ma!eria& Titanium Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel

Year &))I &))6 &))& &))' &))' &))) 'II; 'II; 'II; 'II8

Su &ier Aitachi $A< :nsal!o ?EC :lstom Toshi,a ?E ?E :BB 2estinghouse ?EC :lstom

ST E;ui men! Se&e"!i#n Before selecting eEuipment from !ifferent suppliers# an EPC contractor must con!uct a thorough in+estigation to ensure that the owner=s pro forma o,3ecti+es are met for power output# heat rate# startup times# relia,ility# a+aila,ility# an! so on- The process inclu!es an in!epen!ent assessment of the technology# eEuipment operating history# engineering# an! manufacturing processes- The ST performance offere! ,y the OE$s for a specific pro3ect is normali>e! an! reconcile! with the past performance of +arious types of eEuipment in a similar configuration on other pro3ectsBechtel maintains a performance !ata,ase of all past pro3ects# which is routinely up!ate! with information from fiel! tests- Special emphasis is gi+en to the +ali!ation process of the e9haust loss cur+eigure 6 shows the thermal internal efficiency +alues for all three mo!ules .AP# <P# an! FP/ calculate! for a typical supercritical 7)) $2 application# where the main steam con!itions are set at *#7)) psia .&6& ,ar/ an! '#)(; 5 .;(I 5C/- :s the figure in!icates# the mo!ule efficiencies are high for all OE$s- Aowe+er# there are certain !ifferences# ,ase! on the technologies an! the emphasis put on the particular mo!ule- Supplier :=s <P mo!ule is !esigne! for the highest efficiency .I6 percent/# whereas Supplier C has more eEually !istri,ute! the efficiency +alue among the mo!ules# +arying ,etween I'-6 percent an! I*-' percent-

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Figure <. ST M#du&e E--i"ien"ies -#r =// M0 SC P&an! 2'5=// sia5 15/>) F Main S!eam C#ndi!i#ns4 CONT$OL ISS+ES. SLIDING O$ CONSTANT P$ESS+$E The future generation of SC an! 1SC plants in the 1S must ,e a,le to achie+e high efficiencies not only in continuous ,ase0loa! operation ,ut also at part0loa! operation- The con+entional approach suggests that# in the 1S# the new generation of SC an! 1SC plants will operate# for the most part# at ,ase0loa! con!itions an! constant steam pressure- Aowe+er# for a plant with a life span of *)G8) years# it is ine+ita,le that in the future these units will operate in loa!0cycling operation using sli!ing pressureOperation un!er constant pressure reEuires stea!y ,oiler an! main steam line pressure o+er the entire loa! range- :t part loa!# the steam tur,ine reEuires a lower pressure an! flow to generate the amount of power nee!e!- The operational system where the ,oiler pro+i!es only the reEuire! amount of steam an! pressure to meet the !eman! without any throttling# is referre! to as Lsli!ing pressure-M $ost steam generators an! tur,ines in com,ine! cycle applications operate in this mo!eor SC an! 1SC# the sli!ing pressure metho! use! in the in!ustry .see Reference '8/ is "nown as Lmo!ifie! sli!ing pressure-M <n this case# a certain amount of pressure throttling is allowe!# to pro+i!e a fast response to loa! changes- One a!+antage of the Lconstant pressureM mo!e of operation is a more ro,ust loa! reser+e capa,ility at part loa!- ollowing a loa! increase !eman!# the throttling or a!missions +al+es open an! the pressures in the tur,ine an! ,oiler ,egin to e+en out- The instantaneous re!uction in pressure in the ,oiler creates a su!!en increase in the steam0 specific +olume within the system an! initiates an imme!iate !ischarge of steam mass towar!s the tur,ine- The a!!itional steam mass pro+i!es an increase in the power output e+en ,efore the firing or the fuel han!ling eEuipment is in operation<t shoul! ,e also emphasi>e! that# ,elow ()G(; percent ,ase loa!# most steam generators operating in sli!ing pressure mo!e are at su,critical con!itions'*

$any SC plants use only constant pressure operation through startup an! the entire loa! rangeContrary to what occurs when sli!ing pressure units are use!# such an arrangement ma"es the startup process more complicate!# e9ten!s the startup times# an! forces the minimum loa! to ,e set higher- : current operational mo!e com,ines constant pressure an! sli!ing pressure ,y maintaining the constant pressure range ,etween 7; percent an! ')) percent loa! an! allowing a sli!ing pressure operation at part loa! ,elow 7; percent- <t shoul! ,e emphasi>e! that any !ecision concerning the mo!e of operation has a significant impact on the ,oiler !esignrom the tur,ine stan!point# !uring constant pressure part0loa! operation# the tur,ine will ha+e power reser+es# !ue to significant throttling or the capa,ility to Euic"ly open a!!itional a!mission +al+es- The sli!ing pressure ,oiler !esigns for 1SC plants can ha+e significantly higher furnace outlet temperatures .approaching '#')) / an! may reEuire special alloys for furnace walls# whereas a constant pressure furnace e9hi,its much lower temperatures- The cost !ifference .see Reference '8/ ,etween the two !esigns can ,e highOn the other han!# selecting sli!ing0pressure operation with lower ,oiler pressures at part loa! impro+es plant heat rate- The AP tur,ine mo!ule efficiency is higher# an! the ,oiler fee! pump power consumption is re!uce!Therefore# it is important to properly e+aluate the ST control system- :n ol!er throttle0control at constant pressure e9hi,its significantly worse efficiency at part loa!- : mo!ern no>>le0control tur,ine# using seEuential a!mission +al+es in constant pressure mo!e# operates at efficiencies o+er the loa! range similar to those of sli!ing pressure !esign- This can ,e achie+e! ,y "eeping se+eral a!mission +al+es fully open an! operating at L+al+e ,est pointsM for selecte! part0loa! con!itionsBecause selecting the operating mo!e entails significant cost implications# owners# EPC contractors# an! manufacturers shoul! i!entify an! select the most appropriate operating control system for the ST un!er the specific power generating contract for the siteCONCL+SIONS %ue to the e+er0increasing costs of natural gas an! other liEui! fuels# the coal0fire! steam cycle has once again ,ecome the technology of choice for new power plants- Operating within the SC an! 1SC steam !omain# the AAB0,ase! net cycle efficiency of these plants coul! reach 8&G8; percentThe !ri+ers ,ehin! the higher efficiency are associate! with higher operating pressures an! temperatures for the main steam as well as the reheat steam- :s in!icate! in the cycle analysis# the influence of the temperature is much more significant than that of the pressure- The effect on the heat rate !ue to a ;) .&(-(7 5C/ increase in the main an! reheat steam temperatures is ') times greater than an increase of *)) psia .&' ,ar/ of the main pressure- <t shoul! ,e emphasi>e!# howe+er# that any rise of the main steam temperature must ,e accompanie! ,y an appropriate increase of the main steam pressure# which is nee!e! to achie+e the optimum steam !ryness con!itions for the FP FSB un!er part0loa! operation con!itions-

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To meet these technical challenges# OE$s# research facilities# an! uni+ersities ha+e em,ar"e! on aggressi+e !e+elopment programs to impro+e the materials use! for tur,ine components an! to apply a!+ance! computeri>e! metho!s to impro+e the aero!ynamic an! mechanical !esign of the steam pathBeyon! the generic eEuipment capa,ilities# the success of any SC an! 1SC pro3ect also !epen!s on the specific site con!itions# fuel constituents# emissions limits# an! owner=s operational constraints- This integration an! optimi>ation effort reEuires an e9perience! an! ,an"a,le EPC contractor# capa,le# among other things# of assessing eEuipment limitations !ue to fuel composition# as well as any high temperature an! pressure effects on the ,alance of plant eEuipment an! operational limitationsREFERENCES '- $a>ias># P-J-# et al- %efining the $aterials <ssues an! Research for 1ltra0Supercritical Steam Tur,ines&- Ret>laff# K-$-# et al- Steam Tur,ines for 1ltra0Supercritical Power Plants# ?ER0*I8;:# ?E Power Systems !ocument*- Bol"er# S-# et al- :9ial Steam Tur,ines with Baria,le Reaction Bla!ing# :!+ances in Tur,ine $aterials# %esign an! $anufacturing- Proceedings of the Fourth International Charles Parson Conference# 'II(# pp- 86G6)# Fon!on# 1K8- Aur!# P- $o!ern Reaction Type APD<P Tur,ine Technology :!+ances an! E9periencesP2R&));0;))7;# :S$E Power &));# Chicago# <F;- Torre# :-# et al- :!+ance! Steam Tur,ine %esign an! $aterials for Coal ire! Power Plant :pplications# Power?en Europe# &));# $ilan# <taly6- %y"as# S-# an! 2- 2ro,lews"i- LNumerical Estimation of Fosses in Steam low Through FP Tur,ine Stages#M Energy-Tech# %ecem,er &));# pp- ';G&)(- StPer# A-# et al- L:ero!ynamic Concept for Bery Farge Steam Tur,ine Fast StagesG?T&));0 67(86#M :S$E Tur,o E9po &));# Reno# NB# June &));7- Fey>ero+ich# L2et Steam Tur,ine for Nuclear Power Plants#M Penwell Pu,lication# No+em,er &));# pp-'6IG'I*I- Ernette# %- LSteam Tur,ine Technology4 The 2ay orwar!#M Power Engineering International# %ecem,er &)))')- Strategic Science O Technology G EPR< Bulletin# $ay &))'''- 2ichtmann# :-# et al- :!+ance! Farge Steam Tur,ines for Saturate! Steam Con!itions'&- Aermeler# J-# - Truc"enmueller# et al- LNew ?eneration of Titanium an! Steel FP Tur,ine Bla!e Path#M Power?en Europe# June# &));# $ilan# <taly'*- Cotton# K-C- E+aluating an! <mpro+ing Steam Tur,ine Performance# Secon! E!ition# 'II7# pp- I)G'))'8- Bitalis# B-P-# et al- LConstant an! Sli!ing Pressure Options for New Supercritical Plants#M Power Magazine# JanuaryD e,ruary &))6# pp- 8)G8(-

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';- Kern# T- $aterial RO% Challenges for ossil ire! Power Plants# COORTEC $eeting !uring Enertec &));# Feip>ig# ?ermany# $arch &));-

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