Chemistry 5070 Complete Notes For O Level

Muhammad Passan nadeem
Lxperlmental Chemlstry
Chemlstry - 3070
Experimental Chemistry
In this topic, you will learn:
Pazard warnlng labels.
Approprlate apparatus for measurement of mass, volume, tlme
and temperature.
1he measurlng unlts for mass, volume, tlme and temperature.
Methods for collectlng gasses.
ldentlflcatlon of Cases.
www.revision-notes.co.cc
Hazard Warning Labels
1o help make the use and handllng of chemlcals safe, all chemlcals have warnlng slgns on thelr labels.
?ou should be famlllar wlth the followlng.
nazard Warn|ng Labe|s
Labe| Descr|pt|on Labe| Descr|pt|on
Wear eye protect|on.
?ou must wear safety
goggles.
I|ammab|e ||qu|ds.
Llqulds whlch lgnlte
on contact wlth
lgnltlon sources.
narmfu| substances.
Pandle wlth care and
avold contact wlth skln.
I|ammab|e gases.
Cases whlch are
compressed
llquefled or
dlssolved under
pressure. Catch flre
very easlly.
1ox|c substances.
very polsonous so do not
smell lt or touch lt wlth
your flngers.
Cx|d|z|ng
substances.
Pelp flre to burn
very flercely.
Corros|ve substances.
keep off the skln,
otherwlse lt wlll ltch and
burn.
Lxp|os|ve
substances.
Substances whlch
react very vlolently
and explode.
I|ammab|e so||ds.
Cases whlch are
combustlble or emlt a
flammable gas when wet.
Catch flre very easlly.
kad|oact|ve
substances.
Substance whlch
glve off harm full
radlatlons: alpha,
beta or gamma rays.
Measurement: Mass, Volume, Time and
Temperature
Mass
Mass of a substance ls the amount of matter lt contalns.
Mass ls measured ln kllograms (kg) and grams (g).
Convers|on of Mass 1000 mg = 1g
1000 g = 1 kg
1000 kg = 1 tone
1here are two maln devlces to measure mass of a substance:
8eam balance
Llectronlc balance
Name |cture Descr|pt|on
8eam ba|ance ln a beam balance, a welght
ls moved along horlzontal
scale untll ls balances the
mass of ob[ect on the scale
pan.
L|ectron|c ba|ance Llectronlc balance ls easy to
use and can measure to
accuracy of 0.001 g very
qulckly.
Volume
volume of a substance ls the amount of space lt occuples.
unlt for measurlng volume ls cublc centlmeters (cm
3
), cublc declmeters (dm
3
), cublc meters (m
3
)
and llter.
Convers|on of vo|umes 1000 cm
3
= 1 dm
3
1 dm
3
= 1 llter
1000 dm
3
= 1 m
3
Following apparatus are used for measuring volumes
8eaker
Measures approxlmate volume
8urette
ls accurate to the nearest 0.1
cm
3
. 1he volume of llquld
requlred ls run off from the
bottom through tap.
volumetrlc flask
Measures flxed volumes of 100
cm
3
, 230 cm
3
, 1 dm
3
Measurlng cyllnder
ls accurate to nearest cm
3
.
8ead off the volume wlth the
eye level at the bottom of the
menlscus.
lpette
Measures flxed volumes of 23
cm
3
, 30 cm
3
, 10 cm
3
very
accurately.
Cas syrlnge
Measures volume of gas and ls
made of glass.
lastlc Syrlnge
Measures small volumes of
llquld.
Time
1lme ls the lnterval between two occurrences.
1lme ls measured uslng stopwatch.
Measurlng unlt for tlme ls second (s).
Most stopwatch measure to accuracy of 0.01 s.
Convers|on of 1|me 60 s = 1 mln
60 mln = 1 h
24 h = 1 day
Temperature
uegree of hotness and coldness ls called temperature.
1he temperature of a llquld or gas can me measured uslng a thermometer.
Measurlng unlt for temperature ls
o
C.
Collection of Gases
1he collectlon of a gas depends on whether the gas ls heavler or llghter than alr, and also lf the
gas ls soluble or lnsoluble ln water.
Peavy gas can be collected by downward de||very.
Llght gas can be collected by upward de||very.
lnsoluble gas can be collected by trapplng the gas above water.
ropert|es of some gases usefu| to dec|de the method of co||ect|on.
Gas Co|or Dens|ty
(compared to a|r)
So|ub|||ty
(|n water)
Ammonla Colorless Llghter Lxtremely soluble
Carbon dloxlde Colorless Peavler Sllghtly soluble
Chlorlne Creen/yellow Much heavler Soluble
Pydrogen Colorless Much llghter lnsoluble
Pydrogen chlorlde Colorless Sllghtly heavler very soluble
Cxygen Colorless About the same Sllghtly soluble
Upward de||very used for gases whlch
are less dense than alr
for example ammonla,
hydrogen.
Downward de||very used for gases whlch
are denser than alr for
example carbon
dloxlde, chlorlne and
hydrogen chlorlde gas.
Identification of Gases
1ests for gases
Gas Co|or and sme|| 1est
Chlorlne ale green, choklng smell 8leaches damp lltmus paper and turns lt red
Pydrogen Colorless, odorless 'ops' wlth a glowlng spllnter
Cxygen Colorless, odorless 8ellghts a glowlng spllnter
Carbon dloxlde Colorless, odorless 1urns llme water mllky
Ammonla Colorless, pungent smell 1urns damp lltmus paper blue
Sulphur dloxlde Colorless, choklng smell 1urns acldlfled potasslum dlchromate(vl) from yellow to green
1he artlculate nature of Matter
Chemlstry - 3070
The Particulate Nature of
Matter
ulfferent states of matter
Movement of partlcles ln sollds, llqulds and gases
Lffects of dlffuslon ln terms of partlcles
klnetlc partlcle theory
lnterconverslon between three states of matter
States of Matter
Matter ls deflned as anythlng that has mass and takes up space.
Lvery substance exlsts ln three dlfferent forms so||d, ||qu|d and gas.
All three states of matter expands (lncrease ln volume) when temperature ls lncreased.
All three states of matter contracts (decrease ln volume) when temperature ls decreased.
ropert|es of Matter
roperty So||ds L|qu|ds Gases
Shape Sollds have deflnlte
shape
Llqulds take the shape of
thelr contalner
Cases take shape of
thelr contalner
Vo|ume Sollds have a flxed
volume
Llqulds have flxed
volume
Cases take on the
volume of thelr
contalner
Compress|b|||ty Sollds are not
compresslble
Llqulds are dlfflcult to
compress
Cases are easlly
compresslble
Dens|ty Sollds have hlgh denslty Llqulds have a medlum
denslty
Cases have a very low
denslty
Lase of f|ow Sollds do not flow Llqulds flow Cases flow
Kinetic Theory
1hls ls a theory about the way partlcles move about ln sollds, llqulds and gases.
roperty So||d L|qu|d Gas
ack|ng between
part|c|es
very close together lurther apart lurthest apart
Arrangement of
part|c|es
Arranged ln regular
rows
not regularly arranged 8andomly arranged
Iorces of
attract|on between
part|c|es
Peld together very
tlghtly
not tlghtly held lree to move
Mot|on of art|c|es vlbratlon about flxed
posltlon
Changlng places Movlng ln all dlrectlons
Speed of mot|on not movlng from thelr
mean posltlon
Movlng about Movlng very fast
D|agrammat|c
representat|on of
the part|c|es |n
each of the
phys|ca| states
When a solld ls heated the partlcles galn energy and vlbrate more strongly, eventually the
partlcles have enough energy to break the forces holdlng the partlcles together and change lnto
llquld.
lf more heat ls supplled, partlcles ln llquld move much more faster, when bolllng polnt ls
reached the partlcles have enough energy to break the forces attractlng them together and thus
change lnto a gas.
Changes of State
1he constant temperature at whlch a pure solld changes lnto a llquld ls called lts me|t|ng po|nt.
1he constant temperature at whlch a pure llquld changes lnto a gas ls called lts bo|||ng po|nt.
Me|t|ng ls the change from solld to llquld.
Lvaporat|on ls the change from llquld to gas at room temperature.
8o|||ng ls the change from llquld to gas at speclflc temperature.
Sub||mat|on ls the dlrect change from solld to gas for example carbon dloxlde l.e. dry lce and
lodlne are subllmes.
So||d|f|cat|on or Ireez|ng ls the change from llquld to solld.
Condensat|on ls the change from gas to llquld.
1he me|t|ng and bo|||ng po|nts of some common chem|ca| substances
Substance State Me|t|ng po|nt]
o
C 8o|||ng po|nt]
o
C
Cxygen Cas -219 -183
nltrogen Cas -210 -196
Lthanol (alcohol) Llquld -117 78
Water Llquld 0 100
Sulphate Solld 113 444
Common salt Solld 801 1463
Copper Solld 1083 2600
Carbon dloxlde gas -78 -78
Heating Curve
1he graph shows the changes ln state when a partlcular solld ls heated:
At A, partlcles are closely packed ln a purely solld state wlth only the ablllty to vlbrate about
flxed posltlon.
At 8, the partlcles have galned sufflclent energy to move further apart, and lt starts changlng
lnto llquld. 1wo states, solld and llquld exlst here.
At C, the partlcles are at purely llquld state galnlng more heat energy and ralslng lts
temperature.
At D, partlcles have galned sufflclent energy to move randomly and separate very far apart. 1he
llquld starts changlng lnto gas. 1wo states llquld and gas exlst here.
At L, the partlcles are ln purely gaseous state galnlng more heat and rlslng ln temperature.
Diffusion
ulffuslon ls natural mlxlng of
partlcle.
lf you drop a drop of lnk ln a glass
of water, you wlll notlce after some
tlme the color of the lnk wlll be
spread evenly ln water. 1hls ls due
to dlffuslon.
lt ls dlffuslon through whlch a smell
travels through kltchen and reaches
your nose ln some other room.
ulffuslon takes place much more
qulckly wlth gases, than wlth llqulds
or sollds.
1he rate of dlffuslon depends upon the molecular mass of the partlcles (slower, lf heavler) and
temperature (faster, lf warmer).
Methods of urlflcatlon
Chemlstry - 3070
Methods of Purification
ulfference between pure substances and mlxtures
1ypes of mlxtures
Lffects of lmpurltles on meltlng and bolllng polnts
Method of purlflcatlon
Methods of testlng purlty of substance
Pure substances and mixtures
A pure substance contalns only one type of substance or atom for example water.
A m|xture ls made of more than one substance or atom for example alr ls mlxture of oxygen,
nltrogen, carbon dloxlde and other gases.
lmpurlty |owers the me|t|ng po|nt and ra|ses the bo|||ng po|nt of any substance.
Types of mixtures
nomogeneous mlxture ls when substances completely mlx to form one phase for example salt
dlssolved ln water forms one phase and ls thus homogeneous.
neterogeneous mlxture ls when substances do not mlx and form more than one phase for
example sand mlxed ln water forms two phases and ls thus heterogeneous.
Important examp|es of d|fferent types of m|xture
1ype of
m|xture
M|xture Descr|pt|on Lxamp|es
nomogeneous
m|xtures
(so|ut|ons)
Solutlons of solld ln llquld 1ransparent solutlon of
solld dlssolved ln llquld
Sea water, sugar ln
water, salt solutlon
Solutlons of two mlsclble llqulds Slngle layer of
transparent llquld
vodka (alcohol and
water)
Solutlons of gas ln llquld 1ransparent solutlon of
gas dlssolved ln llquld
Mlneral and soda
waters, champagne
Mlxture of gas ln gas 1ransparent mlxture of
two or more gases
Alr
Alloy of two solld metals Solld, evenly spread
mlxture of two metals
8rass, 8ronze
neterogeneous
m|xtures
Suspenslon of solld ln llquld Cloudy mlxture of solld
partlcles suspended ln a
llquld
8lver water carrylng
mud and sllt, flour ln
water.
Cel !elly-llke mlxture of
solld and llquld, llquld
trapped ln solld
lrult [elly, agar gel
Lmulslon of two lmmlsclble
llqulds
Cloudy mlxture of tlny
drops of one llquld
suspended ln another
llquld
Skln cream, mllk, salad
dresslng, mayonnalse
Aerosol of elther a llquld or solld
ln gas
Small droplets of llquld,
or partlcles of solld,
dlspersed ln a gas
llolJ lo qos. mlst,
clouds
5ollJ lo qos. smoke
dusty alr
loam of gas ln llquld Many small bubbles of
gas trapped ln llquld
Washlng lather, shavlng
form
Solld foam of gas ln solld Many small bubbles of
gas trapped ln a solld
olystyrene foam, foam
rubber, bread
Methods of Purification
Dissolving, Filtering and Evaporating
lt ls sultable for separatlng two sollds, glven that one solld ls soluble and other ls lnsoluble, ln
certaln solvent. lor example mlxture of salt and sand.
ulssolve the mlxture ln water. Cnly salt wlll be dlssolved.
lllter the solutlon, sand wlll be collected ln fllter paper as resldue. And salt solutlon wlll pass the
fllter paper and collected as flltrate.
Salt solutlon ls heated, water evaporates leavlng behlnd the crystals of salt.
Decanting and Centrifuging
uecantlng means carefully pourlng the
llquld ln another contalner and leavlng
behlnd the undlssolved solld. 1hls method
ls sultable for separatlng suspenslon
(undlssolved solld) for example sand from
water.
ln centrlfuglng test tube ls revolved wlth
help of an electrlc motor, whlch causes
undlssolved solld to settle down. 1he water
ls then poured ln contalner by hand leavlng
behlnd solld ln test tube.
uecantlng
Centrlfuglng
Separating Funnel
1hls technlque ls sultable for two llqulds whlch do not
mlx together l.e. lmmlsclble llquld (for example oll and
water).
1he more dense llquld settles at the bottom whlle the
less dense llquld floats over the surface.
1he more dense llquld ls tapped off wlle less dense
llquld remalns ln the funnel
Sublimation
1hls technlque can be used to two substances, provlded that one
substance subllmes and other does not.
1he mlxture ls placed ln an evaporatlng dlsh wlth a glass funnel lnverted
on lt.
Lvaporatlng dlsh ls heated.
1he substance whlch subllmes wlll stlck wlth the walls of funnel. And
other substance wlll remaln ln the dlsh.
Simple Distillation
used to separate pure llqulds
from a solutlon.
ulstlllatlon flask ls heated and
when the solutlon bolls steam ls
glven off.
Steam travels up the flask and ls
condensed ln condenser, from
where the llquld flows ln the
conlcal flask as d|st|||ate.
After the process only lmpurltles
and left behlnd ln the dlstlllatlon
flask. ure llquld ls collected
from the conlcal flask.
Fractional Distillation
1hls method ls used to separate llqulds
wlth dlfferent bolllng polnts.
lt ls same llke slmple dlstlllatlon whereas
ln lt fractlonatlng column ls used to
separate two llqulds.
lractlonatlng column ls packed wlth glass
beads to provlde larger surface area for
qulck condensatlon.
When bolllng polnt of any llquld ls
reached, lt's vapor rlses, passes through
fractlonatlng column, condensed ln Lleblg
contalner and collected ln conlcal flask.
lf any llquld wlth hlgh bolllng polnt
evaporates lt ls condensed by fractlonatlng
column.
Paper Cbromatograpby
Chromatography ls used to separate
colours, plgments and dyes.
lt can tell whether a solutlon has become
contamlnated.
A drop of concentrated solutlon ls usually
placed on a pencll llne near the bottom
edge of a strlp of chromatography paper.
1he paper ls then dlpped ln the solvent.
1he solvent beglns to move up the paper
by caplllary actlon.
Solvent moves up the paper taklng
dlfferent components along at dlfferent
rates.
1he separatlon of mlxture ls complete.
1he dlstance moved by a partlcular spot ls measured and related to the posltlon of the solvent
front.
=
ln the followlng case 8f value would be:
=
Locat|ng agents are used to separate substances whlch are colorless.
Purity of a Substance
Effect of Impurity on a Substance
lmpurltles lower the meltlng polnt (or freezlng) polnt of a substance.
lmpurltles ralse the bolllng polnt of a substance.
All lmpure substance melts or bolls at a range of temperatures.
Testing tbe Purity of a substance
A pure substance has a flxed and exact me|t|ng (or freezlng) polnt.
A pure substance has a flxed and exact bo|||ng (or condensatlon) polnt.
A pure substance shows only one spot on a chromatogram.
1he Structure of the Atom
Chemlstry - 3070
The Structure of the Atom
1he relatlve charges of proton, electron and neutron.
Structure of an atom conslstlng of proton, electron and neutron
roton number and nucleon number.
lsotopes.
8elatlve atomlc mass of an element.
lntroductlon to erlodlc 1able.
Chemlstry - 3070
Particles Present in an Atom
All element are made of atoms..
Atoms are made up of sub-atomlc partlcles called protons, neutrons and e|ectrons.
roton number of any atom ls always equal to lts number of electrons. 1hat's why the overall
charge of any atom ls 0 l.e. neutral.
art|c|e Symbo| ke|at|ve Mass ke|at|ve charge
roton p 1 +1
Neutron n 1 0
L|ectron e
1
1840
-1
Proton Number and Nucleon Number
1he proton number of an element ls the number of protons ln lts atom.
1he nuc|eon number of an element ls the total number of protons and neutrons ln lts atom.
nucleon number ls consldered the relatlve atomlc mass of any atom.
Conslder Sodlum atom ln the below plcture
We are glven nucleon and roton number. We can deduce that:
number of rotons = 11
number of Llectrons = 11 (same as proton)
number of neutrons = nucleon number - roton number = 23 - 11 = 12
Isotopes
lsotopes are atoms of the same element wlth dlfferent number of neutrons.
lsotopes of dlfferent elements have dlfferent masses.
ulfferent lsotopes have same chemlcal propertles but dlfferent physlcal propertles.
D|fferent Isotopes of nydrogen
Isotope Name Symbol number of
neutrons
number of
protons
number of
electrons
lsotoplc
abundance
nydrogen 0 1 1 99.983
Deuter|um 1 1 1 0.013
1r|t|um 2 1 1 artlflclal
roton number (Z)
nucleon number (A)
S?M8CL
Chemlstry - 3070
Tbe Structure and Arrangement of Particles in an Atom
1he protons and neutrons are held, tlghtly packed together, the center of the atom whlch ls
called the nuc|eus.
1he slze of nucleus ls very small compared to the overall slze of atom.
Llectrons move around the nucleus (llke planets orblt around sun).
1he path of electrons can be referred as she||.
1he shells are numbered from nucleus outward.
1he formula to calculate the maxlmum number of electrons ln a shell ls 2n
2
where n ls the
number of shell.
1he f|rst she|| can hold up to two e|ectrons. 2x(4)
2
= 2
1he second she|| can hold up to e|ght e|ectrons. 2x(2)
2
=8
1he th|rd she|| can hold up to e|ghteen e|ectrons. 2x(3)
2
=18
Llectrons ln the outer most shell of any atom ls called va|ence e|ectron.
Llectronlc conflguratlon of any atom ls the number of electron present ln each cell for example
electronlc conflguratlon of Sodlum (na) ls 2,8,1.
Chemlstry - 3070
Introduction to tbe Periodic Table.
ln erlodlc table elements are arranged ln order of thelr lncreaslng proton number.
vertlcal columns are called groups.
Porlzontal rows are called per|ods.
Croup number lndlcates the no of valence electrons.
erlod number lndlcates the no of electron shells.
Cn left slde of perlodlc table are metals, whlch are elements of 1 - 3 valence electrons.
Cn rlght slde of perlodlc table are non-metals, whlch are elements of 4 - 7 valence electrons
Cn the extreme rlght-hand slde are lnert gases, whlch have 2 or 8 valence electrons.
Llements, Compounds and Mlxtures
Chemlstry - 3070
Elements, Compounds and
Mixtures
Atom and Molecule
ulfference between elements, compounds and mlxtures
Elements and Atoms
An e|ement ls a substance whlch can not be spllt lnto two or more slmpler substances by
chemlcal means.
An atom ls the smallest posslble partlcle of an element that can take part ln chemlcal reactlon.
Llements are made up of atoms.
1here are 92 naturally occurrlng elements.
MA11L8
u8L
Su8S1AnCLS
LLLMLn1S CCMCunuS
Mlx1u8LS
PLMCCLnLCuS PL18CCLnLCuS
46.60
27.80
3.00
3.40
9.00
8.10
Compos|t|on of the earth's crust
Cxygen
Slllcon
lron
Calclum
Cther
Alumlnlum
Molecules and Compounds
A mo|ecu|e ls the smallest partlcle of a compound and ls made up of group of same atoms.
A compound ls a pure substance whlch contalns only one type of molecules made up of
dlfferent atoms chemlcally comblned together.
Mo|ecu|es of e|ements Mo|ecu|es of compound
Mixtures and Compounds
A m|xture ls not a pure substance as lt contalns a mlxture of atoms and/or molecules whlch are
not chemlcally comblned.
lor example Alr ls mlxture of gases, Sea water ls mlxture of dlssolved sollds and water, Alloys
are mlxtures of metals.
A compound ls a pure substance whlch contalns only one type of molecules made up of atoms
chemlcally comblned together.
lor example lf lron (le) and Sulphur (S) are heated lron (ll) sulphlde ls formed.
+
No. M|xture Compound
1 Component substances can be separated by
chemlcal means.
Constltuent elements cannot be separated by
chemlcal means.
2 lts physlcal propertles (color, denslty, etc.)
are an average of those of the substances ln
lt.
lts physlcal propertles are lndlvldual and not the
result of lts elements.
3 normally llttle or no energy ls glven out or
taken ln.
Lnergy ls usually glven out or taken ln when a
compound ls formed.
4 A mlxture's composltlon can vary. A compound's composltlon cannot vary.
S lts chemlcal propertles are result of the
substances ln the mlxture.
lts chemlcal propertles are qulte dlfferent from
those of lts elements.
Cl
Methane gas
CP
4
P
P P
P
C
P
P
Water
P
2
C
n
P
P
P
Ammonla gas
nP
3
Cl Cl
Chlorlne gas
Cl
2
n n
nltrogen gas
n
2
P P
Pydrogen gas
P
2
C C
Cxygen gas
C
2
8ondlng and Structure
Chemlstry - 3070
Bonding and Structure
lonlc 8ondlng
Covalent 8ondlng
Metalllc 8ondlng
Macromolecules
ropertles of lonlc 8ondlng
ropertles of Covalent 8ondlng
ropertles of Metalllc 8ondlng
Bonding
8ond|ng ls the way ln whlch atoms [oln together and comblne wlth one another.
1he arrangement of resultlng partlcle ls called structure.
lt ls only the valency electrons ln the outermost shell whlch become lnvolved ln bondlng.
lt ls alm of every atom to achleve a noble gas structure (l.e. 8 electrons ln outermost shell). lt
makes lt stable.
noble gas do not take part ln chemlcal reactlons as they have 8 electrons ln thelr outermost
shells.
Structure of nob|e Gases
Metallic Bonding
1hls type of bondlng ls only posslble ln metals.
Metals have free electrons ln thelr outermost shell.
When they pack together they loose thelr electrons lnto the sea
of electrons. 1hese electrons are free to move. lt ls because of
these electrons that metals conduct electrlclty.
ropert|es of meta|s keasons for these propert|es
1hey have h|gh dens|t|es. uue to close packlng of atoms on metals.
1hey have h|gh me|t|ng and bo|||ng po|nts. Strong forces of attractlon between atoms cause hlgh
meltlng polnt of metals.
1hey are ma||eab|e and duct||e. When force ls applled to a metal, the atoms can sllp over
one another. 1hls allows the metal to be malleable and
ductlle.
1hey are good therma| conductors. vlbratlon of atoms and outermost electrons helps
transfer of heat energy.
1hey are good e|ectr|ca| conductors. lree outermost electron cause metal to conduct
electrlclty. When a metal ls connected lnto a clrcult the
electrons move towards the posltlve termlnal, and
electrons form the negatlve termlnal flow to the metals
to replace them.
Ionic bonding
lonlc bondlng only occur between a metal and a non-metal.
lonlc bonds are formed when metalllc atoms glve away valence electrons to non-metalllc atoms.
8y glvlng electrons metal becomes posltlvely charged and on other hand by galnlng electron non
metal becomes negatlvely charged.
1hese opposltely charged attracts each other through strong electrostatlc force of attractlon,
formlng the lonlc bond.
Loos|ng e|ectron Ga|n|ng L|ectron
D|agram for keact|on of Sod|um w|th Ch|or|ne to Iorm Sod|um Ch|or|de
ropert|es of typ|ca| |on|c compounds keasons for these propert|es
1hey are crysta|||ne so||ds at room temperature. 1here ls regular arrangement of the lons ln a lattlce.
lons wlth opposlte charge are next to each other.
1hey have h|gh me|t|ng and bo|||ng po|nts. lons are attracted by strong electrostatlc forces
whlch are not easy to break.
1hey are often so|ub|e |n water. Water ls a polar solvent. Charged lons can move
about ln lt.
1hey conduct e|ectr|c|ty when mo|ten or
d|sso|ved |n water.
ln llquld form or solutlon, the lons are free to move.
1hey do not conduct e|ectr|c|ty when so||d. 1he charged lons are bonded together.
Covalent bonding
Covalent bondlng occurs between non-metals.
Llectrons are not transferred but shared ln order to attaln stablllty ln the atoms that are used ln
bondlng.
lf one electron ls shared between each atom then sloqle covoleot booJ ls formed.
lf two electrons are shared between each atom then Jooble covoleot booJ ls formed.
lf three electrons are shared between each atom then ttlple covoleot booJ ls formed.
EyJroqen
Cblorine
0xyqen
Water
Ammonia
Hetbane
ropert|es of s|mp|e cova|ent compounds keasons for these propert|es
1hey are often ||qu|ds or gases at room
temperature.
1hese substances are made of slmple molecules. 1hey
are [olned by covalent bonds.
1hey have |ow me|t|ng and bo|||ng po|nts. lnter-molecular forces of attractlon between are very
weak.
1hey are so|ub|e |n organ|c so|vents such as
ethano| or methy|benzene.
Covalent molecular substances dlssolve ln non-polar
(covalent) solvents.
1hey do not conduct e|ectr|c|ty at a||. 1here are no lons present to carry the charge.
Chemlcal lormulae and Lquatlons
Chemlstry - 3070
Chemical Formulae and
Equations
Chemlcal Symbols
Chemlcal lormulae
valency
8elatlve Molecular Mass (M
r
)
1he ercentage composltlon of Llements ln a Molecule
Lmplrlcal lormula
Chemlcal Lquatlons
lonlc Lquatlons
Chemical Reaction
Chem|ca| react|on ls when two or more elements, compounds or molecules react together to
form somethlng new.
keactants are what start a chemlcal reactlon.
roducts are what are formed at the end of chemlcal reactlon.
Types of reaction
ln decompos|t|on react|on a compound breaks down to form two or more substances.
ln synthes|s react|on a substance ls formed by the comblnatlon of two or more substances.
ln neutra||zat|on react|on acld reacts wlth a base to form salt and water.
ln d|sp|acement react|on lon of less reactlve element ls dlsplaced by the lon of more reactlve
element (of same type).
rec|p|tat|on react|on lnvolves the formatlon of lnsoluble product.
Combust|on react|on of a substance lnvolves lts reactlon wlth oxygen.
kedox react|on lnvolves oxldatlon and reductlon of substances (dlscussed latter).
Chemical Symbols
Lach element ls represented by lts own symbo|.
Symbol may me of one or two letters.
1he flrst letter ls capltal ls second letter ls a small letter.
Name of some e|ements Symbo| Name of some e|ements Symbo|
A|um|num Al Copper Cu
8ar|um 8a Mercury Pg
8oron 8 S||ver Ag
Lead b Go|d Au
2|nc Zn ne||um Pe
Cxygen C Neon ne
nydrogen P otass|um k
N|trogen n 1|n Sn
Iod|ne l Sod|um na
Iron le Ch|or|ne Cl
Chemical Formulae
Chem|ca| formu|a ls the way of expresslng ratlo of comblnlng numbers of atoms or lons.
Va|ency ls the comblnlng power of an atom or lon.
1he valency of flrst element becomes the base of second element and the valency of second
element becomes the base of flrst element.
X Y X Y
1he bases are then further slmpllfled lf requlred.
X Y X Y XY
Some common |ons
Va|ency os|t|ve|y charger |ons Negat|ve|y charged |ons
1 Sodlum
otasslum
Sllver
Copper(l)
Pydrogen
Ammonlum
Chlorlde
8romlde
lodlde
Pydroxlde
nltrate
Pydrogen carbonate
Pydrogen sulphate
2 Lead(ll)
Copper(ll)
Magneslum
Calclum
Zlnc
8arlum
lron(ll)
Mercury (ll)
Ba
Sulphate
Sulphtlte
Carbonate
Cxlde
Sulphlde
3 lron(lll)
Alumlnum
hosphate
RelativeMolecular Mass
8elatlve molecular mass (Mr) of a substance ls the sum of relatlve atomlc mass (Ar) of every
element ln that substance.
Example: Relative Molecular Mass of Sulpburic Acid ( )
8elatlve molecular mass of = (2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x 16)
The Percentage Composition of Elements
in aCompound.
1. Wrlte down the chemlcal formula of the substance.
2. llnd out lts relatlve molecular mass.
3. ulvlde the atomlc mass of the element you want to calculate the percentage composltlon of,
wlth the relatlve molecular mass, and multlply the result wlth 100.
Fxumple: Percentuge Compoxltlon of Sulphurlc AclJ ( )
8elatlve molecular mass of = (2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x 16)
=98
Ar of Pydrogen = 2
of Pydrogen = 100 =2.04%
Ar of Sulphur = 32
of Sulphur = 100 =32.64%
Ar of Cxygen = 64
of Cxygen = 100 =65.31%
Mass of an Element in a Compound
lf we know the percentage of an element ln a compound, then mass of that compound can also
be found by followlng equatlon:
=%
=
Fxumple
Calculate the mass of sodlum ln 10 g of sodlum carbonate crystals( .10 ).
Ar of atoms of sodlum ln .10 = 2 x 32 = 46
Mr of the compound .10 = 286
Mass of sodlum ln 10 g of sodlum carbonate crystals = 10 =1.61
Empirical Formula
1he emplrlcal formula of a compound ls the slmplest formula whlch shows the relatlve numbers
of the atoms of the dlfferent elements present.
Lmplrlcal formula can be determlned once the percentage or mass of each element ln a
compound ls known.
1o the rules for flndlng emplrlcal formula are:
1. ulvlde the percentage or mass of each element by lts relatlve atomlc mass.
2. ulvlde by the smallest number to convert to the slmplest ratlo.
3. 1he number of atoms of the dlfferent elements ls the emplrlcal formula.
Fxumple
Clven that a molecule contalns 88.89 oxygen and 11.11 hydrogen , what ls lts emplrlcal formula?
n C
1 ulvldlng by Ar
11.11
1
=11.11
88.89
16
=5.55
2 Slmplest ratlo
11.11
5.55
=2
5.55
5.55
=1
3 Lmplrlcal formula
Chemical equation
A chemlcal equatlon ls a useful way to summarlzes what has happened ln a chemlcal reactlon.
8eactants are wrltten on the left slde of equatlon whlle products are wrltten after the reactants
preceded by an arrow wlth lts head faclng rlght.
1. Wrlte down equatlon ln words reactants on the left slde, an arrow polntlng towards rlght slde
followed by the products.
+
2. 1hen wrlte down the correct chemlcal formula.
+
3. 8alance the equatlon number of moles before chemlcal formulas of both products and reactants
where necessary. 1hls lnvolves maklng sure that the number of atoms of each element before
and after the reactlon ls the same.
2 + 2
4. llnally add the state symbols ln the equatlon for every reactant and product, after lts chemlcal
formula. Solld ls (s), llquld (l), gas ls (g) and aqueous ls (aq). Aqueous means dlssolved ln water.
2 ( ) + ( ) 2 ( )
Ionic Equation
lf the reactlon ls lnvolvlng reactants ln aqueous state then lonlc equatlon ls wrltten to show
whlch partlcles are actually taklng part ln chemlcal reactlon.
1he lons whlch do not take part ln chemlcal reactlon are called spectator |ons.
1. Wrlte the real chemlcal equatlon flrst.
( )
+
( )

( )
+ ( )
2. 1he chemlcals whlch are ln aqueous state before and after the reactlon are spllt lnto thelr
respectlve lons.
[
( )
] +[
( )
] [
( )
] + ( )
3. 1he lons whlch do not take part ln chemlcal reactlon (l.e. 1he lons whlch are same before and
after chemlcal reactlon) are cut.
[
( )
] +[
( )
] [
( )
] + ( )
4. 1hls leaves us wlth the essentlal lonlc equatlon.
( )
+
( )
( )
Naming chemical Compounds
lf there ls a metal lt ls named flrst.
Compound contalnlng two element have thelr name endlng wlth ...lde, for example sodlum
chlorlde (naCl) and calclum bromlde (Ca8r
2
).
Compound contalnlng oxygen end thelr names wlth ...ate, for example calclum carbonate
(CaCC
3
) and potasslum nltrate (knC
3
).
ln the names of some compounds preflxes are used to descrlbe the number of partlcular atom
ln the compound, for example carbon moooxlde (CC), carbon Jloxlde (CC
2
), sulphur ttloxlde
(SC
3
) and Jlnltrogen tettooxlde (n
2
C
4
).
1he Mole
Chemlstry - 3070
The Mole
What ls Mole?
Moles of Atoms
Moles of Molecules
Moles of Cases
Calculatlng ercentage urlty and ?leld
Wbat is a Mole?
Amole ls deflned as the amount of substance whlch contalns the Avogadro Number of partlcles.
1he Avogadro Number (or Avogadro Constant) ls deflned as the number of atoms ln 12 g of the
carbon-12 lsotope.
1he value of Avogadro Number ls 6.02 x 10
23
.
1he mass of one mo|e of atoms ls lts re|at|ve atom|c mass ln grams. lor example 23 g of sodlum
wlll be one mole of sodlum and thus wlll contaln Avogadro number of sodlum atoms.
1he mass of one mo|e of mo|ecu|es ls lts re|at|ve mo|ecu|ar mass ln grams. lor example 18 g of
water (P
2
C) wlll be one mole and thus wlll contaln Avogadro number of water molecules.
Cne mole of any gas at room temperature and pressure wlll occuples a flxed volume of 24000
cm
3
(24 dm
3
).
Lqual volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contaln the same number of
partlcles.
Example
1 mole of P
2
molecules has mass of 1 x 2 = 32 g
1 mole of C
2
molecules has a mass of 16 x 2 = 32 g
1 mole of CuSC
4
.3P
2
C has mass of 64 + 32 + (16 x 4) + [(1 x 2) + 16] x 3 = 230 g
volume of one mole of C
2
at r.t.p ls 24000 cm
3
.
volume of one mole of Cl
2
3
.
volume of one mole of 8r
2
3
.
24 grams of magneslum would contaln 6.02 x 10
23
magneslum atoms.
36 grams of lron would contaln 6.02 x 10
23
lron atoms.
18 grams of water would contaln 6.02 x 10
23
water molecules.
Calculations witb Moles
=
=
=
=
Llectrochemlstry
Chemlstry - 3070
Electrochemistry
Some electrlcal devlces and clrcult symbols
Conductors and non-conductors
Llectrolytes, Weak-electrolytes and non-electrolytes
Llectrolysls
lactors effectlng electrolysls
lndustrlal appllcatlons of electrolysls
ur y cells
Electrical Devices and Circuit Symbols
Ce|| ls source of electrlclty.
8attery ls a collectlon of cells.
Sw|tch ls used to stop the flow of current.
8u|b ls used to reglster whether current ls flowlng.
Vo|tmeter ls used to measure current.
Ammeter ls used to measure current.
kes|stor ensures that a sultable amount of current ls flowlng.
Var|ab|e res|stor ls reslstor those ratlng can be changed.
L|ectrodes are plates whlch carry electrlclty lnto the llquld.
Cathode ls the electrode connected to the negatlve termlnal of the battery.
Anode ls the electrode connected to the posltlve termlnal of the battery.
Cat|on are posltlvely charged lon that travels to the cathode durlng the electrolysls.
An|on are negatlvely charged lon that travels to the anode durlng the electrolysls.
Llectrlcal uevlce Clrcult Symbol
Ce||
8attery
8u|b
Sw|tch
Ammeter
Vo|tmeter
kes|stor
Var|ab|e res|stor (rheostat)
Conductors and Non-Conductors
Conductors
A conductor ls a substance whlch conducts electrlclty but ls not chemlcally changed durlng the
conductlon.
Conductors have free movlng valence electrons whlch conducts electrlclty.
All metals and graphlte are conductors
Non-conductors
A non-conductor ls a substance whlch does not allow the passage of electrlclty.
non-conductors do not have free valance electrons and thus do not conduct electrlclty.
All non-metals except graphlte are non-conductors.
Electrolytes, Weak-electrolyte and Non-electrolyte
Electrolytes
Llectrolytes are compounds whlch when molten or dlssolved ln water conduct electrlclty.
All aclds, alkalls and salts are electrolytes.
1hey conduct electrlclty by the movement of lons between electrodes.
Weak-electrolyte
Weak aclds and weak alkalls are classlfled as weak-electrolytes.
1hey contaln only few lons.
Non-Electrolyte
non-electrolyte ls a llquld whlch does not allow the passage of electrlclty.
ulstllled water, alcohol, turpentlne, oll, paraffln and other organlc solvents are examples of non-
electrolytes.
Strong e|ectro|ytes Weak e|ectro|ytes Non-e|ectro|ytes
Aqueous sulphurlc acld Llmewater Lthanol
Aqueous nltrlc acld Ammonla solutlon 1etra chloromethane
Aqueous hydrochlorlc acld Aqueous ethanolc acld 1rl chloromethane
Aqueous potasslum hydroxlde Aqueous sulphurous acld ure water
Aqueous sodlum hydroxlde Aqueous carbonlc acld Sugar solutlon
Copper(ll) sulphate solutlon Molten sulphur
Electrolysis
1he process of decomposlng a compound by passage of an electrlc current ls called electrolysls.
When electrlclty ls passed through electrolyte, anlons start movlng towards anode and catlons
towards cathode.
Anlons are usually non-metal lon for example Cl-, 8r- and C
2-
.
Catlons are usually metal lon for example Ag+, Cu
+2
and b
+2
.
When anlon reach anode they lose thelr electron to anode, whlch ls ready to galn electron due
to posltlve charge.
When catlon reach cathode they galn electron from cathode, whlch ls ready to donate electron
due to negatlve charge.
Factors Affecting Electrolysis
Position of ion in reactivity series
More reactlve lon undergoes dlscharge.
Cat|ons An|ons
k
+
na
+
Ca
2+
Mg
2+
Zn
2+
le
2+
b
2+
P
+
Cu
2+
Ag
+
SC
4
2-
nC
3
-
Cl
-
8r
-
l
-
CP
-
Concentration
lf the concentratlon of partlcular lon ls hlgh, then thls can alter the preferentlal dlscharge.
Concentrated lon wlll be dlscharged.
Type of electrode
1ype of electrode used can affect the electrolysls.
Carbon electrodes are lnert electrodes and do not effect electrolysls.
ulfflculty of
dlscharge
decreases
Electrolysis of concentrated Sodium Cbloride solution
Ions present in tbe solution
Anlons present ln solutlon are CP
-
(from water) and
Cl
-
(from salt).
Catlons present ln solutlon are P+ (from water) and
na
+
(from salt).
Reaction
Anode
Chlorlde and hydroxlde lons mlgrate towards anode.
Chlorlde lons are dlscharged as the concentratlon of
chlorlde lon ls hlgher.
2 chlorlde lons lose 2 electrons to form chlorlne gas.
2 2 +
Catbode
Sodlum and hydrogen lon travel towards cathode.
Pydrogen lon ls dlscharged as sodlum ls too hlgh up
ln the reactlvlty serles.
2 hydrogen lons galns 2 electrons to form hydrogen
gas.
2 +2
Electrolysis of dilute sulpburic acid
Ions present in tbe solution
Anlons present ln solutlon are CP
-
(from water) and SC
4
-2
(from acld).
Catlon present ln solutlon ls P+ from both water and acld.
Reaction
Anode
Pydroxlde and sulphate lon mlgrate towards anode.
Pydroxlde lon ls preferentlally dlscharged as lt ls at the bottom of the reactlvlty serles.
Pydroxlde lon loses 1 electron to form oxygengas whlch bubbles out and water whlch stays ln
the solutlon.
4 2 + +4
Catbode
Pydrogen lon ls dlscharged as lt ls only catlon present.
2 hydrogen lons galns 2 electrons to form hydrogen gas.
2 +2
Industrial Applications of Electrolysis
Purification of metals
lmpure copper ls made anode.
ure copper ls made cathode.
Llectrolyte ls acldlfled copper (ll) sulphate.
When electrlclty flows copper dlssolves from lmpure anode and goes lnto solutlon as copper
lons. lmpurltles do not dlssolve, and lnstead fall off the anode as anode s|udge.
At cathode, the copper lons are deposlted as pure copper metal.
At anode
+2
At catbode
+2
Electroplating
Llectroplatlng ls a process of formlng thln protectlve coatlng of a
metal on the surface of another whlch ls llkely to corrode.
Cb[ect to be plated ls made cathode. (Spoon)
Anode ls made of the metal we wlsh to plate wlth. (Sllver Ag)
Llectrolyte ls the solutlon of salt of the metal. (Sllver nltrate
AgnC
3
)
Anode: +2 (Sllver dlssolves from anode)
Cathode: +2 (Sllver deposlts on the ob[ect)
Some common|y L|ectrop|ated Cb[ects
Meta| Cb[ect
2|nc uustblns, buckets
Chrom|um Car bumpers, blcycle handle
bars
S||ver Watches, bracelets
Copper Saucepans
N|cke| Cutlery
Go|d !ewellery, watches
Electrical Cell
A slmple cell ls a devlce that converts chemlcal energy lnto electrlcal energy. Lach slmple cell
conslsts of:
2 electrodes of 2 dlfferent metals
An electrolyte solutlon contalnlng an acld or an aqueous salt
As more reactlve metal tends to undergo oxldatlon more easlly, and naturally becomes the
negatlve termlnal by loslng electrons, whlch then travel vla the external clrcult to other metal
electrode.
1he less reactlve metal becomes the posltlve termlnal, as lt has a weaker tendency to lose
electrons.
1he voltage of the cell depends on the posltlon of the metal ln the reactlvlty serles. 1he far two
metals are ln the reactlvlty serles more ls the voltage.
keact|v|ty
Magnes|um
A|um|num
2|nc
Iron
1|n
Lead
Copper
S||ver
8eactlvlty
decreases
Dry cell
ln dry cell electrolyte ls a paste.
Carbon electrode ls posltlve termlnal.
Zlnc electrode ls negatlve termlnal.
Ammonlum chlorlde ls used as electrolyte.
Chemlcal 8eactlons
Chemlstry - 3070
Chemical Reactions
Lxothermlc reactlons
Lndothermlc reactlons
Lnergy changes lnvolved ln bond maklng
Lnergy changes lnvolved ln bond breaklng
lactors affectlng the speed of reactlons
Catalysts and Lnzymes
ExothermicReactions
Lxothermlc reactlon ls one where energy (heat) ls glven out causlng a temperature rlse ln the
surroundlng.
Maklng chemlcal bonds lnvolves release of energy and ls thus exothermlc.
Cverall energy change ls negatlve( = ).
Actlvatlon energy needed ls low.
Combustlon, 8esplratlon and neutrallzatlon reactlons are exothermlc reactlons.
Endothermic Reaction
Lndothermlc reactlon ls one where energy (heat) ls taken ln causlng a temperature drop ln the
surroundlngs.
8reaklng chemlcal bonds takes ln energy from the surroundlngs and thus ls endothermlc.
Cverall energy change ls posltlve( =+ ).
Actlvatlon energy needed ls hlgh.
1hermal decomposltlon (breaklng of large molecule on heatlng) and dlssolvlng are endothermlc
reactlons.
Rate of Reactions
Measuring tbe rate of reactions
D|rect Method: measurlng the rate of change of mass at dlfferent lntervals.
Ind|rect Method: measurlng the external product glven off for example gas evolved.
Factors affecting tbe rate of reactions
1he surface area of any solld reactants.
1he greater the surface area the faster the rate of reactlon. 1hls means that powdered reactants
wlll react more qulckly than reactants ln ump form.
1he concentrat|on of the reactants.
1he rate of reactlon lncreases when the concentratlon of a reactant ln solutlon ls lncreased. 1hls
ls because at hlgher concentratlon, there ls a greater llkellhood that reactlng molecules wlll
colllde wlth one another wlth sufflclent energy to form partlcles.
1he temperature at whlch the reactlon ls carrled out.
1he rate of reactlon lncreases when the temperature of the reactlon mlxture ls lncreased
(because lncrease ln temperature lncreases the klnetlc energy of molecules thus lncreaslng the
number of effectlve colluslons). 8ate of reactlon doubles wlth every 10
o
C lncrease ln
temperature.
1he use of a cata|yst.
Catalyst lncreases the rate of reactlon by lowerlng the actlvatlon energy needed. Catalyst does
not change at the end of the reactlon thls means that a catalyst can be used over and over
agaln.
1he pressure ln case of gaseous reactlons.
ln gaseous reactlon speed of reactlon lncreases lf pressure ls lncreased, thls ls because at lower
pressure gasses colllde more frequently.
1he ||ght ln some reactlons.
Some reactlon take place faster when they absorb llght for example formatlon of sllver from
sllver salts takes place when a photographlc fllm ls exposed to llght. ln sunllght, green plants are
able to carry on the process of photosynthesls.
Redox Reactions
8edox reactlons are one where oxldatlon and reductlon occur slmultaneously.
Uxidation and Reduction
Uxidation
Caln ln oxygen.
Loss of hydrogen.
Loss of electrons.
lncrease ln oxldatlon number.
Reduction
Loss of oxygen.
Caln ln hydrogen.
Caln ln electrons.
uecrease ln oxldatlon number.
Uxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
Substances whlch helps oxldatlon to take place are called ox|d|z|ng agents (ox|dants).
Substances whlch help reductlon to take place are called reduc|ng agents (reductants).
LossJCain of UxygenJHydrogen
Lxamp|e 1:
Conslder the followlng reactlons ln whlch chlorlne burns ln oxygen to form carbon dloxlde and
steam.
( ) +2 ( ) ( ) +2 ( )
Carbon atoms ln methane galn oxygen to form carbon dloxlde and therefore have been
oxldlzed.
Cxygen from alr has galned hydrogen from methane to form water and thus reduced.
Lxamp|e 2:
Conslder the followlng reactlon:
( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( )
Pydrogen galns oxygen to become water. Pence, hydrogen under goes oxldatlon.
Copper (ll) oxlde loses oxygen to form copper metal. Pence, copper (ll) oxlde ln reduced.
Cbanges in Uxidation State
Lxamp|e 1:
ln the followlng reactlon:
( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( )
le
2+
ls reduced to le as the oxldatlon state decreases from +2 to 0.
Zn ls oxldlzed as lts oxldatlon state ls lncreased from 0 to +2.
Lxamp|e 2:
Reversible reactions
8everslble reactlons are those reactlons whlch can take place ln both dlrectlons.
8everslble reactlons are represented by .
A reverslble reactlon ls ln equlllbrlum when the rates of the forward and reverse reactlons are
equal.
At equlllbrlum, the concentratlons off reactants and products do not change.
lor a reverslble reactlon a catalyst does not alter the equlllbrlum concentratlons of reactants
and products. 8ut lt does lncrease the rate at whlch the equlllbrlum ls reached.
Factors affecting tbe Reversible Reactions
Temperature
If react|on |s exotherm|c, lncrease ln temperature wlll favor the backward reactlon and yleld wlll
decrease.
If react|on |n endotherm|c, lncrease ln temperature wlll favor the forward reactlon and yleld wlll
lncrease.
Pressure
If |ess number of mo|es are form|ng |n forward react|on, then lncrease ln pressure wlll favor the
forward reactlon and yleld wlll lncrease.
If more number of mo|es are form|ng |n the forward react|on, then lncrease ln pressure wlll
favor the backward reactlon and yleld wlll decrease.
Concentration
lorward reactlon wlll be favored, lf the concentratlon of the yleld ls decreased (l.e. yleld ls taken
out of the system).
Tbe Haber Process - making ammonia and its uses
1he reactlon to produce ammonla from nltrogen (from alr) and hydrogen (from cracklng oll) ls
reverslble reactlon.
+3 2
1he reactlon ls exothermlc reactlon.
lron ls used as a catalyst ln thls reactlon.
ln thls reactlon lncrease ln pressure wlll lncrease both the yleld of ammonla (because ln forward
reactlon less number of moles are formed) and the rate of reactlon (because of more number of
effectlve colluslons) so pressure |s kept h|gh at 200 A1M.
ln thls reactlon, lf we ralse the temperature of the system, backward reactlon wlll be favored.
Lowerlng the temperature wlll favor ammonla productlon. Powever at low temperature the
reactlon wlll be very slow whlch ls not economlcal. So 1emperature |s kept opt|mum at 4S0
o
C.
1here are two tests for ammonla gas:
lt turn red lltmus paper blue.
lt produces whlte fumes wlth hydrochlorlde gas.
Uses of ammon|a gas
Manufacture of Iert|||zers Ammonla produced ls converted lnto ammonla compounds
contalnlng large quantlty of nltrogen, whlch are used as
fertlllzers.
Ammonlum suphate (nP
4
)
2
SC
4
Ammonlum nltrate nP
4
nC
3
urea nP
2
CCnP
2
Manufacture of N|tr|c ac|d nltrlc acld ls made by the catalytlc oxldatlon of ammonla
over heated platlnum.
Bond Energies of Some Covalent Bonds
used for determlnlng the nature of reactlon, exothermlc or endothermlc.
8ond energ|es of some cova|ent bonds
Cova|ent bond 8ond energy]kImo|
-1
P-P 436
Cl-Cl 242
C-C 348
C-P 412
C-P 463
Cl-P 431
n-P 338
C=C 496
C=C 743
n-n 943
C=C 838
1he Chemlstry and uses of Aclds, 8ases and Salts
Chemlstry -3070
The Chemistry and uses of
Acids, Bases and Salts
1he character|st|c propert|es of ac|d and bases.
Uses of ac|ds and bases.
Neutra||zat|on and |ts uses.
D|fferent types of ox|des.
reparat|on of sa|ts.
ropert|es and uses of ammon|a.
Su|phur|c ac|d.
2 1he Chem|stry and uses of Ac|ds, 8ases and Sa|ts
Acids
Properties of Acids
Aclds form a class of chemlcal substances whlch contaln hydrogen lons ln aqueous solutlon,
P+ (aq), as the only posltlve lon.
Acld needs water to show lts acldlc propertles. 8ecause hydrogen lons are only formed when
ln aqueous state.
Aclds turn lltmus from blue to red ln color. (lt ls a check of acldlty)
Aclds are electrolytes because ln solutlons, they are lonlc and therefore conduct electrlclty.
lf concentrated they can be corroslve.
Aclds taste sour (for example, vlnegar).
Aclds can be classlfled lnto:

Strong ac|d whlch lonlzes fully ln water for example hydrochlorlc PCl.
Weak ac|d whlch partlally lonlze ln water for example ethanolc acld CP
3
CCCP.
Reaction of Acids
Most dllute aclds react w|th meta|s to from sa|t and hydrogen gas.
( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( )
Aclds react w|th meta| ox|des to form a sa|t and water.
( ) +2 ( ) ( ) ( ) + ( )
Aclds react w|th meta| hydrox|des to form, aga|n, a sa|t and water.
( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( )
Aclds react w|th meta| carbonates to form a sa|t, water and carbon d|ox|de.
( ) +2 ( ) ( ) + ( ) + ( )
ullute hydrochlorlc acld ls ln our stomach whlch helps dlgest our food.
Some common ac|ds
1ype Name Iormu|a Strong or weak
M|nera| Sulphurlc acld
nltrlc acld
Pydrochlorlc acld
Carbonlc acld
Sulphurous acld
hosphorlc acld
P
2
SC
4
PnC
3
PCl
P
2
CC
3
P
2
SC
3
P
3
C
4
Strong
Strong
Strong
Strong
Strong
Strong
Crgan|c Lthanolc acld
Methanolc acld
Lactlc acld
Cltrlc acld
CP
3
CCCP
PCCCP
------------
C
6
P
8
C
7
Weak
Weak
Weak
Weak
Bases
Properties of Bases
8ases form a class of chemlcal substances whlch lnclude all metals oxldes and metal
hydroxldes.
A soluble base ls called an a|ka|| and ln aqueous solutlons lt produces hydroxlde lons (CP-).
Alkalls are always metal hydroxlde oxldes dlssolved ln water.
1hey feel soapy to touch.
1hey taste bltter.
1urn lltmus paper from red to blue.
Reactions of Bases
When an alkall ls added to an acld, lt cancels out the acldlty, water and salts are products.
1hls reactlon ls called neutrallzatlon reactlon.
( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( )
Acldlty of a soll can be lowered by addlng a base called calclum hydroxlde Ca(CP)
2
.
Some common a|ka||s and bases
1ype Common Name Chem|ca| Name Iormu|a
A|ka||s Caustlc soda
Caustlc potash
Ammonla solutlon
Slaked llme
Sodlum hydroxlde
otasslum hydroxlde
Aqueous ammonla
Calclum hydroxlde
naCP
kCP
nP
3
(aq)
Ca(CP)
2
8ases Mllk of magnesla
verdlgrls
8ust
Magneslum oxlde
Copper(ll) oxlde
lron(lll) oxlde
MgC
CuC
le
2
C
3
Neutral Substances
Lltmus paper ls not affected by neutral paper.
1end to be harmless.
Water, salt solutlon are neutral substances.
Indicators and pH scale.
lndlcators are dyes or mlxture of dyes whlch change thelr color when ln acld or alkall.
pP ls a term used to show the strength of an acld or alkall.
1he scale runs from 1 to 14.
Aclds have a pP less than 7, the more acldlc a solutlon, the lower the pP.
Alkalls have a pP greater than 7, the more the alkallne a solutlon, the hlgher the pP.
A neutral substance has pP of 7.
Some common |nd|cator co|or change
Ind|cator Co|or |n ac|d Co|or |n a|ka||
L|tmus
Un|versa|
Methy| orange
Screened methy| orange
heno|phtha|e|n
8ed
8ed
8ed
8ed
Colorless
8lue
vlolet
?ellow
Creen
lnk
Neutralization
lt ls a reactlon ln whlch an acld reacts wlth alkall to form salt and water.
Uses of neutralization
5oi/ 1reotment - lorminq
1he ma[orlty of p|ants grow best at pn 7. lf the soll ls acldlc or alkallne the plant may grow badly.
1herefore, chemlcals can be added to the soll to change lts pP.
lf the soll ls too acldlc - the most common complalnt - lt ls treated wlth a base (chemlcals opposlte to
an acld) ln order to neutrallze lt. Common treatments use qulckllme (calclum oxlde) or chalk (calclum
carbonate).
1he pn va|ues of some common so|ut|ons
Substances pn
nydroch|or|c ac|d - - - - - - - - -
Gastr|c [u|ces - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Lemon [u|ce - - - - - - - - - - - - -
V|negar - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
W|ne - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1omato [u|ce - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8|ack coffee - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ac|d ra|n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ur|ne - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ka|n Water - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
M||k - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ure water - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8|ood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8ak|ng soda so|ut|on - - - - - - -
1oothpaste - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8orax so|ut|on - - - - - - - - - - - -
M||k of Magnes|a - - - - - - - - -
L|mewater - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ammon|a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sod|um hydrox|de - - - - - - - - -
0.0
1.0
2.3
3.0
3.3
4.1
3.0
3.6
6.0
6.3
6.3
7.0
7.4
8.3
9.0
9.2
10.3
11.0
12.0
14.0
lndiqestion
We all have hydroch|or|c ac|d |n our stomach - lt helps breakdown food! Powever, too much acld
leads to lndlgestlon. 1herefore, to cure thls allment we need to neutra||ze the ac|d w|th a base such
as, sodlum hydrogen carbonate (baklng soda), or an lndlgestlon tablet.
lnsect 5tinqs
A bee st|ng conta|ns ac|d. ln order to relleve the palnful symptoms of the stlng we need to
neutrallze the acld. 8y rubblng on ca|am|ne |ot|on (zlnc carbonate) or baklng soda the acld can be
neutrallzed.
Wasp st|ngs are a|ka||ne, hence acld ls needed to neutrallze and remove the palnful stlng. vlnegar
(ethanolc acld) ls used.
Different types Oxides
Metal oxldes are bas|c ox|des whlch dlssolve ln water to form alkalls.
Some non-metalllc oxldes are ac|d|c ox|des whlch dlssolve ln water to form aclds.
Some metal oxldes can behave as bother aclds and bases and so called amphoter|c ox|des.
Some non-metalllc oxldes nelther behaves as aclds nor bases are called neutra| ox|des.
1ypes of ox|des w|th examp|es
1ype Descr|pt|on Name Iormu|a
8as|c Metal oxldes whlch
show baslc propertles
otasslum oxlde
Sodlum oxlde
Calclum oxlde
Ammonla
k
2
C
na
2
C
CaC
nP
3
Ac|d|c non-metal oxldes whlch
dlssolve ln water to
form aclds
Carbon dloxlde
Sulphur uloxlde
hosphorus(v) oxlde
CC
2
SC
2
2
C
3
4
C
10
Amphoter|c Metal oxldes that can
behave as both aclds
and bases
Alumlnum oxlde
Zlnc oxlde
Lead(ll) oxlde
Al
2
C
3
ZnC
bC
Neutra| nonmetal oxldes
whlch have nelther the
propertles of aclds nor
bases
Carbon monoxlde CC
Salts
A salt ls the substance formed when the hydrogen of an acld ls partly or completely replaced
by a metal.
1he patterns of so|ub|||ty for var|ous types of sa|ts
Sa|ts So|ub|e Inso|ub|e
Sod|um sa|ts
otass|um sa|ts
Ammon|um sa|ts
N|trates
Lthanoates
All are soluble
All are soluble
All are soluble
All are soluble
All are soluble
none
none
none
none
none
Ch|or|des
Su|phates
Most are soluble
- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -
Most are soluble
- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -
Sllver chlorlde
Lead(ll) chlorlde
Mercury(ll) chlorlde
- - - - - - - - - -
Calclum sulphate
8arlum sulphate
Lead(ll) sulphate
Carbonates Sodlum carbonate
otasslum carbonate
Ammonlum carbonate
Most are lnsoluble
reparat|on of So|ub|e Sa|ts
1ype Lquat|on Su|tab|e for
Metal and Acld Metal + Acld Salt + Pydrogen 8eactlve metals
Metal Cxlde and Acld Metal oxlde + Acld Salt + Water Metals whlch do not react wlth dllute
aclds requlre heatlng
Metal Pydroxlde and Acld Metal hydroxlde + Acld Salt + Water Soluble metal hydroxldes
Metal Carbonate and Acld Metal + Acld Salt + Water + Carbon
dloxlde
uoes not requlre heatlng
1ltratlon Acld + Alkall Salt + Water Aqueous acld and alkall whlch produces
soluble salt after neutrallzatlon reactlon.
Ident|f|cat|on of cat|ons (pos|t|ve meta| |ons)
Aqueous
cat|on
Add|t|on of d||ute NaCn Add|t|on of d||ute Nn
3
Iew drops Lxcess Iew drops Lxcess
A|um|n|um
A|
3+
(aq)
Whlte preclpltates reclpltate dlssolves
Colorless solutlon
Whlte preclpltates reclpltate lnsoluble
Lead (II)
b
2+
(aq)
Colorless solutlon
Whlte preclpltates reclpltate lnsoluble
2|nc
2n
2+
(aq)
Colorless solutlon
Colorless solutlon
Ca|c|um
Ca
2+
(aq)
Whlte preclpltates reclpltate lnsoluble no reactlon no reactlon
Copper (II)
Cu
2+
(aq)
8lue preclpltates reclpltate lnsoluble 8lue preclpltates reclpltate dlssolves
Iron (II)
Ie
2+
(aq)
Creen preclpltates reclpltate lnsoluble Creen preclpltates reclpltate lnsoluble
Iron (III)
Ie
3+
(aq)
8rown preclpltates reclpltate lnsoluble 8rown preclpltates reclpltate lnsoluble
Ammon|um
Nn
4
+
(aq)
Ammonla gas (nP
3
) ls produced on warmlng
wlth dllute sodlum hydroxlde. 1he gas a
pungent smell and turns damp red lltmus
paper blue.
no reactlon no reactlon
Ident|f|cat|on of an|ons (negat|ve |ons)
Aqueous an|on 1est Cbservat|on
N|trate
NC
3
-
(aq)
Add dllute sodlum hydroxlde
and a llttle alumlnlum powder
Ammonla gas ls produced
Carbonate
CC
3
2-
(aq)
Add dllute hydrochlorlc acld Lffervescence occurs
Ch|or|de
C|
-
(aq)
Add dllute nltrlc acld* and then
sllver nltrate
A whlte preclpltate of sllver
chlorlde ls formed
Iod|de
I
-
(aq)
lead(ll) nltrate solutlon
A yellow preclpltate of lead(ll)
lodlde ls formed
Su|phate
SC
4
2-
(aq)
barlum nltrate solutlon
A whlte preclpltate of barlum
sulphate ls formed
*= nltrlc acld ls added to destroy any carbonate presence
Ammonia and its Uses
1he reactlon to produce ammonla from nltrogen (from alr) and hydrogen (from cracklng oll)
ls reverslble reactlon.
+3 2
1he reactlon ls exothermlc reactlon.
lron ls used as a catalyst ln thls reactlon.
ln thls reactlon lncrease ln pressure wlll lncrease both the yleld of ammonla (because ln
forward reactlon less number of moles are formed) and the rate of reactlon (because of
more number of effectlve colluslons) so pressure |s kept h|gh at 200 A1M.
ln thls reactlon, lf we ralse the temperature of the system, backward reactlon wlll be
favored. Lowerlng the temperature wlll favor ammonla productlon. Powever at low
temperature the reactlon wlll be very slow whlch ls not economlcal. So 1emperature |s kept
opt|mum at 4S0
o
C.
1here are two tests for ammonla gas:
lt turn red lltmus paper blue.
lt produces whlte fumes wlth hydrochlorlde gas.
Uses of ammon|a gas
Manufacture of
Iert|||zers
Ammonla produced ls converted lnto ammonla compounds
contalnlng large quantlty of nltrogen, whlch are used as fertlllzers.
Ammonlum suphate (nP
4
)
2
SC
4
Ammonlum nltrate nP
4
nC
3
urea nP
2
CCnP
2
Manufacture of N|tr|c
ac|d
nltrlc acld ls made by the catalytlc oxldatlon of ammonla over
heated platlnum.
Sulphuric Acid
Sulpbur
Sulphur exlsts as a S
8
molecule ln whlch 8 atoms of sulphur [oln together by covalent bondlng. 1he
lntermolecular forces between sulphur are very weak vander wall's forces. uue to these weak forces
sulphur has a low meltlng and bolllng polnt. 1here are three ma[or sources of sulphur.
Vo|can|c reg|ons
natlve sulphur ls found ln volcanlc reglons.
C|| gas
natural gas and crude oll are contamlnated wlth sulphur
M|nera|s
Some mlneral ores contaln sulphur.
Uxides of Sulpbur
1here are two posslble oxldes of sulphur, called sulphur dloxlde (SC
2
) and sulphur trloxlde (SC
3
).
Sulpbur Dioxide
Sulphur burns ln alr wlth a blue flame, formlng sulphur dloxlde:
( ) + 2( ) ( )
lt ls an acldlc gas wlth a choklng smell.
Sulphur dloxlde has many uses.
Manufacture of sulphurous acld (P
2
SC
3
)
Manufacture of sulphurlc acld (P
2
SC
4
)
used as a preservatlve ( by kllllng bacterla)
used to sterlllze thlngs
used to bleach wood pulp before maklng paper.
Sulpbur trioxide
Sulphur trloxlde ls formed by reactlon between sulphur dloxlde and oxygen.
2 ( ) + 2( ) 2 ( )
Manufacture of Sulpburic acid
1. Sulphur dloxlde ls produced by burnlng sulphur.
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
2. 1he sulphur dloxlde ls purlfled.
3. Sulphur dloxlde ls reacted wlth oxygen over a vanadlum(v) oxlde catalyst.
2 2( ) + 2( ) 2 3( )
1hls reactlon ls exothermlc, whlch means lt favors a low temperature for hlgh yleld of
sulphur dloxlde. Powever lf temperature ls lowered rate of reactlon slows down. Accordlngly
an average temperature of 4S0
o
C |s used. ressure |s kept |ow at 2 A1M.
4. Sulphur trloxlde ls dlssolved ln concentrated sulphurlc acld to form oleum.
( ) + ( ) ( )
3. 1hls oleum ls dlluted wlth water to form sulphurlc acld.
( ) + ( ) 2 ( )
Uses of Sulpburic Acid
Sulphur ls used for the productlon of fertlllzers such as ammonla sulphate, potasslum
sulphate and calclum sulphate, e.t.c.
used for manufacture of non-soapy-detergents.
used for maklng of artlflclal sllks llke rayon.
used as cleanlng metals by removlng surface oxlde coatlng.
used as an electrolyte ln batterles.
1he erlodlc 1able of Llements
Chemlstry - 3070
The Periodic Table of
Elements
Tbe Periodic Table of Elements
ln erlodlc table elements are arranged ln order of thelr lncreaslng proton number.
lt was lnvented ln 1869 be a 8usslan chemlst by the name Mendeleev.
vertlcal columns are called groups.
Porlzontal rows are called per|ods.
Croup number lndlcates the no of valence electrons.
erlod number lndlcates the no of electron shells.
Cn left slde of perlodlc table are metals.
Cn rlght slde of perlodlc table are non-metals.
8etween group 2 and 3 are transltlon metals.
Cn the extreme rlght-hand slde are lnert gases, whlch have 2 or 8 valence electrons.
Metals and Non-Metals: Across a Period
ln a perlodlc table metals and non-metals can be ldentlfled by stalrcase llne. Left to the llne are
metals and rlght are non-metals.
Llements close to stalrcase llne are called Meta||o|ds. 1hey have propertles of both metals and
non-metals. Metallolds beneath the stalrcase llne are poor metals.
Differences between metals and non-metals
Metals Non-Meta|s
Good conductors of heat and electricity oor conductors of heat and electrlclty
Usually solids at room temperature (except Hg) Cften gases (except 8r, S, , l, C, 8 and Sl)
High melting and boiling points (except Group I) Low meltlng and bolllng polnts (except 8, C and Sl)
Often shiny, ductile, malleable and possess great
tensile strength
normally dull, soft and cannot be drawn out lnto
wlres or made lnto flat sheets
Mostly compounds are ionic Mostly compounds are covalent
Oxides are usually basic or amphoteric Cxldes are usually neutral or acldlc
Often form hydrogen gas with dilute acids never form hydrogen gas from aclds
Always form positive ions(cations) Always form negatlve lons (anlons)
Croup I: Alkali Metals
very reactlve metals.
8eactlvlty lncreases as we go down the group (As we go down the group the slze of atom
lncreases wlth the lncrease ln number of shells thus the dlstance of valence electrons from the
nucleus lncreases. 1hls makes easler to lose the valence electron.
unllke other metals Croup l metals are sllvery, soft, have low denslty, meltlng polnt and bolllng
polnt.
Cood thermal and electrlcal conductors.
1hey react very vlolently wlth Cxygen or alr, burnlng and catchlng flre wlth characterlstlc flame
color and formlng whlte oxlde. lor example:
4 + 2
1hat ls why Croup l metals are stored ln oll to prevent reactlon wlth alr or oxygen.
1hese metal oxldes are baslc oxldes (baslc oxldes dlssolve ln water to form alkall).
1hey react very vlgorously wlth water formlng metal hydroxlde and hydrogen gas.
4 +2 2 +
1helr reactlon wlth halogen ls very qulck formlng whlte solld.
+
Properties of Croup I Elements
Element Me|t|ng po|nt]
o
C 8o|||ng po|nt]
o
C Dens|ty]gcm
-3
Lithium 181 1342 0.33
Sodium 98 883 0.97
Potassium 63 760 0.86
Rubidium 39 686 1.33
Caesium 29 669 1.90
Croup VII: Tbe Halogens
very reactlve non-metals.
1helr reactlvlty decreases down the group (thls can be explalned by atomlc slze, whlch lncreases
down the group. lt therefore makes lt more dlfflcult for the nucleus to attract an electron to
form an lon).
1hey all are polsonous and have a slmllar strong smell.
All halogen form slngle negatlve charges when reacted wlth metals. 1hese charged lons are
called ha||des.
1hey exlsts as d|atom|c mo|ecu|es (two atoms comblned together covalently) for example Cl
2
and 8r
2
.
Palogens form lons wlth slngle negatlve charge (l
-
, Cl
-
, 8r
-
and l
-
).
Any halogen above another halogen ln the group wlll dlsplace lt from a solutlon of lts salt
(because reactlvlty of halogens decreases as we go down the Croup).Such reactlons are called
d|sp|acement react|ons.
+2 2 +
Low meltlng polnt and bolllng polnt.
As we go down the group denslty lncreases.
1helr meltlng polnt and bolllng polnt lncreases as we go down the group. 1hls ls because meltlng
polnt and bolllng polnt depends on the lntermolecular forces of attractlon. 1hese forces lncrease
when the slze of molecules lncreases.
Uses of Croup VII Elements
Element Uses
Fluorine revents tooth decay, put lnto tap water and
toothpastes.
Chlorine klll germs and harmful mlcro-organlsms, put ln tap
and pool water.
Iodine very small amount of lodlne ls requlred ln human
bodles. ueflclency cause swelllng ln neck.
Pbysical Properties of Croup VII Elements
Ch|or|ne 8rom|ne Iod|ne
Color ?ellowlsh green 8eddlsh-brown Crey/8lack
State at room
temperature
Cas volatlle llquld Solld
Utber properties Molecules are spaced
far apart and are
movlng at hlgh speeds
Pas low bolllng polnt
(39
o
C) and easlly
change lnto vapors
Subllmes at gentle
heatlng. urple color
when llquld.
Uses Water 1reatment
8leach
estlcldes
hotographlc fllm
Antlseptlcs
hotographlc fllm
Croup U or VIII: Noble Cases
Llghth group ls of noble gases.
1hese gases are lnert l.e. they do not take part ln chemlcal reactlon. 1hls ls because thelr
outermost shell ls complete wlth elght electrons.
1hey exlst as monoatom|c gases (uncomblned atoms) for example Pe, ne, Ar, kr, xe and 8n)
Can be used to provlde lnert atmosphere for example neon and argon ln llght bulbs, hellum ln
balloons, argon ln manufacture of steel.
1hey have very low meltlng and bolllng polnts.
1helr bolllng polnt and meltlng polnt lncreases as we go down the group, the reason behlnd ls
that as we go down the group slze to atom lncreases and so does the vander Wall's force of
attractlon.
Name Symbol B.p. {
o
C] Uses
Helium Pe -269 ln alrshlps, hot gas balloons
Neon ne -246 ln advertlslng llghts
Argon Ar -183 An lnert gas for electrlc bulbs, weldlng and maklng steel
Krypton kr -133 Cas-fllled electronlc devlces and lasers
Xenon xe -109 Llectronlc flash guns
Radon 8n -62 natural radloactlve gas
Transition Metals: Typical Metals
Metals between group 2 and group 3 are called transltlon metals.
1hey are typlcal metals.
1ransltlon metals are not so reactlve.
1ransltlon metals are colored compounds.
Transition metal Color of compound
Copper(II) compounds 8lue
Iron(II) compounds Creen
Iron(III) compounds 8rown
Lead(II) compounds Whlte
Zinc(II) compounds Whlte
1hey have varlable valency (or oxldatlon state). lor example lron(ll) and lron(lll).
1hey are strong and hard metals.
1hey have hlgh meltlng polnts, bolllng polnts and densltles. 1ungsten has meltlng polnt of
3410
o
C and ls used as a fllament ln fllament bulbs.
1hey are good conductors of heat and electrlclty.
1ransltlon metals have catalytlc propertles (they can be used to speed up reactlons).
Industrial Process Transition metal used as catalyst
Contact Process vanadlum(v) oxlde to help the converslon to
sulphur trloxlde
Haber Process lron to make ammonla gas
Margarine manufacture nlckel ln hydrogenatlon of alkene
Transition Metal Properties and Uses
Cbromium Pard, unreactlve and attractlve. used for
Chromlum platlng and ln maklng stalnless steel
Titanium Llght but as strong as steel. used ln alr craft
constructlon
Copper unreactlve and malleable. used ln electrlcal wlres
and water-plplng.
Zinc Crey metal wlth a blue tlngle. used to galvanlze
lron to prevent lt from rustlng.
Nickel Strong metal and reslsts corroslon. used ln staln
less steel.
Manganese Pard metal. used to harden steel.
Tungsten very hlgh meltlng polnt of 3410
o
C. used ln
fllament bulb as fllament.
Metals
Chemlstry - 3070
Metals
osltlon of metals ln erlodlc 1able
ropertles of metals
Lxtremes ln metals
Alloys and composltlon of some common alloys
Metalsin Periodic Table
Metals are found from Croup l to Croup lll of the erlodlc 1able.
Metals between group ll and lll are typlcal metals known as transltlon metals.
Properties of Metals
n|gh Dens|ty
uue to close packlng of atoms on metals.
n|gh Me|t|ng o|nt
Strong forces of attractlon between atoms cause hlgh meltlng polnt of metals.
Ma||eab|e and Duct||e
Malleable means metals can change shape wlthout breaklng.
uuctlle means metals can be made lnto wlres.
When force ls applled to a metal, the atoms can sllp over one another. 1hls allows the metal to
be malleable and ductlle.
1herma| Conduct|v|ty
vlbratlon of atoms and outermost electrons helps transfer of heat energy.
L|ectr|ca| Conduct|v|ty
lree outermost electron cause metal to conduct electrlclty. When a metal ls connected lnto a
clrcult the electrons move towards the posltlve termlnal, and electrons form the negatlve
termlnal flow to the metals to replace them.
Lxtremes |n Meta|s
L|ghtest Llthlum (Ll) has a denslty of 0.33 g cm
-3
neav|est Csmlum (Cs) has a denslty of 22.48 g cm
-3
Most br|tt|e Manganese (Mn) and chromlum (Cr) are most brlttle
Lowest me|t|ng po|nt Mercury (Pg) has meltlng polnt of -38.9 C
n|ghest me|t|ng po|nt 1ungsten (W) has a meltlng polnts of +3410 C
Most expens|ve latlnum (pt) has the greatest commerclal value
karest 8hodlum (8h) ls the rarest natural metal on earth
Most abundant Alumlnum (Al) makes up over 8of the earth's crust
Alloy and its Properties
Alloys are mlxture of dlfferent metals. Some tlmes non-metals
may also be added.
Alloys are harder than pure metals thls ls because larger atoms
stop the layers of other metals from slldlng over each other.
Alloys are less corroslve.
Come common a||oys
A||oy Approx|mate compos|t|on Uses
Steel 99 le, 1 C Shlps, brldges
Cupronlckel 73 Cu, 23 nl Sllver colns
8ronze 90 Cu, 10 Sn Medals, swords, statues
8rass 70 Cu, 30 Zn Crnaments, electrlcal wlrlng and
contacts
Solder 70 b, 30 Sn !olnlng metals
ewter 70 Sn, 30 b urlnklng mugs
Constantan 60 Cu, 40 nl 1hermocouples
Magnallum 70 Al, 30 Mg Alrcraft frames
uuralumln 93 Al, 3 Cu/Mg Constructlon
Amalgams Pg/Sn alloys lllllng ln teeth
The Reactivity Series of Metals
Name Symbo| Deta||
otass|um k 8eactlvlty decreases down as we go down.
Sod|um na
Ca|c|um Ca
Magnes|um Mg
Stablllty of lon decreases as we go down.
A|um|num Al
2|nc Zn
Iron le
Lead b
Copper Cu
Lase of dlscharge decreases as we go
down.
Mercury Pg
S||ver Ag
|at|num t
As more reactlve metals have greater tendencles for oxldatlon thus they lmmedlately convert
lnto thelr respectlve lons. So lt can be concluded that lons formed by more reactlve metal are
more stable and are dlfflcult to dlscharge.
Learnlng ald for reactlvlty serles. llrst letter of followlng statement represent the flrst letter of
the name of element.
lease Send Cats Monkeys And 2ebras In Large Cages Make Sure et-locked.
keact|on of meta|s w|th water
Name of Meta| Meta| w|th water or steam roducts
otasslum 8eact wlth cold water Solutlon of thelr hydroxlde and
hydrogen gas. Sodlum
Calclum
Magneslum 8eact wlth steam Cxldes of these metals and
hydrogen gas. Alumlnum
zlnc
lron
Lead no reactlon wlth water or steam no reactlon.
Copper
Mercury
Sllver
latlnum
lor example:
2 +2 2 +
+ +
keact|on of meta|s w|th ac|d
Name of Meta| Meta| w|th ac|d roducts
otasslum vlolent reactlon wlth dllute acld. Salt and hydrogen gas.
Sodlum
Calclum
Magneslum 8eact wlth dllute aclds wlth
decreaslng ease.
Salt and hydrogen gas.
Alumlnum
zlnc
lron
Lead
Copper 8eact only wlth concentrated
aclds.
Salt and hydrogen gas.
Mercury
Sllver
latlnum
lor example:
2 +2 +
+2 +
Stability of Metal Compounds
1he stab|||ty of meta| compounds
Meta| Cxlde Pydroxlde Carbonate nltrate
otass|um Llectrolytlc
reductlon
Stable to heat Stable to heat uecompose to
nltrate and oxygen Sod|um
Ca|c|um uecompose to
metal oxlde and
steam on heatlng
uecompose to
metal oxlde and
carbon dloxlde gas
on heatlng
uecompose to
metal oxlde,
nltrogen dloxlde
and oxygen on
heatlng
Magnes|um
A|um|num
2|nc 8educed by
heatlng wlth
carbon
Iron
Lead
Copper
Mercury 8educed by
heatlng alone
unstable, do not
exlst
unstable, do not
exlst
uecompose to
metal, oxygen and
nltrogen dloxlde
gas on heatlng
S||ver
|at|num
The Displacement Power of Metals
Any metal above another ln the reactlvlty serles ls capable of dlsplaclng lt for lts oxlde, or from
an aqueous solutlon of lts salt.
Tbermit reaction:
( )
+ +
+2 +2
1hls reactlon needs a magneslum fuse to start the reactlon.
1he reactlon ls extremely exothermlc so the lron produced ls molten.
lt ls used to weld rallway llne.
Displacement from Solutions
Crganlc Chemlstry
Chemlstry - 3070
Organic Chemistry
under rogress
Urganic Cbemistry?
Work under rogress
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Glossary
A
Acid a substance that produces hydrogen lons ln aqueous solutlon, a proton donor.
Acid - base lndlcator a substance that marks the end polnt of an acld - base tltratlon by changlng color.
Acid rain ralnwater wlth an acldlc pP, a result of alr pollutlon by sulfur dloxlde and nltrogen oxldes.
Acidic oxide a covalent oxlde that dlssolves ln water to glve an acldlc solutlon.
Actinide series a group of fourteen elements followlng actlnlum on the perlodlc table, ln whlch the 3f
orbltals are belng fllled.
Activation energy the threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemlcal reactlon.
Air pollution contamlnatlon of the atmosphere, malnly by the gaseous products of transportatlon and
the productlon of electrlclty.
Alcobol an organlc compound ln whlch the hydroxyl group ls a substltuent on a hydrocarbon.
Aldebyde an organlc compound contalnlng the carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen atom.
Alkali metal a Croup 1 metal.
Alkaline eartb metal a Croup 2 metal.
Alkane a saturated hydrocarbon wlth the general formula C
n
P
2n
12.
Alkene an unsaturated hydrocarbon contalnlng a carbon - carbon double bond. 1he general formula ls
C
n
P
2n
.
Alkyne an unsaturated hydrocarbon contalnlng a carbon - carbon trlple bond. 1he general formula ls
C
n
P
2n
22.
Alloy a substance that contalns a mlxture of elements and has metalllc propertles.
Alloy steel a form of steel contalnlng carbon plus metals such as chromlum, cobalt, manganese, and
molybdenum.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Alpba ( ) partlcle a hellum nucleus produced ln radloactlve decay.
Alpba-particle production a common mode of decay for radloactlve nuclldes ln whlch the mass
number changes.
Amine an organlc base derlved from ammonla ln whlch one or more of the hydrogen atoms are
replaced by organlc groups.
-Amino acid an organlc acld ln whlch an amlno group, a hydrogen atom, and an 8 group are
attached to the carbon atom next to the carboxyl group.
Ampere the unlt of measurement for electrlc current, 1 ampere ls equal to 1 coulomb of charge per
second.
Ampboteric substance a substance that can behave elther as an acld or as a base.
Anion a negatlve lon.
Anode ln a galvanlc cell, the electrode at whlch oxldatlon occurs.
Aqueous solution a solutlon ln whlch water ls the dlssolvlng medlum, or solvent.
Aromatic bydrocarbon one of a speclal class of cycllc unsaturated hydrocarbons, the slmplest of
whlch ls benzene.
Arrbenius concept a concept postulatlng that aclds produce hydrogen lons ln aqueous solutlon,
whereas bases produce hydroxlde lons.
Atmospbere the mlxture of gases that surrounds the earth's surface.
Atomthe fundamental unlt of whlch elements are composed.
Atomic mass {weigbt] the welghted average mass of the atoms ln a naturally occurrlng element.
Atomic number the number of protons ln the nucleus of an atom, each element has a unlque atomlc
number.
Atomic radius half the dlstance between the atomlc nuclel ln a molecule conslstlng of ldentlcal atoms.
Atomic solid a solld that contalns atoms at the lattlce polnts.
Aufbau principle a prlnclple statlng that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to bulld up
the elements, electrons are slmllarly added to hydrogen-llke orbltals.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Auto-ionization the transfer of a proton from one molecule to another of the same substance.
Avogadro's lawequal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contaln the same
number of partlcles (atoms or molecules).
Avogadro's number the number of atoms ln exactly 12 grams of pure 12C, equal to 6.02 x 10
23
.
B
Ball-and-stick model a molecular model that dlstorts the slzes of atoms but shows bond relatlonshlps
clearly.
Barometer a devlce for measurlng atmospherlc pressure.
Base a substance that produces hydroxlde lons ln aqueous solutlon, a proton acceptor.
Basic oxide an lonlc oxlde that dlssolves ln water to produce a baslc solutlon.
Battery a group of galvanlc cells connected ln serles.
Beta { ] particle an electron produced ln radloactlve decay.
Beta-particle production a decay process for radloactlve nuclldes ln whlch the mass number remalns
constant and the atomlc number lncreases by one.
1he net effect ls to change a neutron to a proton.
Binary compound a two-element compound.
Binding energy {nuclear] the energy requlred to decompose a nucleus lnto lts component nucleons.
Biocbemistry the study of the chemlstry of llvlng systems.
Biomolecule a molecule that functlons ln malntalnlng and/or reproduclng llfe.
Bond {cbemical bond] the force that holds two atoms together ln a compound.
Bond energy the energy requlred to break a glven chemlcal bond.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Bond lengtb the dlstance between the nuclel of the two atoms that are connected by a bond.
Bonding pair an electron palr found ln the space between two atoms.
Boyle's lawthe volume of a glven sample of gas at constant temperature varles lnversely wlth the
pressure.
Breeder reactor a nuclear reactor ln whlch flsslonable fuel ls produced whlle the reactor runs.
Brensted - Lowry model a model proposlng that an acld ls a proton donor and that a base ls a proton
acceptor.
Buffer capacity the ablllty of a buffered solutlon to absorb protons or hydroxlde lons wlthout a
slgnlflcant change ln pP.
Buffered solution a solutlon that reslsts a change ln lts pP when elther hydroxlde lons or protons are
added.
Buret a devlce for the accurate measurement of the dellvery of a glven volume of llquld.
C
Calorie a unlt of measurement for energy, one calorle ls the quantlty of energy requlred to heat one
gram of water by one Celslus degree.
Calorimetry the sclence of measurlng heat flow.
Carbobydrate a polyhydroxyl ketone or polyhydroxyl aldehyde or a polymer composed of these.
Carbon steel an alloy of lron contalnlng up to about 1.3 carbon.
Carboxyl group the CCCP group ln an organlc acld.
Carboxylic acid an organlc compound contalnlng the carboxyl group.
Catalyst a substance that speeds up a reactlon wlthout belng consumed.
Catbode ln a galvanlc cell, the electrode at whlch reductlon occurs.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Catbode rays the "rays" emanatlng from the negatlve electrode (cathode) ln a partlally evacuated
tube, a stream of electrons.
Catbodic protection the connectlon of an actlve metal, such as magneslum, to steel to protect the
steel from corroslon.
Cation a posltlve lon.
Cell potential {electromotive force] the drlvlng force ln a galvanlc cell that pushes electrons from
the reduclng agent ln one compartment to the oxldlzlng agent ln the other.
Cbain reaction {nuclear] a self-sustalnlng flsslon process caused by the productlon of neutrons that
proceed to spllt other nuclel.
Cbarles's lawthe volume of a glven sample of gas at constant pressure ls dlrectly proportlonal to the
temperature ln kelvlns.
Cbemical cbange the change of substances lnto other substances through a reorganlzatlon of the
atoms, a chemlcal reactlon.
Cbemical equation a representatlon of a chemlcal reactlon showlng the relatlve numbers of reactant
and product molecules.
Cbemical equilibrium a dynamlc reactlon system ln whlch the concentratlons of all reactants and
products remaln constant as a functlon of tlme.
Cbemical formula a representatlon of a molecule ln whlch the symbols for the elements are used to
lndlcate the types of atoms present and subscrlpts are used to show the relatlve numbers of atoms.
Cbemical kinetics the area of chemlstry that concerns reactlon rates.
Cbemical property the ablllty of a substance to change to a dlfferent substance.
Cbemical stoicbiometry the quantltles of materlals consumed and produced ln a chemlcal reactlon.
Colligative property a solutlon property that depends on the number of solute partlcles present.
Collision model a model based on the ldea that molecules must colllde to react, used to account for
the observed characterlstlcs of reactlon rates.
Combustion reaction the vlgorous and exothermlc oxldatlon - reductlon reactlon that takes place
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
between certaln substances (partlcularly organlc compounds) and oxygen.
Complete ionic equation an equatlon that shows as lons all substances that are strong electrolytes.
Compound a substance wlth constant composltlon that can be broken down lnto elements by chemlcal
processes.
Condensation the process by whlch vapor molecules re-form a llquld.
Condensed states of matter llqulds and sollds.
Con|ugate acid the specles formed when a proton ls added to a base.
Con|ugate acid - base pair two specles related to each other by the donatlng and acceptlng of a slngle
proton.
Con|ugate base what remalns of an acld molecule after a proton ls lost.
Continuous spectrum a spectrum that exhlblts all the wavelengths of vlslble llght.
Control rods ln a nuclear reactor, rods composed of substances that absorb neutrons.
1hese rods regulate the power level of the reactor.
Core electron an lnner electron ln an atom, one that ls not ln the outermost (valence) prlnclpal
quantum level.
Corrosion the process by whlch metals are oxldlzed ln the atmosphere.
Covalent bonding a type of bondlng ln whlch atoms share electrons.
Critical mass the mass of flsslonable materlal requlred to produce a self-sustalnlng chaln reactlon.
Critical reaction {nuclear] a reactlon ln whlch exactly one neutron from each flsslon event causes
another flsslon event, thus sustalnlng the chaln reactlon.
Crystalline solid a solld characterlzed by the regular arrangement of lts components.
D
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Dalton's law of partial pressures for a mlxture of gases ln a contalner, the total pressure exerted ls
the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert lf lt were alone.
Denaturation the breaklng down of the three-dlmenslonal structure of a proteln, resultlng ln the loss
of lts functlon.
Density a property of matter representlng the mass per unlt volume.
Deoxyribonucleic acid {DNA] a huge nucleotlde polymer havlng a double-hellcal structure wlth
complementary bases on the two strands.
lts ma[or functlons are proteln synthesls and the storage and transport of genetlc lnformatlon.
Diatomic molecule a molecule composed of two atoms.
Dilution the process of addlng solvent to lower the concentratlon of solute ln a solutlon.
Dipole - dipole attraction the attractlve force resultlng when polar molecules llne up such that the
posltlve and negatlve ends are close to each other.
Dipole moment a property of a molecule whereby the charge dlstrlbutlon can be represented by a
center of posltlve charge and a center of negatlve charge.
Disaccbaride a sugar formed from two monosaccharldes [olned by a glycoslde llnkage.
Distillation a method for separatlng the components of a llquld mlxture that depends on dlfferences ln
the ease of vaporlzatlon of the components.
Double bond a bond ln whlch two atoms share two palrs of electrons.
Dry cell battery a common battery used ln calculators, watches, radlos, and tape players.
E
Electrical conductivity the ablllty to conduct an electrlc current.
Electrocbemistry the study of the lnterchange of chemlcal and electrlcal energy.
Electrolysis a process that lnvolves forclng a current through a cell to cause a nonspontaneous
chemlcal reactlon to occur.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Electrolyte a materlal that dlssolves ln water to glve a solutlon that conducts an electrlc current.
Electrolytic cell a cell that uses electrlcal energy to produce a chemlcal change that would not
otherwlse occur.
Electromagnetic radiation radlant energy that exhlblts wave-llke behavlor and travels through space
at the speed of llght ln a vacuum.
Electron a negatlvely charged partlcle that occuples the space around the nucleus of an atom.
Electronegativity the tendency of an atom ln a molecule to attract shared electrons to ltself.
Element a substance that cannot be decomposed lnto slmpler substances by chemlcal or physlcal
means. lt conslsts of atoms all havlng the same atomlc number.
Empirical formula the slmplest whole-number ratlo of atoms ln a compound.
End point the polnt ln a tltratlon at whlch the lndlcator changes color.
Endotbermic refers to a reactlon ln whlch energy (as heat) flows lnto the system.
Energy the capaclty to do work or to cause the flow of heat.
Entbalpy at constant pressure, the change ln enthalpy equals the energy flow as heat.
Enzyme a large molecule, usually a proteln, that catalyzes blologlcal reactlons.
Equilibrium constant the value obtalned when equlllbrlum concentratlons of the chemlcal specles are
substltuted lnto the equlllbrlum expresslon.
Equilibrium expression the expresslon (from the law of mass actlon) equal to the product of the
product concentratlons dlvlded by the product of the reactant concentratlons, each concentratlon
havlng flrst been ralsed to a power represented by the coefflclent ln the balanced equatlon.
Equilibrium position a partlcular set of equlllbrlum concentratlons.
Equivalence point {stoicbiometric point] the polnt ln a tltratlon when enough tltrant has been
added to react exactly wlth the substance ln solutlon that ls belng tltrated.
Essential elements the elements known to be essentlal to human llfe.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Ester an organlc compound produced by the reactlon between a carboxyllc acld and an alcohol.
Exotbermic refers to a reactlon ln whlch energy (as heat) flows out of the system.
Exponential notation expresses a number ln the form n 3 10M, a convenlent method for representlng
a very large or very small number and for easlly lndlcatlng the number of slgnlflcant flgures.
F
Fat {glyceride] an ester composed of glycerol and fatty aclds.
Fatty acid a long-chaln carboxyllc acld.
Filtration a method for separatlng the components of a mlxture contalnlng a solld and a llquld.
First law of tbermodynamics a law statlng that the energy of the unlverse ls constant.
Fission the process of uslng a neutron to spllt a heavy nucleus lnto two nuclel wlth smaller mass
numbers.
Fossil fuel a fuel that conslsts of carbon-based molecules derlved from decomposltlon of once-llvlng
organlsms, coal, petroleum, or natural gas.
Frequency the number of waves (cycles) per second that pass a glven polnt ln space.
Fuel cell a galvanlc cell for whlch the reactants are contlnuously supplled.
Functional group an atom or group of atoms ln hydrocarbon derlvatlves that contalns elements ln
addltlon to carbon and hydrogen.
Fusion the process of comblnlng two llght nuclel to form a heavler, more stable nucleus.
C
Calvanic cell a devlce ln whlch chemlcal energy from a spontaneous oxldatlon - reductlon reactlon ls
changed to electrlcal energy that can be used to do work.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Calvanizing a process ln whlch steel ls coated wlth zlnc to prevent corroslon.
Camma { ] ray a hlgh-energy photon produced ln radloactlve decay.
Cas one of the three states of matter, has nelther flxed shape nor flxed volume.
Ceiger - Mller counter {Ceiger counter] an lnstrument that measures the rate of radloactlve decay
by reglsterlng the lons and electrons produced as a radloactlve partlcle passes through a gas-fllled
chamber.
Cene a glven segment of the unA molecule that contalns the code for a speclflc proteln.
Creenbouse effect a warmlng effect exerted by certaln molecules ln the earth's atmosphere
(partlcularly carbon dloxlde and water).
Cround state the lowest posslble energy state of an atom or molecule.
Croup {of tbe periodic table] a vertlcal column of elements havlng the same valence electron
conflguratlon and slmllar chemlcal propertles.
H
Haber process the manufacture of ammonla from nltrogen and hydrogen, carrled out at hlgh pressure
and hlgh temperature wlth the ald of a catalyst.
Half-life {of a radioactive sample] the tlme requlred for the number of nuclldes ln a radloactlve
sample to reach half the orlglnal number of nuclldes.
Half-reactions the two parts of an oxldatlon - reductlon reactlon, one representlng oxldatlon, the
other reductlon.
Halogen a Croup 7 element.
Hard water water from natural sources that contalns relatlvely large concentratlons of calclum and
magneslum lons.
Heat energy transferred between two ob[ects because of a temperature dlfference between them.
HeatingJcooling curve a plot of temperature versus tlme for a substance, where energy ls added at a
constant rate.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Heisenberg uncertainty principle a prlnclple statlng that there ls a fundamental llmltatlon to how
preclsely we can know both the posltlon and the momentum of a partlcle at a glven tlme.
Herbicide a pestlclde applled to klll weeds.
Heterogeneous equilibrium an equlllbrlum lnvolvlng reactants and/or products ln more than one
state.
Heterogeneous mixture a mlxture that has dlfferent propertles ln dlfferent reglons of the mlxture.
Heterogeneous reaction reactlon lnvolvlng reactants ln dlfferent phases.
Homogeneous equilibrium an equlllbrlum system ln whlch all reactants and products are ln the same
state.
Homogeneous mixture a mlxture that ls the same throughout, a solutlon.
Homogeneous reaction reactlon lnvolvlng reactants ln only one phase.
Hydration the lnteractlon between solute partlcles and water molecules.
Hydrocarbon a compound of carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrocarbon derivative an organlc molecule that contalns one or more elements ln addltlon to
carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrogen bonding unusually strong dlpole - dlpole attractlons that occur among molecules ln whlch
hydrogen ls bonded to a hlghly electronegatlve atom.
Hydronium ion the P3C1 lon, a hydrated proton.
Hypotbesis one or more assumptlons put forth to explaln observed phenomena.
I
Ideal gas a hypothetlcal gas that exactly obeys the ldeal gas law.
A real gas approaches ldeal behavlor at hlgh temperature and/or low pressure.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Ideal gas lawan equatlon relatlng the propertles of an ldeal gas, expressed as v 3 n81, where 3
pressure, v 3 volume, n 3 moles of the gas, 8 3 the unlversal gas constant, and 1 3 temperature on the
kelvln scale.
1hls equatlon expresses behavlor closely approached by real gases at hlgh temperature and/or low
pressure.
Indicator a chemlcal that changes color and ls used to mark the end polnt of a tltratlon.
Intermolecular forces relatlvely weak lnteractlons that occur between molecules.
Internal energy the sum of the klnetlc and potentlal energles of all components of an ob[ect.
Intramolecular forces lnteractlons that occur wlthln a glven molecule.
Ion an atom or a group of atoms that has a net posltlve or negatlve charge.
Ion-product constant {Kw] the equlllbrlum constant for the auto-lonlzatlon of water, kw 3
[P1][CP2]. At 23 C, kw equals 1.0 3 10214.
Ionic bonding the attractlon between opposltely charged lons.
Ionic compound a compound that results when a metal reacts wlth a nonmetal to form catlons and
anlons.
Ionic solid a solld contalnlng catlons and anlons that dlssolves ln water to glve a solutlon contalnlng the
separated lons, whlch are moblle and thus free to conduct an electrlc current.
Ionization energy the quantlty of energy requlred to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or lon.
Isomers specles that have the same chemlcal formula but dlfferent propertles.
Isotopes atoms of the same element (the same number of protons) that have dlfferent numbers of
neutrons.
1hey have ldentlcal atomlc numbers but dlfferent mass numbers.
)
)oule a unlt of measurement for energy, 1 calorle 3 4.184 [oules.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
K
Ketone an organlc compound contalnlng the carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms.
Kinetic energy 112mv22 energy due to the motlon of an ob[ect, dependent on the mass of the ob[ect
and the square of lts veloclty.
Kinetic molecular tbeory a model that assumes that an ldeal gas ls composed of tlny partlcles
(molecules) ln constant motlon.
L
Lantbanide series a group of fourteen elements followlng lanthanum on the perlodlc table, ln whlch
the 4f orbltals are belng fllled.
Lattice a three-dlmenslonal system of polnts deslgnatlng the posltlons of the centers of the
components of a solld (atoms, lons, or molecules).
Law of cbemical equilibrium a general descrlptlon of the equlllbrlum condltlon, lt deflnes the
equlllbrlum expresslon.
Law of conservation of energy energy can be converted from one form to another but can be nelther
created nor destroyed.
Law of conservation of mass mass ls nelther created nor destroyed.
Law of constant composition a glven compound always contalns elements ln exactly the same
proportlon by mass.
Law of mass action {also called tbe law of cbemical equilibrium] a general descrlptlon of the
equlllbrlum condltlon, lt deflnes the equlllbrlum expresslon.
Law of multiple proportions a law statlng that when two elements form a serles of compounds, the
ratlos of the masses of the second element that comblne wlth one gram of the flrst element can always
be reduced to small whole numbers.
Lead storage battery a battery (used ln cars) ln whlch the anode ls lead, the cathode ls lead coated
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
wlth lead dloxlde, and the electrolyte ls a sulfurlc acld solutlon.
Le Cbtelier's principle lf a change ls lmposed on a system at equlllbrlum, the posltlon of the
equlllbrlum wlll shlft ln a dlrectlon that tends to reduce the effect of that change.
Lewis structure a dlagram of a molecule showlng how the valence electrons are arranged among the
atoms ln the molecule.
Limiting reactant {limiting reagent] the reactant that ls completely consumed when a reactlon ls
run to completlon.
Line spectrum a spectrum showlng only certaln dlscrete wavelengths.
Linear accelerator a type of partlcle accelerator ln whlch a changlng electrlcal fleld ls used to
accelerate a beam of charged partlcles along a llnear path.
Lipids water-lnsoluble substances that can be extracted from cells by nonpolar organlc solvents.
Liquid one of the three states of matter, has a flxed volume but takes the shape of lts contalner.
London dispersion forces the relatlvely weak forces, whlch exlst among noble gas atoms and
nonpolar molecules, that lnvolve an accldental dlpole that lnduces a momentary dlpole ln a nelghbor.
Lone pair an electron palr that ls locallzed on a glven atom, an electron palr not lnvolved ln bondlng.
M
Main-group {representative] elements elements ln the groups labeled 1,2,3,4,3,6,7, and 8 on the
perlodlc table.
1he group number glves the sum of the valence s and p electrons.
Mass the quantlty of matter ln an ob[ect.
Mass number the total number of protons and neutrons ln the atomlc nucleus of an atom.
Mass percent the percent by mass of a component of a mlxture or of a glven element ln a compound.
Matter the materlal of the unlverse.
Metal an element that glves up electrons relatlvely easlly and ls typlcally lustrous, malleable, and a good
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
conductor of heat and electrlclty.
Metalloid an element that has both metalllc and nonmetalllc propertles.
Metallurgy the process of separatlng a metal from lts ore and preparlng lt for use.
Millimeters of mercury {mm Hg] a unlt of measurement for pressure, also called a torr, 760 mm Pg
3 760 torr 3 101,323 a 3 1 standard atmosphere.
Mixture a materlal of varlable composltlon that contalns two or more substances.
Model {tbeory] a set of assumptlons put forth to explaln the observed behavlor of matter.
1he models of chemlstry usually lnvolve assumptlons about the behavlor of lndlvldual atoms or
molecules.
Moderator a substance used ln a nuclear reactor to slow down the neutrons.
Molar beat of fusion the energy requlred to melt 1 mol of a solld.
Molar beat of vaporization the energy requlred to vaporlze 1 mol of a llquld.
Molar mass the mass ln grams of one mole of a compound.
Molar volume the volume of one mole of an ldeal gas, equal to 22.
42 llters at standard temperature and pressure.
Molarity moles of solute per volume of solutlon ln llters.
Mole {mol] the number equal to the number of carbon atoms ln exactly 12 grams of pure 12C:
Avogadro's number. Cne mole represents 6.02 x 10
23
unlts.
Mole ratio {stoicbiometry] the ratlo of moles of one substance to moles of another substance ln a
balanced chemlcal equatlon.
Molecular equation an equatlon representlng a reactlon ln solutlon and showlng the reactants and
products ln undlssoclated form, whether they are strong or weak electrolytes.
Molecular formula the exact formula of a molecule, glvlng the types of atoms and the number of each
type.
Molecular solid a solld composed of small molecules.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Molecular structure the three-dlmenslonal arrangement of atoms ln a molecule.
Molecular weigbt {molar mass] the mass ln grams of one mole of a substance.
Molecule a bonded collectlon of two or more atoms of the same element or dlfferent elements.
Monoprotic acid an acld wlth one acldlc proton.
N
Natural gas conslsts of mostly methane and ls assoclated wlth petroleum deposlts.
Natural lawa statement that expresses generally observed behavlor.
Net ionic equation an equatlon for a reactlon ln solutlon, representlng strong electrolytes as lons and
showlng only those components that are dlrectly lnvolved ln the chemlcal change.
Network solid an atomlc solld contalnlng strong dlrectlonal covalent bonds.
Neutralization reaction an acld - base reactlon.
Neutron a partlcle ln the atomlc nucleus wlth a mass approxlmately equal to that of the proton but
wlth no charge.
Noble gas a Croup 8 element.
Nonelectrolyte a substance that, when dlssolved ln water, glves a nonconductlng solutlon.
Nonmetal an element that does not exhlblt metalllc characterlstlcs.
Chemlcally, a typlcal nonmetal accepts electrons from a metal.
Normal boiling point the temperature at whlch the vapor pressure of a llquld ls exactly one
atmosphere, the bolllng temperature under one atmosphere of pressure.
Normal meltingJfreezing point the meltlng/freezlng polnt of a solld at a total pressure of one
atmosphere.
Normality the number of equlvalents of a substance dlssolved ln a llter of solutlon.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Nuclear atom the modern concept of the atom as havlng a dense center of posltlve charge (the
nucleus) and electrons movlng around the outslde.
Nuclear transformation the change of one element lnto another.
Nucleon a partlcle ln an atomlc nucleus, elther a neutron or a proton.
Nucleus the small, dense center of posltlve charge ln an atom.
Nuclide the general term applled to each unlque atom, represented by AZx, where x ls the symbol for a
partlcular element.
U
Uctet rule the observatlon that atoms of nonmetals form the most stable molecules when they are
surrounded by elght electrons (to flll thelr valence orbltals).
Urbital a representatlon of the space occupled by an eletron ln an atom, the probablllty dlstrlbutlon for
the electron.
Urganic acid an acld wlth a carbon-atom backbone and a carboxyl group.
Urganic cbemistry the study of carbon-contalnlng compounds (typlcally contalnlng chalns of carbon
atoms) and thelr propertles.
Uxidation an lncrease ln oxldatlon state (a loss of electrons).
Uxidation - reduction {redox] reactlon a reactlon ln whlch one or more electrons are transferred.
Uxidation states a concept that provldes a way to keep track of electrons ln oxldatlon - reductlon
reactlons accordlng to certaln rules.
Uxidizing agent {electron acceptor] a reactant that accepts electrons from another reactant.
Uxyacid an acld ln whlch the acldlc proton ls attached to an oxygen atom.
Uzone C3, a form of elemental oxygen much less common than C2 ln the atmosphere near the earth.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
P
Partial pressures the lndependent pressures exerted by dlfferent gases ln a mlxture.
Particle accelerator a devlce used to accelerate nuclear partlcles to very hlgh speeds.
Pascal the Sl unlt of measurement for pressure, equal to one newton per square meter.
Percent yield the actual yleld of a product as a percentage of the theoretlcal yleld.
Periodic table a chart showlng all the elements arranged ln columns ln such a way that all the
elements ln a glven column exhlblt slmllar chemlcal propertles.
Petroleuma thlck, dark llquld composed mostly of hydrocarbon compounds.
pP scale a log scale based on 10 and equal to 2log[P1], a convenlent way to represent solutlon acldlty.
Pbenyl group the benzene molecule mlnus one hydrogen atom.
Pbotocbemical smog alr pollutlon produced by the actlon of llght on oxygen, nltrogen oxldes, and
unburned fuel from auto exhaust to form ozone and other pollutants.
Pboton a "partlcle" of electromagnetlc radlatlon.
Pbysical cbarge a change ln the form of a substance, but not ln lts chemlcal nature, chemlcal bonds
are not broken ln a physlcal change.
Pbysical property a characterlstlc of a substance that can change wlthout the substance becomlng a
dlfferent substance.
Polar covalent bond a covalent bond ln whlch the electrons are not shared equally because one atom
attracts them more strongly than the other.
Polar molecule a molecule that has a permanent dlpole moment.
Polyatomic ion an lon contalnlng a number of atoms.
Polyelectronic atoman atom wlth more than one electron.
Polymer a large, usually chaln-llke molecule bullt from many small molecules (monomers).
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Polymerization a process ln whlch many small molecules (monomers) are [olned together to form a
large molecule.
Polyprotic acid an acld wlth more than one acldlc proton.
lt dlssoclates ln a stepwlse manner, one proton at a tlme.
Positron production a mode of nuclear decay ln whlch a partlcle ls formed that has the same mass as
an electron but opposlte charge.
1he net effect ls to change a proton to a neutron.
Potential energy energy due to posltlon or composltlon.
Precipitation reaction a reactlon ln whlch an lnsoluble substance forms and separates from the
solutlon as a solld.
Precision the degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantlty, the
reproduclblllty of a measurement.
Primary structure {of a protein] the order (sequence) of amlno aclds ln the proteln chaln.
Probability distribution {orbital] a representatlon lndlcatlng the probabllltles of flndlng an electron
at varlous polnts ln space.
Product a substance resultlng from a chemlcal reactlon.
lt ls shown to the rlght of the arrow ln a chemlcal equatlon.
Protein a natural polymer formed by condensatlon reactlons between amlno aclds.
Proton a posltlvely charged partlcle ln an atomlc nucleus.
Pure substance a substance wlth constant composltlon.
Q
No entries for tbis letter
R
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Radioactive decay {radioactivity] the spontaneous decomposltlon of a nucleus to form a dlfferent
nucleus.
Radiocarbon dating {carbon-14 dating] a method for datlng anclent wood or cloth on the basls of
the radloactlve decay of the nucllde 146C.
Radiotracer a radloactlve nucllde, lntroduced lnto an organlsm for dlagnostlc purposes, whose
pathway can be traced by monltorlng lts radloactlvlty.
Random error an error that has an equal probablllty of belng hlgh or low.
Rate of decay the change per unlt tlme ln the number of radloactlve nuclldes ln a sample.
Reactant a startlng substance ln a chemlcal reactlon.
lt appears to the left of the arrow ln a chemlcal equatlon.
Reactor core the part of a nuclear reactor where the flsslon reactlon takes place.
Reducing agent {electron donor] a reactant that donates electrons to another substance, reduclng
the oxldatlon state of one of lts atoms.
Reduction a decrease ln oxldatlon state (a galn of electrons).
Rema unlt of radlatlon dosage that accounts for both the energy of the dose and lts effectlveness ln
causlng blologlcal damage (from roentgen equlvalent for man).
Resonance a condltlon occurrlng when more than one valld Lewls structure can be wrltten for a
partlcular molecule.
1he actual electronlc structure ls represented not by any one of the Lewls structures but by the average
of all of them.
S
Salt an lonlc compound.
Salt bridge a u-tube contalnlng an electrolyte that connects the two compartments of a galvanlc cell,
allow- lng lon flow wlthout extenslve mlxlng of the dlfferent solutlons.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Saturated solution a solutlon that contalns as much solute as can be dlssolved ln that solutlon.
Scientific metbod a process of studylng natural phenomena that lnvolves maklng observatlons,
formlng laws and theorles, and testlng theorles by experlmentatlon.
Scientific notation see Lxponentlal notatlon.
Scintillation counter an lnstrument that measures radloactlve decay by senslng the flashes of llght
that the radlatlon produces ln a detector.
Secondary structure {of a protein] the three-dlmenslonal structure of the proteln chaln (for
example, a-hellx, random coll, or pleated sheet).
SI units lnternatlonal System of unlts based on the metrlc system and on unlts derlved from the metrlc
system.
Sigma { ] bond a covalent bond ln whlch the electron palr ls shared ln an area centered on a llne
runnlng between the atoms.
Significant figures the certaln dlglts and the flrst uncertaln dlglt of a measurement.
Silica the fundamental slllcon-oxygen compound, whlch has the emplrlcal formula SlC2 and forms the
basls of quartz and certaln types of sand.
Silicates salts that contaln metal catlons and polyatomlc slllcon - oxygen anlons that are usually
polymerlc.
Single bond a bond ln whlch two atoms share one palr of electrons.
Solid one of the three states of matter, has a flxed shape and volume.
Solubility the amount of a substance that dlssolves ln a glven volume of solvent or solutlon at a glven
temperature.
Solubility product the constant for the equlllbrlum expresslon representlng the dlssolvlng of an lonlc
solld ln water.
Solute a substance dlssolved ln a solvent to form a solutlon.
Solution a homogeneous mlxture.
Solvent the dlssolvlng medlum ln a solutlon.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Somatic damage radloactlve damage to an organlsm resultlng ln lts slckness or death.
Specific beat anotber name for speclflc heat capaclty.
Specific beat capacity the amount of energy requlred to ralse the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one Celslus degree.
Spectator ions lons present ln solutlon that do not partlclpate dlrectly ln a reactlon.
Standard atmospbere a unlt of measurement for pressure equal to 760 mm Pg or 101, 323 a.
Standard solution a solutlon the concentratlon of whlch ls accurately known.
Standard temperature and pressure {STP] the condltlon 0 C and 1 atmosphere of pressure.
State function a property that ls lndependent of the pathway.
States of matter the three dlfferent forms ln whlch matter can exlst: solld, llquld, and gas.
Stoicbiometric quantities quantltles of reactants mlxed ln exactly the amounts that result ln thelr all
belng used up at the same tlme.
Stoicbiometry of a reaction the relatlve quantltles of reactants and products lnvolved ln the reactlon.
Strong acid an acld that completely dlssoclates (lonlzes) to produce P1 lon and the con[ugate base.
Strong base a metal hydroxlde compound that completely dlssoclates lnto lts lons ln water.
Strong electrolyte a materlal that, when dlssolved ln water, dlssoclates (lonlzes) completely and glves
a solutlon that conducts an electrlc current very efflclently.
Structural formula the representatlon of a molecule ln whlch the relatlve posltlons of the atoms are
shown and the bonds are lndlcated by llnes.
Subcritical reactlon (nuclear) a reactlon ln whlch fewer than one of the neutrons from each flsslon
event causes another flsslon event and the process dles out.
Sublimation the process by whlch a substance goes dlrectly from the solld state to the gaseous state
wlthout passlng through the llquld state.
Substltutlon reactlon (hydrocarbons) a reactlon ln whlch an atom, usually a halogen, replaces a
hydrogen atom ln a hydrocarbon.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Supercooling the process of coollng a llquld to a temperature below lts freezlng polnt wlthout lts
changlng to a solld.
Supercritical reaction {nuclear] a reactlon ln whlch more than one of the neutrons from each flsslon
event causes another flsslon event.
1he process rapldly escalates to a vlolent exploslon.
Superbeating the process of heatlng a llquld to a temperature above lts bolllng polnt wlthout lts
bolllng.
Surroundings everythlng ln the unlverse surroundlng a thermodynamlc system.
System {tbermodynamic] that part of the unlverse on whlch attentlon ls to be focused.
Systematic error an error that always occurs ln the same dlrectlon.
T
Temperature measure of the random motlons (average klnetlc energy) of the components of a
substance.
Tertiary structure {of a protein] the overall shape of a proteln, long and narrow or globular,
malntalned by dlfferent types of lntramolecular lnteractlons.
Tbeoretical yield the maxlmum amount of a glven product that can be formed when the llmltlng
reactant ls completely consumed.
Tbeory {model] a set of assumptlons put forth to explaln some aspect of the observed behavlor of
matter.
Tbermodynamics a study of energy and lts lnteractlons.
Titration a technlque ln whlch one solutlon ls used to analyze another.
Torr anotber name for mllllmeters of mercury (mm Pg).
Trace elements metals present only ln trace amounts ln the human body.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
Transition metals several serles of elements ln whlch lnner orbltals (d or f orbltals) are belng fllled.
Transuranium elements the elements beyond uranlum that are made artlflclally by partlcle
bombardment.
Triple bond a bond ln whlch two atoms share three palrs of electrons.
U
Uncertainty {in measurement] the characterlstlc reflectlng the fact that any measurement lnvolves
estlmates and cannot be exactly reproduced.
Unit factor an equlvalence statement between unlts that ls used for convertlng from one set of unlts to
another.
Universal gas constant the comblned proportlonallty constant ln the ldeal gas law, 0.08206 L atm/k
mol, or 8.314 !/k mol.
Unsaturated solution a solutlon ln whlch more solute can be dlssolved than ls dlssolved already.
V
Valence electrons the electrons ln the outermost occupled prlnclpal quantum level of an atom.
Valence sbell electron pair repulsion {VSEPR] model a model the maln postulate of whlch ls that
the structure around a glven atom ln a molecule ls determlned prlnclpally by the tendency to mlnlmlze
electron-palr repulslons.
Vapor pressure the pressure of the vapor over a llquld at equlllbrlum ln a closed contalner.
Vaporization {evaporation] the change ln state that occurs when a llquld evaporates to form a gas.
Viscosity the reslstance of a llquld to flow.
Volt the unlt of measurement for electrlc potentlal, lt ls deflned as one [oule of work per coulomb of
charge transferred.
Clossary
Chemlstry -3070
W
Wavelengtb the dlstance between two consecutlve peaks or troughs ln a wave.
Weak acid an acld that dlssoclates only to a sllght extent ln aqueous solutlon.
Weak base a base that reacts wlth water to produce hydroxlde lons to only a sllght extent ln aqueous
solutlon.
Weak electrolyte a materlal that, when dlssolved ln water, glves a solutlon that conducts only a small
electrlc current.
Weigbt the force exerted on an ob[ect by gravlty.
Work force actlng over a dlstance.
X
Y
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