A few chapters on Sanskrit Devanagari

from the book :

INTRODUCTION TO THE
DEVANAGARI SCRIPT
BY
H. M. LAMBERT, M.A.Cantab.
Victory to Divine Consciousness

Victory to the Supreme Lord Shiva

 INTRODUCTION
Tne Devanagari Script

The script traditionally referred to as the Devanagari Script

is used in writing Sanskrit and, of the modern, languages of northern

India, Hindi, Marathi and Nepali. The script used in writing Gujarati

is a slightly modified form of the Devanagari script, and the scripts

used in writing Bengali and Panjabi are related to the Devanagari

script, though this relation is apparent in only some of the charact­

ers. The writing system, based on the character representing the syll­

able, is the same for all these languages. However, in order to use

this system for writing the modern languages, which have each develop­

ed in their own particular way from the original Sanskrit, a number

of conventions have become necessary in reading from the script, con­

ventions which vary with the special features of each language. The

realisation of the characters as they are used for writing Hindi,

Bengali, Marathi and Gujarati, and the conventions which have become

established in each language, are described in the various sections

of this work. Though the Bengali script differs considerably from

the Devanagari script in the form of most of the characters, the

study of it is included in this work because the writing system is

the same as the Sanskrit writing system, and the conventions by which
2 I N T R O D U C T I O N

this system is adapted for writing Bengali have much in common with

the conventions used in the other modern languages. An examination

of these conventions makes possible an interesting comparison both

between the writing of these four languages and that of Sanskrit,

and between the writing of the modern languages themselves.

The origin of the name 'Devanagari' is obscure. The shorter

1
form of the name is Nagari'(nagarii), which has been variously inter­

preted. It is thought by some to be tbe name given to the writing of

'tbe people of the city'(nagaram, 'a city'); by others it is said to

derive its name from the Nagar Brahmans of Gujarat.

Notation

The system of roman notation used in this text for transcribing

the Devanagari characters is the All-India Roman Notation^. Three

minor modifications have been introduced in this text in order to

adapt the notation for transcribing both Sanskrit and the modern

languages.

These modifications are :-

i. The use of the vowels i ('short' i) and ii ('long' ii) instead

of the vowels y and i ; and of the vowels u ('short' u )

and uu ('long' uu ) for the vowels w and u .

ii. The use of the letter rrj instead of n for representing the

mark of nasalisation known as the anusvar.

iii.The placing of a micron above the letter y in the diphthong ay ,

and above the letter v in the diphthong av , thus: ay , av .

1. See Preface.
 INTRODUCTION 3

This mark distinguishes the transcription of the diphthongs from

the transcription of combinations of characters which are real­

ised in certain contexts as s-y and 9-v , not distinguishable

in ordinary speech, in the modern languages, from the diphthongs.

Besides these modifications, it is necessary to make certain

additions to the notation in order to represent characters used in

writing the modern, languages but not used in Sanskrit, and certain

modified characters used in Hindi and Bengali. The complete notation

used in the Sanskrit syllabary is this:

Vowels: a a i ii u uu e ay o ov

and r rr 1 11 , for the syllabic consonants.

1
Modifiers : rrj (representing the onusvara) and

h (representing the visarga)

Consonants: k kh g gh n

c ch j jh ji
h
t t* a <i n
t th d dh n

p ph b bh m

y r l v ; J* s s h

\ , used in transcribing Vedic Sanskrit

The additional letters used in the syllabaries of the modern

languages are these:

r and rh for transcribing the modified forms of the characters

representing ^ and cjh , in Hindi and Bengali, and for

1. For the use of this term, see Sanskrit section, Chapter 1.

4 I N T R O D U C T I O N

indicating the intervocallic realisation, in certain words, of

the Gujarati character representing c[ .

q , x , y , z and f , for transcribing certain modified Devanagari

characters used in Hindi in writing Persian and Arabic loanwords,

ts , z and zh , for transcribing characters of the 'palatal' class

in Marathi, when they are realised with alveolar articulation.

In modern spoken Gujarati and modern spoken Bengali, certain

vowel sounds occur which are not separately represented in the script.

For indicating the contexts in which such vowel sounds occur, the

three symbols e , o and se are used.

The sign of nasalisation,'"' , is used in transcribing the modifier

1
representing nasalisation when it is realised, in the modern lang­

uages, as the nasalisation of a vowel and not as a nasal consonant.

This roman notation is used for writing all the Sanskrit grammat­

ical terms referring to the syllabaries of Sanskrit and of the modern

languages, the classification of the characters and the phonetic de­

scription of their realisation. The names of the languages, the

scripts, and grammatical terms, such as 'sandhi'(sandhi), which are

in regular use in English, are written in their conventional English

form.

The Sanskrit syllabary, as arranged by the Sanskrit grammarians,

is given in the roman notation in the Sanskrit section^, and serves

as a standard with which the syllabaries of the modern languages can

be compared.

1. See Sanskrit Section, Chapter 2 , 3 . i . a . anusvara.

2. ibid., Chapter 1.
 I N T R O D U C T I O N «

Callig£^P^Z
The writing of the Devanagari characters should he practised at

first with a reed or bamboo pen. Such pens are still in use in many-

parts of India, and in many schools Indian children are taught first

to write on a large scale with a broadly cut bamboo pen. Writing in

this way will train the eye to recognise easily details of difference

and will train the hand to write a standard form of the characters

with the broad and thin strokes in the right place and proportion.

These pens are cut in the same way as a quill pen, except that the

point is cut to slant in the opposite direction from that of the

quill used for English writing with the tilted axis. The English pen,

when cut for the tilted axis, looks like this from the back:

writing thus:

The pen cut for the Devanagari script looks like this from the back:

writing thus:
The pen should be neld in such a way that the thin line, made by the
cut edge, falls from left to right at an angle of k5 degrees from a
line drawn horizontally across the page. The broad stroke then forms
a right-angle with the thin stroke and crosses the horizontal line of
the page at an angle of i+5 degrees. Care must be taken not to change
the angle of the pen during the writing of curved or rounded strokes,
as this will change the shape and balance of the character.
Some of the typical strokes of the script should be practised
Until good control of the pen, held at the right angle, is establish­
ed before the characters themselves are written. For example.:
6 I N T R O D U C T I O N

The use of the broad, pen should be continued until a good style

of handwriting is formed; the introduction of writing with an

ordinary pen, and without sufficient attention to the details of line

and form, often interferes with the formation of a good hand.

In the illustrations given below, which may be used as writing

exercises, the characters are grouped so as to show different combin­

ations of strokes, and to draw attention to•similarities and to small

but important differences. It will be seen that some of the characters

have an upright stroke, others are curved or rounded, without an up­

right stroke; but all have the head-stroke, though it is not always

written right across the top of the character. The alignment of the

characters is made by this head-stroke, that is, by the top of the

character, though there is an invisible alignment also by the bottom

of the character. For this reason, it is well to practice writing at

first between two lines; if one line is used, the characters should

be written from the line downwards, not on the line.

The general method of writing the characters is this: first,

the characteristic part of the character, usually on the left side of

the upright stroke; then the upright stroke, if there is one; and

finally the head-stroke. The head-stroke binds the whole character

together, as will be seen when vowel signs and other marks are added.

The general direction of making the strokes is from the top downwards,

and from left to right. But the order of the strokes in some charact­

ers, and their direction, differ from this general rule, and where

this is so, the calligraphy of particular characters is illustrated

when these are introduced in the chapters which follow.

 I N T R O D U C T I O N 7

Examples of Devanagari characters, showing the order in which the

strokes are written:

Examples of similarity and difference between characters:

1 0 5
SANSKRIT SECTION
 C H A P T E R 1

ARRANGEMENT OP THE SYLLABARY

When the characters of the Devanagari Script, , are

arranged in the traditional order, they constitute a series of syll­

ables which may be regarded as the basis of the Sanskrit phonological

system. Each character represents a syllable, and is called -*A"ql

(gksorom). The series of characters in the syllabary is called

3"*$HloHl (vornsmala) , and consists of:-

Pourteen vowel characters,

Two modifiers and

Thirtythree consonant characters.

The syllabary used in writing Vedic Sanskrit includes one more con­

sonant character.

In reading aloud from the script, a vowel character is realised

-
as a syllable consisting of a vowel, " ^ T ^ : (svarah) , and a consonant

character is realised as a syllable consisting of an initial conson­

ant, oEn3p=JJT (vyojijonam) followed by the vowel o . This vowel,

when realised with a consonant, is generally referred to in English

textbooks as the 'inherent' vowel. The term 'modifier' is used here

to refer to the two signs which indicate some modification in the

realisation of the character with which they are written. These two

signs are usually referred to individually, as the 'anusyarsh' and

the 'visarggh' , as there is no Sanskrit term which is used to refer

to them together.
12 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

Each character is referred to, for instance, in spelling, as the

syllable which it represents, and the particle (kara); for

example, ^fl^TTT (akara) , ^cf^R(ikara) , c^cfTI? (kakara) , rTorTTT (takara).

The roman syllabary given below corresponds in arrangement and

classification with the Devanagari syllabary. As the consonant

characters are discussed first in this work, the table of consonant

syllables is placed first in this syllabary.

1 2 3 k 5
CONSONANTS with a Velar Palatal Cacum­ Dental Labial
inal
Voiceless

CQ
Unaspirated kg ca .t? ta pa
CD
i> Aspirated kha cha tha tha pha
•H
0s

Unaspirated
¥ da ba
Voiced
1

Aspirated
P

gha jha dha dha bha

Nasal rja jia n 9

na ma

Semi-vowels ys ra la va

Fricatives sa sa

Aspirate ha

Lateral I 9

VOWELS, associated with a a i ii r rr .1 11 u uu

consonant-classes
e ay o av
MODIFIERS Nasal -m Aspirated -h
 A R R A N G E M E N T OF T H E SYLLABARY 13

The character represented "by va in the roman table is usually

realised with labio-dental articulation in reading from a Sanskrit

text. The retroflex lateral consonant T_a occurs only in Vedic

1
Sanskrit. The vowel 'syllabic 11 does not occur in Sanskrit, but the

character representing it is traditionally included in the script

syllabary.

The main feature of the syllabary is the arrangement of the con­

sonant characters in groups according to the position and the manner

of articulation of the sounds which they represent. The following

Sanskrit phonetic terms are used by grammarians in the description of

the characters as they are classified in the syllabary:

i. The consonant characters are placed in three groups: characters

representing syllables with an initial plosive consonant, that is,

a consonant articulated with 'contact', ^-q(spar/ah,'touch')j

characters representing syllables with an initial semi-vowel, that is,

'neither a consonant nor a vowel', "=H«-ri:lF3T (antahstha, 'standing

between'); and characters representing syllables with an initial

fricative consonant, vjo^H*"^ (uusman, 'heat').

ii. The five positions o f articulation are: ct)<«c^( (kanj;hya,'velar')

or t ^ ^ ^ o i t ^ T ( jihvamuuliiya ,' root of the tongue'); cTToToZT

(talavya, 'palatal'); T^j[Z=Zf (muurdhanya,' cacuminal'!) ;

(dontya, 'dental') and 'SHV&O^ (osthya, 'labial'). Labio-dental

articulation is described as cfl ^"U. (dantavs^hya).

1. This term refers to the area of the roof of the mouth with which
contact is made by the tongue. Consonants of this class are also de­
scribed as 'cerebral'. As the retroflexion of the tongue is an import­
ant feature in the pronunciation of consonants of this class in the
modern languages, the class is described as 'retroflex' in the roman
tables of those languages. Cf. Hindi, p. 5 9 .
14 SANSKRIT SECTION

iii. The manner of production of the sounds by which the characters

are realised is described in the following terms, and in each class

of plosive consonants the characters are arranged in this order:

voiceless, unaspirated - -M vf]^ 1

(aghosa ), y(alpaprana ) 2

voiceless, aspirated - SfJ^STfar (aghosa), H^l VI 1^1 (mahapra:na3)

voiced, unaspirated - "^TtWrT (ghosavat^), CM (alpaprana)

voiced, aspirated - ^TtTcr^ (ghosavat) , ^T^TTfW (mahaprana)

nasal - ^ T ^ l l fo^5 (anunasika 5) ,

1. 'without sound', or 'voiceless'.

2. 'with little breath', or 'unaspirated'.
3.' 'with big breath', or 'aspirated'.
h. 'with sound' or 'voiced'.
5. 'nasal'.
 C H A P T E R 2

CHARACTERS OP THE SYLLABARY

The characters of the script are described in this chapter in the

same order as that in which the syllables are placed in the roman

syllabary: Consonant Characters, Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs,

and Modifiers.

The general style of the characters varies from period to period

and from region to region. In the older editions of Sanskrit works

some characters are found that are now supplanted by newer and more

widely used forms; and there is sometimes a marked difference in the

style used in printing books in Bombay, Calcutta and other parts of

India. The most commonly used of the alternative forms of some of

the characters are given below, among the characters of each group.

The calligraphy of any characters which are not written according to

the general order of strokes given in the Introduction is illustrat­

ed when the characters are introduced.

1. Consonant Characters.

The consonant characters of the syllabary represent syllables

consisting of an initial consonant followed by the vowel a . Conson­

ant characters realised with the vowel a are described as ^ c f t K

(akara). If a character is to be realised as the consonant element

only of the syllable, this is shown by writing the mark known as

f^TTPT- (viramah) at the foot of the character. The writing of this

mark with a character is illustrated below, after the first table.

16 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

Characters written with the viramgh are described as ^tyr^rT (hslants),

'ending in a consonant'.

i. Characters of the vorgiiys group ( ofTffcr ) .

The twentyfive characters of this group are arranged, as in the

roman table given above, in five classes, (vergah), representing

the five positions of 'contact', ^Cf^f: (sparJsh), used in the articul­

ation of the plosive consonants. Each class consists of five charact­

ers, arranged in order according to the manner of production of the

consonant of the syllable which they represent.

k9-v9rg9h 35
k9 kh9 gh9
3>
ca-varggh
C9 Ch9 Dh9 J19

-|;9-V9rg9h
t 9 th9 3h9 n 9

t9-varg9h
t9
«r
th9 d9 dhg n9

pg-varggh
P9 ph9 b9
*r
bh9 mo

The Bombay form of the character for jhg is § T > and the forms

35 and 7^ are found in older books printed in Calcutta. The Bombay

 CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 17

form of the character for no is . The Bombay forms of these

characters are used in Hindi writing, but the Hindi forms are not

used in Marathi writing, or in Sanskrit books printed in Bombay.

Calligraphy.

All the characters in the above table are written in the way

described in the introductory notes on calligraphy, except the

1
following three characters: jo \> \r \j| \jf
1
jh9 »- *J *b *R to r c ri rT

The writing of the viramoh to indicate the realisation of a con­

sonant character as a consonant without the vowel a is illustrated

by these characters:

<*5 ^ ^ ^
k- c- t~ t- p-

When writing words, which may be of one or more characters, each

character is written and completed with the head-stroke before the

next character is written. In the reading examples which are given

below, words which are usually written with the modifier known as

fof^'f: (visargeh)^ are written in the form in which they occur in

various contexts without this modifier. The visorgah is written with

reading examples after the modifiers have been discussed. Verbal

roots, in the form in which they are given in grammars and diction­

aries, are included in the examples in order to illustrate the writing

of characters with the viramoh.

1. The first stroke in these characters is written from right to left.

2. See below, under 3. Modifiers, ii.
c
18 SANSKRIT SECTION

Reading examples

1. One character words

2. Two character words

TT5 « R ^ **<5 ^ ^FT TO^T v 3*T
xbti vrfs TfiZ "W ^fcT ^"T ^ TTUT

3. Three character words

TTTT5R ^PTrT xTCPR HSR -<Tc5cfi 3^*1
«TcT5F) cfi-qe 3qv3foR 7Turop5 cf^xf TT^OFI

i+. Four and five character words

"B^rTxr M^^fflT 'TCTT cRSFR SRFR vSFTCR
*T*TH*T "q3^*T eFPTO * W * B * i r R ^ " ^ ^ r p r

2
ii. Characters of the antahstha group ( *5y«rl*.)

^ ^jJJ* Bombay form

ya ra la va la

Calligraphy

la : Hindi form ^ • ^ Bombay form ^ ^ ^ ^7>

These four characters are associated with four of the vargah, as

indicated in the roman syllabary, and with four of the vowels, thus:

T{ , ya, associated with the ca-vargah, and the vowels i and ii

^ , ra, associated with the , and the syllabic r and rr^"

—r k
Cn , la, associated with the ta-vargah, and the syllabic 1 and 11

of > va, associated with the pa-vargah, and the vowels u and uu
1. Transcription of examples is given on p.51.
2 . 'standing between.' 3 . This stroke is written from right to left.
U. See below, under 2 . Vowel Characters.
 CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 19

These characters are all described as olpgprang and ghossvet.

cf , , though associated with the labial class, is. realised with

labio-dental articulation, and described as 3[«-<^| (dantovsthys).

1
Reading examples
1. One character words
c T T T 5f *T rT

2. Two character words

o^cf ^TM cRf v WtT STc5 «TC W TO V

qoT «R c=5^T ^ ^ ^^* N ^5

3. Three character words •

^ c*opJT *T*T^ «TSfc55 ^f5T WW S^TT

£5*13 *P*cT x cT^R cTC*T

h. Words of four or more characters

Z(V(cl^ cTCRTT *RcT*T tT$^*??T SFPTSoWW

iii. Characters of the uusman 2

group (\53"5EpT )

? ^ - f
J9 S9 S9 h9
Calldgraphy

Jg : Hindi form $ $| Bombay form <$ 3l 41 IT

ha : i. ^ |> or ii. 4 ^ f
An older form of is 5j , a form still used in joining this

character to certain other characters. This form is illustrated

later under Conjunct Characters-^.

1 . Transcription- of examples is given on p „ 5 1 o

2. 'heat' 3. See Chapter 3.
2o S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

The first three characters of this group represent syllables

consisting of a fricative consonant with the vowel 9 , and are

described as 9ghos9 and mohaprang. The fourth character is realised

as an aspirate followed by the vowel 9 , and is described as ghosevot

and mehaprar)©. The uusmen characters are associated with the classes

thus: 51 , j"o , with the C9-V9rg9h; , so , with the -[Q-Yorgoh;

, 89 , with the T 9 - v 9 r g 9 h ; and , he , with the ko-vergeh.

The character |T is the last consonant character in the syllab­

ary used in writing classical Sanskrit. In writing Vedic Sanskrit

one more character is used, oS , \B , realised as a retroflex lateral

consonant followed by the vowel 9 .

Calligraphy of 55 : C Or OO 06 55
1
Reading examples

1. One character words

2. Two character words

Tsre s ^sr ^ T^r ^
^7rT N ^Rr PI ^TST 1# ^ ^

3- Three character words

bi^t ^ C T N opre v *pt*t ttrst

^T5T^ n 5R£ ^TOcS H^ST $*5f5 t p ^ -*sth

k» Pour, five and six character words

3"5R*T ^ T ^ H TfSR"^ 5p>^"H s "STTFT^ ^TcTTT^

^Tc^lTH =ToTSr^P*>lT H ^ T ^ R ^ ^TT^T^^T ^*m?T*T

1. Transcription of examples is given on p. 51.

 CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 21

2. Vowel Characters, with corresponding Vowel Signs.

A vowel which constitutes a syllable is written with a vowel

character; a vowel which is part of a syllable with an initial con­

sonant is written with a vowel sign added to a consonant character,

x. Vowel Characters.
There are fourteen vowel characters in the V9rr|9mala:

w 5 4 3 in
o a i ii u uu

Syllabic
%r rr
% K
1 11

e ay o 9v

The character , and the other characters based on the same

form, ^Tf , Wl" and , and the characters ^ » » of and

, have these alternative forms:

<3T 3ff <2*t # S R ^ R ^ ^

o a o 8v r rr 1 11

Both forms of these vowel characters are used in Hindi writing;

only the Bombay forms are used in Marathi writing. An older form of

55ft , o , is »3* .
1
The order of writing the strokes in vowel

characters is illustrated by these examples:

9 M 9
a *> M\ ii t
r *> * 1 C
oy 5 0

1. See below, under 3.Modifiers,i.note c.

22 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

The vowel characters are referred to as "swoftlT > a-kara, smooiT ?

a-kara, J j ^ B T ^ i-kara, and so on. They are related to the five posit­

ions of articulation as shown in the table of the roman syllabary.

The vowel 11 does not occur in Sanskrit words, but the character is

traditionally included in the syllabary for the sake of symmetry.

The first ten vowel characters represent five pairs of 'simple'

vowels, each pair consisting of a character realised as a 'short'

vowel, f^^oT , (hrasva) and a character realised as a 'long' vowel,

7
^t ^ , (diirgha). The remaining four characters represent vowels

which are described as 'compound' or 'conjunct', ^T^rf) > (sarrjyukta-'-).

In the system of modification and combination of vowels known as

'sandhi', ^f^r: , (sandhih), as in the formation of compound words,

derived words, and the joining of final and initial vowels in con­

secutive words in a phrase or sentence, the vowels are grouped thus:

Simple vowels a a i ii u uu r rr 1

TJUT'* (gunah) 9 a e o ar al

(vrddhih) a ay av ar al

2
Examples : ^rpri^ nagaram — 'TI^Tf^oB nagarika
diva

bhuuti

kr
?5
kip op><v^HI kalpana cftio/HpJof) kalpanika

1. See above, Ch.l., and below,3. i. for the modifier represented by rrj.
2. See below, ii, for the vowel signs used in these examples.
 CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 23

Reading examples of words with vowel characters;1

1. One character words

TJ 5 3 W ^ { 35 ^ ) 51 ^ft 3£

2. Words of more than ne character

5\ 3<T ^ ^ ^sr
-STt^
w
3Tc5
i^i
if 3^r
3$^

ii. Vowel Signs

Each of the vowel characters, except , a , has a correspond­

ing vowel sign which may he added to a consonant character to re­

present a syllable consisting of an initial consonant followed by one

of the vowels a - av . As the vowel a is realised with every con­

sonant character unless it is either marked with the viramah or has

one of the vowel signs added to it, there is no sign for this vowel.

The vowel signs, added to the consonant character oft , are:

5RT
ka ki kii ku kuu '

fkr krr kl kll 2

% %
ke kay ko kav

1 . Transcription of examples is given on p 5 1 . 0

2. See note on the vowel 11 under Vowel Characters, above.

24 SANSKRIT SECTION

Calligraphy

The order of writing the strokes when a vowel sign is added to a

consonant character is illustrated in the following examples:
ka cb cbl ku cb 3>
ki 1 !<*> kii cb <*>l
dhi 1 I'M ft fa bhi 1 m ft m
ke ko oh obi
When the vowel signs are added to consonant characters which
have an upright stroke, the superscribed signs are placed above the
upright stroke, and the subscribed signs are written at the foot of
that stroke. When vowel signs are subscribed to rounded characters
they are written below the mid-point of the lowest curve, thus:

f 5 f £ 5 I
chu pxn d^u djiuu du huu
Special forms
^ * 5 1 ^
ru ruu dr Jr hr
An older form of is ^-, and of is

The vowel sign of 9f£ is not written with ^ • The character

representing if with ^ is written with the superscribed stroke

used to represent "5^ when it is to be realised before another con­

sonant character without an intervening vowel. This stroke is placed

over the vowel character 5fJ , as in Pi•s+^irl , nirrti . 2

Mark of 'separation'.

When an initial or sflT occurs after certain final vowels in

the preceding word, the mark S , known as 3T3"3T$|": (avagrohah)^ is

1 . See C h . 2 , l o i i i . 2. See C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s 3.iii°a- 3 » 'separation'.

 CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 25

written after the vowel in which the final and initial vowels are co­

alesced, to indicate the presence of two words in the piece. The mark

is written once when the initial vowel of the second word is *5T , and

twice when the initial vowel is ^\ , as in these examples:

yo - ay am yo-yam te - api te- pi sada - atman sada—

Reading examples^
1. One character words

*' 1 * I

X ft

2. Two character words

V*
ft? ^
3Tt§ £fcT ^
3. Three character words
jjfacr fa^to sttct t«?or facj^T ^fre^r ^ r e

«§5*nfr ^Tf^r ^ftcr ^rf^ i§rtW

f^«TTcI ^ft^R 5u^t=T s ^ff^SBT |o5cl"

U. Four, five and six character words

?of)Tfo>R {jfttofc^r ^frf^^T ^ f i ^ ^ T f^"^f%oHT hUiP|«F>
^RI*T% ?5^TTftf5F a f o ^ T ^ OTjftf^SFjT *sfa^ftl'«+>

1. , tma , the characters CT and T combined. See Chapter 3»

n

Class 2. iii. 2. Transcription of examples is given on p. 51.

26 SANSKRIT SECTION

3. Modifiers

The two modifiers, known as ^ T * J iPfl I T : (onusvarsh) and "fcf^'^f";

(visorgsh), are signs which may be added to a character to indicate

a modification in the realisation of the character. They are placed

in the syllabary after the vowel characters, and, as they cannot be

written alone, they are written-with the character ^ . They may,

however, be written with any character.

5 : 1
io anusvareh, ^"•|T ITT
This modifier is written as a dot above the character of which

it modifies the realisation, thus:

*•

I i 3 T
orrj arr) irrj iirrj urrj uurrj em eyrrj orrj avrrj

#> % # f % % #
kQirj kairj kirrj kiirrj kurrj kuurrj kerrj koyrrj korrj kevrrj

Calligraphy

The Qnusvareh is generally added to the character after the vowel

sign has been written and before the headstroke is written to complete

the character. It is placed above the middle of the character, or

over the last upright stroke if there is one, and to the right side of

any superscribed vowel sign, for example;

• • • » • *

kgrrj oh Ob eft 3 ^ hsnj ^ ^ |T

gang 4|| 4jj itf girrj \i\ ftj fSf gerrj Jj Jf

dhirrj f$ bhirrj \M R rorrj ^ *i

1. 'after-sound'.
 CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 27

The anusvarah is written with a character in various contexts,

and is realised in various ways according to the context.

a. When a word of which the final character represents the form­

ative particle occurs in any position except at the end of a line

of verse or a sentence, the character is omitted before an initial

consonant character of a following word and the formative particle is

represented by the anusvarah. This formative particle is usually writ­

ten as only at the end of a line or a sentence. For example:

yetarrj vibhuutirrj yogarr] ca. .. yetam vibhuutim yogam

b. The anusvarah may be written with an initial or. medial

character followed by a vargiiya character. In this context it is

realised as the nasal consonant of the class to which the following

character belongs. Examples:

"J - q
arrjka (arjka) purrjkha (punkha) lirrjga (linga)

VW
1
jg " J
parrjca (panca) varrjch (vajich) sirrjj (sip.3)

q -n arrjda (an^a) pirrjd^a (pin_qa)

kuirj^ha (kun^ha)

51 3%
Jarrjti (janti) irrjdu (indu) barrjdhu (bandhu)

rrj - m
karrjpa (kampa) arrjbu (ambu) kurrjbha (kumbha)

•re usual, method of representing a homorganic nasal

is that of combining the appropriate nasal consonant character with

28 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

the vargiiya character that follows it, that is, ^ with characters

of the ka-vargah, \>f^ with characters of the ca-vargah, and so on.

This method is used also when the formative particle occurs before

an initial vargiiya character in a sentence, where consecutive words

are joined in sandhi. The calligraphy of such combined characters is

1
illustrated later . Formative particles, such as *lf~cl , -anti, and

^«-("! , -ante, are usually written by this method and not with the

anusvarah.
The anusvarah is sometimes written to represent -n or -m , in
compounds formed from the prefix ^T*T > sam-, and words beginning
N

with R or T * e.g. H*T(T sannata, and TTHf^" sammati.

c. When the anusvarah is written with a character preceding a
character of the antahstha or the uusman group, the realisation of it
varies according to the position of articulation of the character
which follows it, and also with the custom of speakers in different
parts of India. The anusvarah preceding an antahstha character is
realised as follows:
Before If , ya , as rj , m , n or y ; e.g.
^PTt'T sarjyoga, samyoga, sanyoga or sayyoga
Before T > ra , as rj , m , n or v ; e.g.
^ sarjraga, samraga, sanraga or savraga

Before oT , la , as rj , m , n or 1 ; e.g.
^fo/i^T sarjlaya, samlaya, sanlaya or sallaya
Before ^ , va , as rj , m , or v ; e.g.
^fo|sanvada, samvada or savvada

1. See Chapter 3, Conjunct Characters, Class 2.b.

 CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 29

The anusvarah preceding an uusman character is realised thus:

Before J[ , Ja , as n , m , n , or v; e.g.

^T"5T sgJ"8» sm/s, an/a or avj"a

Before "5T > sa , as n , m , nasalisation of the vowel, or vj e.g.

haviirjsi, haviimsi., haviisi or haviivsi

Before , sa , as n , m , n , or v; e. g.

^FI^IR sansara, samsara, sansara or savsara,

or as nasalisation of the vowel, as in

"f^f^TT hirjsa, himsa, hivsa or hisa

ijf^f punsi, pumsi, pusi

Before ^ , ha , as rj , m , n , or v; e. g.

"f^^" sinha, simha, sinha or sivha

or as nasalisation of the vowel in ^ " l * > sayha

The sign is sometimes written above a character preceding an

antahstha or an uusman character to indicate realisation by nasal­

ising the vowel of the syllable instead of by a nasal consonant,

following the vowel. This sign is called ^ - J - H f^cp> (anunasika ), 1

and it is usually written, in preference to the anusvarah, in the

'sacred syllable' \Q* , (orrj) 2

Reading examples

a. fifr W "§^r ift ^cr <Tf w ^PFCRN

b. ft«r -qff ^*t n i%i^cr s 3?fcr*r

|« ^TCTCT s ^TTH HoflH ^TffcT
ami ^Tcn»ri^Tr ^ t t "*?wf^r i

1. 'nasal'. 2. See above, under 2.i. 3 . For transcription of

examples, see p. 52. . The lines a, b and c correspond to the notes
given above under 3 » i . L. Gitagovindakavyam, sarga 3 > v . 6 o
30 SANSKRIT SECTION
1
ii. visargah , •fcfH'fc

The visargah is written as two dotsj placed vertically, after a

character.

ah ah ih iih uh uuh rrh eh ayh oh avh

cfr cBT: fcB:

kah kah kih kiih kuh kuuh krh keh kayh koh kavh

Calligraphy

The visargah is usually added to a character after every other

stroke has been made, including the head-stroke.

e
-g- ch ch) cfit CWT:
The realisation of the visargah varies in different parts of India

a. It may be realised as strong aspiration following the realisation

of the character with which it is written, for example

JFFOT %
devah malah kavih guruh kaveh gunayh bhanoh gavh

It is realised in this way when it occurs medially, as in

^:^q*T^ , duhkham; or as the doubling of the following consonant,

as in r P T i ^ » tapahsu, tapassu.

b. . It may be realised in final position as h following the vowel of

the character with which it is written, and a very short repetition

of the same vowel after h , as illustrated by this transcription of

the examples given above:

9 a 1 u e 1 0 u
devah malah kavih guruh kaveh gunayh bhanoh gavh

1. 'emission of breath'
 CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 31
1
Reading examples

ofi: W 3* W %

7J-CTT: ^ffT:. «TT|: f^h ^ f ^ ' ffi

^ftrj ^gfo ^r^fq-rT: ^rw-. w : o t > w t n

:
.^P ^T* ^mtf^rTTi ^fcTtsf^oR: cP^fsTT:

^ife ^gfr TO^t ^rerr^ ^rffcr^tfrrW^cr^^T^ i

U. The Complete Syllabary

The complete syllabary, arranged in the traditional order, is

given on the following page. The characters are further arranged in

a .table in which the vowel characters, and the two modifiers added to

the character , are placed in order at the head of a series of

columns consisting of every consonant character in the Qkarg form,

each consonant character with each of the vowel signs and each of the

modifiers.6 These two tables together show the order in which the

characters are placed as initial characters of words in dictionaries.

Characters with the onusvaroh are, however, placed before characters

without the onusvarah but followed by another consonant character.

1. For transcription, see p.52. 2. BhagavadgTta,ch.10,v.1„a.

3. ibid., ch,10,v.U.b. h. GTtagovindakavyam, sarga l,v.8.
5. ibid., sarga 1.3,v.7. 6. Cf. the series of characters with
vowel signs given above under 2.ii.
32 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

1 I 3
%
# *
3?
at
Z 5 3
%

55
5. The Devanagari numerals

Hindi forms: ^ c
=1 3 I %
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Bombay forms: ft * <3 vs C *o

A
1 2 3 K 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

6, Punctuation

In prose writing, the end of a sentence is marked with a vert­

ical stroke of the same height as the characters. In verse, the first

line of a stanza or couplet is closed with one vertical stroke, and

the complete stanza or couplet is closed with two vertical strokes

and numbered as illustrated in the verse examples given at the end of

the next chapter.

 C H A P T E R 3
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS

Consonant characters may "be combined to represent two or more

consonants realised without any intervening vowel. A character

formed by combining other characters is called a conjunct character,

H^TblT5HH ( ssrrjyuktakssrsm).
y

1, Construction of Conjunct Characters.

Characters may be combined in various ways, according to the

form of the characters to be joined.

i. The second character may be subscribed to the first:

s 9 d V 9 v 9
k- ko kka rj- ka nko X tt ~ ^
ii. If the first character has an upright stroke, this stroke may be

omitted, and the first part of the first character is joined to the

second character by the head-stroke, thus:

n- da ndo g- gs ggo t- ps tpa n- mo nms

The characters o F " , and ^ are usually joined with following

characters in the forms of , * F and ^.

Some conjunct characters may be formed by either of these two

methods, for example: ^ ^ ^ o r —j- v3T ^ ^ o r w f

V
C- C9 CCS j - J9 j J9
34 SANSKRIT SECTION

Some conjunct characters are formed by a combination of methods

i. and ii. ; for example:

d- dho ddha d-bho dbha

iii. If the first character is a rounded character, with no upright

stroke, it is usually written in full, and the second character is

joined with it in a modified form, for example:

s d d n_ & n n m o me
t~ y® ty ~ y° y® "y y® ~ ^
iv. Some characters are written in a special form when joined with

other characters, for example:

/- ve JVG r- ths rtho g- ro gre J"- re /re

The characters (Hindi form) and jjf (Bombay form), represent­

ing k-so , and the character , representing j-ji9 , have been in

eluded in the syllabic series from a very early date, though no con­

junct characters are included in the syllabary. Calligraphically

these three characters are not formed by joining two distinct charact

ers, but they are considered in this work under the appropriate

classes of conjunct characters because they represent syllables con­

sisting of two consonants and the vowel 9 .

If any characters are not modifiable, and therefore cannot be

combined, by any of these methods, the realisation of them without an

intervening vowel is indicated by writing the first character with

the viramsh, thus 3 ^ ^5 ^ ^ ^ ^ W ci^T

d 8 d 9
t- k9 t k 8
3~ 3 <i- bre dbr9
 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 3 5

Characters combined with other characters in this way do not form

conjunct characters in calligraphy, but they are included in this

chapter because they complete certain series in the classes of con­

junct characters.

Three, four or five characters may be combined to form a conjunct

character, for example:

rT n ~Q 7^ * X ST *v* T 1 Z V "grf
\ \ V V \ \ \
t - m - yo tmyo b - dh - va bdhva r - s - \ - ya rstye
The general rules already given for the order of strokes in writ­
ing a character apply also to the conjunct characters. The vowel
signs are added to the character before the headstroke is written.
Examples: ktyu oj- o|- c o|- ^| r

stvi I I*- IVc©! f?r«|

RJYAIRJ \J VR^| \rM\ VTIJF"

2. Contexts of Conjunct Characters.

Conjunct characters occur in the following contexts:

i. In words, such as

<HfiT: <%PT: WfT^ ^

iccha agnih ksiprah brahmen Jlokah strii

ii. In junctions arising from grammatical processes:

a. In words formed by the addition of suffixes to verbal roots,

such as

bhaj-ta bhakta gam-ya gamya labh-tva labdhva

36 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

b. In derivatives of various kinds, such as

diva dayvyam Juura Javryam

c. In words formed "by the addition of prefixes or suffixes to
other words, as in

ut-tama uttama ut-gamah udgamah abhi-asah abhyasah

dur-guna durguna vi-adhih vyadhih vac-maya vanmaya

iii. In compound words, in which the final character of one part of

the compound word, if it is a halanta character, is joined with the
initial character of the following part, as in

sat - masah sanmasah rc - vedah rgvedah

Jriimat - bhagavat - giita /riimadbhagavadgiita

iv. In pieces consisting of two or more words, in which a conjunct

character is written joining the final character of one word, if it is
a halanta character, with the initial character of the following word.
For example:

Jreyo hi jjianamabhyasa j jjianaddhyanam vijisyate,

«qT^TccF> c ^ ^ T r * T P T T - * £ H I Pel ^ ^ T ^ c R H II ft II
dhyanatkarmaphalatyagastyagacchantiranantaram. 12.

1. Bhagavadgita, Ch.l2.v.l2.
 C O N J U N C T CHARACTERS 37

The process of joining characters illustrated in ii. to v. above

1
is known as 'sandhi' 'of consonants" '. The examples in ii.a. and ii.b.

illustrate the process of 'internal' sandhi, and those in i i . c , iii.

and iv. illustrate that of 'external' sandhi.

3 . Classification of Conjunct Characters.

The conjunct characters are arranged in this work in classes

according to the combination of consonants which occurs when the con­

junct character is realised in reading. The conjunct characters,

when arranged in this way, fall into four classes.

Class 1. Two similar characters joined.

Class 2 . Two vorgiiys characters joined.

Class 3 . Characters joined with sntshsths characters in various

combinations:

i. Characters joined with

ii. Characters joined with ~3[

iii. Characters joined with

a. preceding "<[ > or b. following T

iv. Characters joined with

2

a. preceding oT^ ; or b. following oT

Class h. vargiiys characters joined with uusmen characters:

i. Characters joined with

a. preceding ST , or ; or b. following , "Cf or^T

ii. Characters joined with

a. preceding |J ; or b. following |*

1. Compare reference to 'sandhi' of vowels, in Chapter 2 , 2 . i .

2. The Vedic character oo" , X » s i s
included in this class.
38 SANSKRIT SECTION

Class 1. Two similar characters joined^.

M «R4 M
-kks -kkhs -ggs -gghs "SSI 9
-CCS -cchs • jjhs —
1
"tt 9 -tts -tths -dds -ddhs -nns

<s><s{

"PPS -pphs -bbs -bbhs -mms

ocf
3
w
-yys -lis -vvs-^ -SS& -sss -sss —
Alternative forms UU|
&
-CCS - DJs -jjhs 9 -lis
-nn
The characters > T and do not occur in this series. The

second and fourth characters in each vsrgsh are formed by combining

the slpsprans characters with the corresponding mshaprans characters.

Reading examples .

SOF^t: ^b^rstz: ^tNt* snf^r ftgfrr^

"q%oRr o7| "«r^aT faquui

-
3TTIT ^Pm 3^*T« ff|T« ftrT ftWoT: ^TS|s

*rs$PT: ^arfrk ^FTtf: ^TT ^f^: cT^^

§^fto (f«^5T) $MI^ (^^5^] ^TCTO ^gfaBT*

1. Conjunct characters which do not occur- initially are indicated by

prefixing a hyphen in the roman transcription.
2. This character occurs only in the grammatical term given in the
reading examples.
3. This character occurs only in combination with preceding T .
N
U. Transcription of examples is given,on p.52.
 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS

Class 2. Two vergiiy© characters joined.^

i. ©ghos© and ghosovst characters, excluding ©nunasik© characters:

vsrgsh ©ghos 0 ghosovst

- — — — —
ko - CO
-kco -kcho -gjh©

- Z
ko -\t?
-kto -tko -ktho -tkho -go;© -d^g© -gdh© -a^gh©

- cT
ko - to
¥
-kto -tko -ktho -tkho -gd© -dgo -gdh© -dgh©

Wi - T
ko - P©
-kpo -pko -kph© -pkho -gba -bg© -gbh© -bgh©

- S — — — —
CO - t 8

-{co -tcho -^.DO -djh©

- H — — ——
CO - p©
-pco -pcho -b jo -b jh©

Z - rT tt
- to 2
-tto -tto -tthe -ttho -dd© -dcje -qdh© -ddh©

- T
t 9 - po
-tP° -Pt 8 -tpho -pfho -db© -bo;© -dbh© -bdh©

- H
to - po
-tpo -pto -tpho -ptho -dbo -bd© -dbh© -bdh©

1 . Many of these conjunct characters occur only in external sandhi.

2. This combination occurs in the character combining ~g , <=p and .
40 SANSKRIT SECTION

ii. Characters of each vsrgsh joined with a preceding or following

©nunasik© character of the same vorgoh.

a. onunasiko character preceding.

f
-nke -nkh©
1 f f
-ngho
^3T
-jice -jicho -P-J© -njh©

TO TO TO
-nt 9
-nt h 9
-n<l 9
-nta -nth© -nd© -ndh©

-mpa -mpha -mb© -mbh©

Alternative forms Tig TTJJ

- I n 9 9
-jijh© 9
-i].t lt "^TA -ncjh©
These characters, representing a preceding homorganic nasal
consonant, are usually written in preference to the ©nusvarsh placed
on the preceding character, of which examples have been given above^.
The following examples illustrate the contexts in which the ©nusvarsh
may be written, and in which it is not written:

^TcT^cr ft^rfrt: 1^n%. ^Trt

pstsnti^ vinsnjtih or vin©ntih3 lsbhsnte^ ©njte or ©nte^

b. ©nunasik© character following.

^ ? ^ i ? ? ? ^ «r
-cji© jn© ~th:n© -djhn© -tn© -thn© -dn©^ -dhn© -pm© -bhm©
The character 3T is not calligraphically a conjunct character,
and is found, from an early date, included in the syllabic series of
characters^. In realisation, however, it belongs to this class of
1. See above, Ch.2,3.i.b. 2. Verbal forms. 3. Non-verbal forms.
k. The combination (J - *f more usually becomes «5T in sandhi.
x
5. See above, Ch.2,l. iii.
 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 41

conjunct characters. In the order of words in dictionaries, words

"beginning with are placed between words beginning with and

those beginning with^T^T.

iii. Characters joined with a preceding or following onunasiko
character of a different vorgoh:
a. onunasiko character preceding.

R • •' ^ ^ ^ %
-nbho -nko -ngo -nco -n jo -nphe -nbho
Most characters may occur joined with preceding , on account
of the frequent occurrence of formative particles ending in *T .
^ , no , also may occur with many characters in external sandhi.
b. onunasiko character following.

-UT
-ita
-kno -bhno

-no sR W "9
kne -khno gno ghno -pne -bno -bhno
-T koM 71?
-me
-kmo -khmo -gmo -ghmo -cms -jmo -dmo

-tmo' -dme -dhmo

iv. Two onunasiko characters of different vorgoh.

g*r • *pt ^ ?r
-nno -nmo -nno -nmo -nmo -mno mno
Alternative forms of the conjunct characters in iii. and iv. are
U
formed with " O T , e.g. " U T T -g^o VTTf -bhno T^Jf -rang H -ipio .
1. It i s more usual to write ^of before characters of the co-vorgoh.
42 SANSKRIT SECTION

Reading examples

i. ciicmh w ^ f c w i^t^r- ^ ^ f e r r r ^rr-sF^t^r tst^^t^

oTT6FTB^TH N - s p ^ ^ f T ^ - oB^o^TtTT ^S^fW:

^3$«rh ^SJT ^CTfe 5^T5F5T ^F>*T ^STTf ^f^SSFfvT:.

ll.a. ^ | f : ^Tf: fi^T TTf: ^F^fT ^ ^ T : « B ^ W

^RT: cRTO: -q-fferT: <jfu& ^FrD TpSJcfi ^=3R ^ S T :

^TT^T ITFR N %^TfrT IfTfa T « R KVTT ^STlfc* ^TI^R

?r#q w ftirw taring

iii. a. ^ f T ^ f o ^J?:

b. ^arcr ^mr ^rfrt ^ngj: ^iRf:

^Tlfrt ^TTFtfrt W W ^f?^ft m f ^ R ^f^T: ^ T ^ : ff*T

2
iv. f^HT*?. STTf^ f^TT*T: WTTO: ^FiR v WlfrT ¥TcT

1. For transcription of examples, see p . 5 2 . Examples illustrating

characters which could occur in sandhi arising from the sequence of
words in a sentence are placed between hyphens.
2. The first character represents dvi . See Class 3«ii«
 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 43

Glass 3 « Characters joined with ©ntohsth© characters.

i. Characters joined with following .

^5 TO
kyo khyo ,gy© ghyo s
-gy 9
cy© -chy© jyo • jhy©

• T O

-ty 9 h
-t y 9 -dj© -djiy© n y 9 ty© thy© dy© dhy© nyo

TO
py© -phyo hy© hhy© my©

• TO TO
(yyo) 1
-ry© ly© vy© /ye -sys sy© hy©

Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.i.

5«qr
-nny© -tty© -tmy© -pty© -gdhy© -dhhy© -hjy©

Reading examples.

3^*F?frf oFjq-^^ W c S ^ W ^ F T ^arrS^T ^ T E W cZTFHT

^I^FT ^ f r *T-pT: ^F*T W N ^<TO

•HvqT^ #^^T: f%^T f ^ T T rT^fcTH. % ^ « W X ^TTfTc^R.

1. See under Class 1, 2. The superscribed stroke in this character

represents r preceding another consonant. 3. For transcription
see p. 53. k- The first character represents Jla . See below
under iv.b. 5. NTtisatakam, verse 3.a.
44 SANSKRIT SECTION

ii. Characters with following 5J* .

TO TO
kve khvo gvo ghvo -nvs — CVS -chvs dvs jhvs

-tvo
? -thvs -d^vs
f
-djivs
TO
-nvo tvs
TO
-thvs dvs dhvs
TO TO
nvs

ocj

-pvo -tvo -bhvo -mvo

TO
1
TO TO f
yvs Ivo (-wo) svs svs hvs
-rvo
and ^ do not occur in this series. ^ preceding another

character occurs in oXXJ" , -vne, ?T > -vne , 9T , vrs " and 4

^ , vis .

Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.i. and ii.

T
TO o^f ^ TO ©TO TO
-ttvo -rvvs -cchvs -ktvs -dvys -bdhvs -gdhys

Reading examples.^

oT^p ^"?r^T Tf|€T Tf*T N ^ r^rftrT 3%5f

^ff^cT "HMI 5F53T^T*i; ft*5R ^F*ft: ^TPJcft ^Hl" ^c^T--

7 7
^€^T o^€oTr ^ T F ^ T "^TWr W ^ t T %TTfcT TTToWT VJI£;cUh

1. For the superscribed stroke in this character, see below, in iii.a.

2. See -vvs in Class 1. 3. For this form of J"s see Ch. 2,1. iii.
U. See below, under iii.b. 5. See below, under iv.b.
6. For transcription of examples, see p.53. 7. The initial characters
in these words represent gro and pro .
8. From BhagavadgTta, Ch.6,v.kl.a.
 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 45

iii. Characters joined with preceding or following .

a. preceding another character.

To represent preceding another character a stroke is super-

scribed on the character before which r is to be realised. This

stroke is called "V^T: , rephoh, the name given to the character ^ .

repheh in this form may be written with any character, but it does

not occur with or ,

*• -* £ I * $ I
-rko -rco -r^o -rts -rpo -ryo -r/o -rho

Some of the characters, particularly TTf , , \jf , ?T > C$ >

S>[ , «[ , Xf , and ^" , ax-e frequently doubled when written with

repheh. This practice is found in Hindi writing, but is not usual

in Marathi writing. Examples:

**f ^
-rgge -rjjo
€
-rtte
^
-rddho
^
-rmms
^
-ryye
^
-rvve
Characters written with vowel signs and repheh:

«bF f«& ^ ^ ^
-rka -rki -rkii -rku -rke -rkey -rko -rkev

and with repheh and onusvaroh:

ciF f<l ^ «fc <fc

-rkairj -rkirr) -rkiiirj -rkuirj -rkerq -rkeyrrj -rkevm,
The repheh is placed above the upright stroke of a character, or

above the raid-point. It is always written to the right side of any

other superscribed stroke, as shown in the examples given below. It is

written also with the vowel character «|J . as in the word Pl^fci: .
1, repho, 'rough'; rephoh, 'a rough sound'.
46 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

Characters with rephoh are written as shown in these examples:

rki ft t* rkii ebl «Kl

rke <*> % % rko o^l *T
rkiir] ft rkovrrj

In Bombay writing 'the character representing -rho is sometimes

written as , though the use of this stroke for rephoh is more rare­

ly used in writing Sanskrit than in writing Marathi.

b. following another character.

To represent ^ following another character, a diagonal stroke

is placed against the upright stroke of those characters that have

one, or beneath the mid-point of the lower part of a rounded

character.

SB - HI — V <* —
kr© gr© -ghr© -nro — p —
-chr© jr©

— — ST W
5 -
-tro3 - -cjr© — tr© thr© dr© dhr© -nr©

- 5T sT
pro — br© bhr© mr©
vr© Jr© sr© hr©
Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. to 3.ii. with 3.iii.

TO TO TO 5?T
-ktre -tpr© -rty© -dry© -rdhv© rdr© -ntry© -rdhny©

1. See above, Ch.2,2.ii. Vowel signs.

2. This combination occurs in the character joining and .
3. S and ^ are combined in the character representing^ "5f , Z and"^" .
s s
k. For this form of , see Ch.2,1. iii.
 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 47

Reading examples''"

a. rp£: ^ £ OPFFQ" ^TT§- W&fr JFF^FEW ^T^T: ftsfo;

^ T ^ n ^ ^ ^^flT 7l1*?cT

3>f& cFF>fc SRRF^oR ^£TT ^ c T ^ J : ^ofa 3$R*T

I fl^T ^ w£ 3Tl£ ^ H ^ R ^Tft^PT TTft^ -qrPSETc^T

iv. Characters combined with preceding cT or following

a. '(FT preceding another character.*

L
TO TO c h TO TO TO
-Ike -lge -lpe -lpho -Ibe -lbhe -lme

TOT TO Vedic
-Us -lse -Ihe -Ihe
b. oT following another character.

~% $
kl© gls -chle -<|lo pie ble bhle

5?T or 3 r T ^
mlo vie Jle his
Most of these characters may be written either by method i.

by method ii., described earlier in this chapter.^"

1. For transcription, see p.53.
2. For oT joined with entohstho characters, see i. to. iii. above.
3o Vedic o"5 is included in this class.
h. See above, 1. Construction of Conjunct Characters...
48 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1 . to 3 * i i i . with 3 . i v .

rfj SWT
-tplo -tkl© -cchlo -Ibhy©
1
Reading examples.

^F^T xrc^J T^^T ^c*TW ^1^BH" JPTFT

^Tcb: f^>- 'fR^r ^|pr ^^T: 3 ^

2
T%*JTE: T T ^ - ^ q : tcRitf^rf^r *T^ IIW

Class 2|. vorgiiyo characters joined with preceding or following

uusmon characters.
o r
i. Characters joined with 7£T > T •
a o r
« > preceding another character.

The following characters occur in this series, some occurring

only in external sandhi.

3
*r
TO TO
F-
J -Jks -J*c© -Jcho J"ne •J"pe Jm©

*r TO S TOT
s-
-sks sthe -sn© -?P8 -sphe -sm©

TO T3f TFT FT ¥7 TO? TO

sko skho -sjo sto stho sno spo sph© sm©

1. For transcription, see p . 5 k . 2 . Vairagyasatakam, v . 6 2 .

3. These characters may be written with either or &f .
 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 49

b. , or following another character.

The f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r s occur i n t h i s s e r i e s , some occurring

only in e x t e r n a l sandhi.

s
TOT TOT
Js
-k/o -n/o -n/o
1
* or M 2
TO TO
so
kso -nso -pso

so *
TO
-kso ~t S 8
-nso -tso -nso -pso

The c h a r a c t e r ^ has been i n c l u d e d i n the s y l l a b i c series from

3
an e a r l y d a t e , and i s n o t c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a conjunct c h a r a c t e r . In

the order of words i n d i c t i o n a r i e s , words beginning with T^T are

p l a c e d ^after words b e g i n n i n g w i t h £f} •

Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s of C l a s s e s 1. - 3. w i t h C l a s s h.

"R "? f W M c^T TFT

_ r 9 v 9
stro ?t ~?t ksi^o -ksmo -stvo -tstho -tsno

TTO HTO TP? 7 ^

stryo -tsmyo -rsty© -rtsnye

Calligraphy: kso , Bombay form - $ §f. fcj $J

Reading e x a m p l e s ^

a. W * T * k N 3^C=T fi^T ^ ^cT

f^RoT ^ C R ; *£tW ^f>TT T^ferT S T F ^ TcT5q" f^rfcT: ^ft

1. Bombay form. 2. T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n u s u a l l y becomes g".^jf .

3. C f . n o t e on $T , C 1 . 2 . i i . b . k. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 5^. s

E
SO S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N

ii. onunasiko c h a r a c t e r s joined with preceding "j?" or f o l l o w i n g ^

a. f p r e c e d i n g *tj , ^ and If . ^ ^
-hno hno -hmo

b. ^ following ^. and ? f t

-rjho -nho
1
Reading e x a m p l e s .

^fjfrt ^f|: |^ ffTfPST Tn^fTrT: [PTfTrT:] ^SF*Tu%

k
^W^^I^HI-^^^^^T^f^TrT«r \\^\\
5
f^^wmsTT^I^r^sRWfR; II w i

1, For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 5 h . 2„ R i g v e d a , 1. 3. i b i d . , 2
Uo BhagavadgTta, c h . l , v . 2 6 . 5o i b i d . , ch.3»v. 2 5 .
6„ ibid., ch.5?v.8. 7 . NTtisatakam, v . l i 8 .
 TRANSCRIPTION

T r a n s c r i p t i o n , o f R e a d i n g Examples
Chapter 2 .
1. i . do dho to pho mo po no co c{© go
ke bho jo bo gho cho tho kh© jh© n©
-
bh©];© p©d© dhsn© k©cj© m©"(;h© phsn.© gh©n© khoc d©dh dem©
chsd jhsg© j©cj© ph©"|;o poth© bot© ch©g© p©c]h gh©"|;© g©n©
gsmeke jeget cei]©k© methon© gh©"|;©k© p©|h©k© dsmsth©
dhe"|;ok© k©p©"(;© bh©j©k© g©r|©k© ksthsm kh©j©k© p©d©k©
chedon©m p©n©n©m n©"|;©n©m ksthsnsm bhsnonem jenopode
gemonem p©"(;h©nem dhon©m©d© jh©n©jh©n©m jh©i\© jhsr^sm
l.ii. v© ye re lo bo th© kh© t©
leve j©l© khsre ved jhsr© b©lo vere ' ron© v©"|;h
lobh yev© dhore l©y© jhsro r©"|; ran© ph©l rsth©
terole l©v©n© bhsysm dhsvol© j©"|;h©r© csrsne d^emsr©
nskhere legate c©p©l© bhsvst nsysn© v©c©r© l©"|;©bh©
yemevot vsysnsm g©r©l©m p©d©k©m©l© k©p©"|;©vecen©m
l . i i i o s© h© s© /© p© c|© r© kh©
/ere seh© £©t v©/© h©s jh©s© r©s© v©s J*eve
set Jo^he ke/o k©s© /©s h©y© h©r© jhss© bhss©
sorele k©l©/© jshst -v©y©s /©path© s©m©y© bshel© /©l©bh©
y©/©s /©r©{© s e p h e l e s©r©s© h©r©k© per©/© r©bh©s© h s t s k ©
de/eroth© /©ke^em s©v©y©s kslshsm /©ssnsm /©t©/©s
j e l o c e r e s • noved©/ek©m s©h©g©m©n©m k©molov©d©n© d©/©/©t©m
2 i.
0 e i u © r ii uu o ©y 1 a ©v rr
oth©. is ut eke in© ot ©d ©y/o rdh
uuh edho i i J© uche evm rn© uucjh© i h e us
ed ©1 ©vm okh rc oyn© udon rn©m
iiset uuhenem rsobh© evs©dh©m ©yssmss up©k©r©nem
2 o i i < » nii bhuu gey sr da ji gov pey me duu
kr chi nev hoy bhii /rr /ii dr hi hr
duuro b h i i to ram© cor© tin dos© /rt© dhrt© ruuc|h©
g©yre kr/ pevl© kip drcjh© pur© phen© m©vl© krrt
pitr mem duugi b h i i t i hrdi guru vrtha /i/u setu
otu iiti etev rtu iti uuru rsi enii ii"Le
52 SANSKRIT SECTION

bhuusita vijesa upaya vaybhava p i t r r n p a v r u s a r u c i r a bhavmika

kumarii jhatiti thalinii rirusita avsadhi kaykeyii jhirika
vidhatru ayhika c^halin surabhi khacjika he^ate

ekakin hrsike/a itihasa kav/aleya visuucika pavranika

devanagarii anunasika avpanisada upajiivika avpade/ika
upanive/ika avpanayika ko-pi rte-pi ya J"o-paya J*a

3.i. kin] marrj sukharrj harirr) mrtair) tanum, shorn evarrj rsiinarrj
cjirnba panjcju layrrjgam djiumdhi jrrnbh jharrjjha kirrjcit kavmteya
sarrjyamana sairjvat mairjsa janjyu. sainruuc|ha samliina arrjhati
tamahair) h r d i sairjgatamani Jarrj bhr/air) ramayami
kirn v a n e - n u s a r a m i t a m i h a kinj v r t h a vil9pami
n s n
3 . i i . kgh chgh t jhah ayh oh uuh rh navh sah
gunah dhrtih bahuh n i t eh nrpayh viduh Jrn^ih purusah
manahsu hivihsu dhenubhih vi/esatah amjatah arrjtahkaranam
samaduhkhasukhah Junah/epah jagatohitah mato-dhikeh tejorrj-Jsh
behevoirj-buvegah yogomayasomavrteh garrjgataranjgahima.fiikaraj'iitalani
jayadevapanjcjitakaveh. pan_cjitanarrj sama je-parrjc(ita mavnarr) b h a j e y u h
bhuya eva mahabaho Jrnu. me par amain vacah.
sukhair) duhkharrj b h a v o - b h a v o bhayarrj cabhayameva ca
v a h a s i v a p u s i v i j a d e vasanarrj jaladabharrj h a l a h a t i b h i i t i m i l i t a y a m u n a b h a m
k e j a v a d h r t a h a l a d h a r a r i m p a jaya j a g a d i i / a h a r e
m a d h a v i k a p a r i m a l a l a l i t a n a v a m a l a t i jatisugarrjdhav
munimanasamapi m o h e n a k a r i n i i t a r u n i i k a r i n a b a m d h a v

Chapter 3 »
Class 1 .
thakknrah kakkha^a drggocarah vagghi tinnatin uccayh iccha
rajjuh u j j h a t i pa^tika la^ho ua^din© sed^ha visani^a vis©nr|©
uttom© u t t h i t a u d d e / a h buddhih b h i n n a p i p p a l a h phupphuiisah abfcmh
abbhogah sammatih sarrjmohah Jayya u l l e k h a h tacchrnu sannaddh©
duj/iila (duh/iila) J a t a y u s s u (J"atayuhJ"u) j a s s a r a j a h Jubharrjllokan
Class 2.
i. v a k c a l a v a k c h a l a m p r t h a g j a n a h vagjha"|;iti v a k ^ i i k a s©"|;kon©
s a t k h e t a k a m vagc^ambarah khac^gah v a g d j i s v k a t e dvid^ghora b h a k t i h utka"|;a
uktham utkhata hrdgata sadguna dagdha udgha"(;aka vakpa^u
vakphalam k a k u p k h a l u p r t h a g b h a v a h kakubguruh kakubghora s a t . c a r a n a h
satjchavih sad^jah s a d ^ j h a ^ i t i apcarah k a k u p c h a v i h kubja k a k u b j h a ^ i t i
sacjdevah sacjdha s a t p s t i f/up-tiika ^atphana sacjbahu kakup"|;hakkurah
abc|imbha sacjbhaga kakubcjhavkate utpanna satphalah g u p t a udbodhaka
udbhavah
Jabdah labdha bhagavadgiita sarrjyukta adbhuta madbhakta buddhi-
yukta sacchabdah
 TRANSCRIPTION 53

ii.a. gijkgh Jgijkhgh lirjggm sgijghgh s s j i c s y a h vajicha g p j i i r g h j h g n j h a

ghui\t9h k9i\th8h pgi\cjitgh ^huijdjiih g n t g h p g n t h g k g s u n d g r g indhgh
ksmpgng gumphgti sgmbgndhgh argmbhgh pgrjktih grunddha

b. yacjia jnangm he-|;h:nati hedjiinati rgtngm m9thna b u d h n a t i papmgn

tgjpeys sgjijjia sgrrjjjia vi/esgjjig jijnasu

i i i . a. udgrjbhih mghankgvih drunphuh drunbhuh

b. r k i p rugrig g r b h n a t i Jsknoti cgkhnutuh agnih vighng

mrcjnati a p n o t i sbnabhgh rukmii^ii vagmin vgcmih gjmgh kudmglg
atmgn pgdma dhmatg drbhmgs dgdhmgv

iv. diijnaggh vaijmgyg dvirvnalgh S9i\masgh jgnmgn rgmiiati rrmatg

C l a s s 3.
i. vekygm k h y a t g vgyragygm J l a g h y g udgrjygj'gh c y u t g vapchyg j y o t i s
ujjhygti kapQ^ysn! J"a-|;hygm jad^ygm gvadhyg puipram tyajyg
pgthyg v i d y a dhyangm k s n y a apyg riphygte gbyonih gbhyasgh
sgvmygm dhgyrygm gmuulyg vyuudjig dr/yg mgmisygh r g h g s y g hygs
sgynygsyg
sgnnyasgh sgrrjnyasgh c i n t y g buddhya t g j j y o t i s vgydggdhygm mahatmygm
bhgktya kgvbjygm sghrdbhygh b h g g g v g n v y g k t i b evgmetgdygtha—tthg
guhygmgdhyatmgsgrrjjpitgm g j p g h sukhgmaradhygh s u k h g t g r g m a r a d h y g t e
vijesgjjigh
i i . k v g c i t pgkkvanngm akhvoh p g v e d g h l g g h v i i u c c h v a s g h u j j v g l g u j j h v g
Igf/vgh y g d n g t v a sgcjvidhg drcjhvgm J"rr|ygn t v s r i t g prthvii udvigng
dhvgnih
g n v i t g apva gbvahgngrrr r i b h v g n cgmvoh y v a g u l i i s g r v g s g r v v g n g l v g h
i i j v g r g h v i / v s s v g k k g t e g n u s v a r g h h v e v i h v g l g vidhvgrrjsgh dvgndvgh
tgttvgm
dugdhva I s b d h v a u k t v a davna e t g d d h v a v l i n a t i gravida prarjvg/gh
tygktva--tmgj"uddhye p u i p r g k r t a r r j l l o k a n u s i t v a J a j v g t i i h sgmah
i i i . a , tgrkgh muurkhs vgrggh v g r g i i y g d i i r g h g Jarrjgg c g r c a m u u r c h i t g
arjungh n i r j h g r g h
dardhygm v g r i p h k g r t r v y g r t h g durdgyvgm grdhg mgnurnamg grpgr^gm d u r -
bglg ggrbhitg
uurmih kgrmmgn dharmikg p g r y g n t g pgrygrrjtg s u u r y g h d u r l g b h g puurvg
ssrw© dgr/gnsm
h©rs©h g r h g t k i i r t i h ©h©rnij*©m uurdhv©m v s r j y © rrniurdhni rmiurdhnya-
dhayatmgngh n g y r r t i i
durbuddhsyryuddh© Jvetsyrhsysyryukte vedsy©jnadhyaysnsyrn©
dangyrng C9
b , vikr©m©h agr©hah J i i g h r g p r a i j r a t r i i krcchr© vgjrgm psv^rgh
f g t r u h drgvygm
dhruv© pr©y©tn©h premna brniv© b h r a t r ngrnrg v r s j s h J u j r u u s a srgjva
h r g s v g hr©sv©
h r s y hirrjsrg Jraddhg ardr© ardr© d a r i d r y g m daridrygm s©rrjhriir]©
etgcchrutva
digvr©t©m sgtjtrirrjjg y©tpr©mai]©m j©mbvamr©le
54 SANSKRIT SECTION

iv. u l k a phslgta s v s l p © ©lpspran© g u l p h i t © ulb© prggslbhg

h©lj"©bd©h h©ls©ndhih V9lh prag©lbhy©m j©"[hu mi'Lhuse
klej"©h gl9V pl9V9 p i p l u h ©bling© k s k u b h l a b h s h m l e c c h s h vlinati
J"lok©h Jles9h sihlsh hladste ucchlskh© utklej"©h utplsv©
psresarrjcetarrjsi p r g t i d i v s s g m a r a d h y g bghu ha
prssadsrrj kirrj neturrj v i / © s i hrdsy© kleJ©k©lil©m
pr©s©nne tvsyysntsh sv©y©mudit©cintam©nigune
vimuktsh s©nk©lp©h k i m s b h i l s s i t s i r j pusysti ri9 t e
C l a s s h.

i.a. aj*c©ry©m pr©/n©h Jm© Jru pusksl© blesk©m

srstih krsn©
jyes-f/h© sthyuutg
puspsm nisph©!© uusman Jlesma ssrrjskrtg s k h s l i t © b h r o s j stsbdh©
sthitih strii
-
©ntshsth© s n i g d h 9 sprs );© s p h u u r t i h bhgsmg J"res"|;h©tv©m / c y u t © drstjva
d©rrjs"|;ra varsney© n©moste-stu

b . p r a k j i r s s pr©ty©nj"ir©s tajijuka t a n / u k a S9"|;/astr9 r©pj*©te ©kssrsm

tirysnsu s e t s s s t i h ksetrsjji© dikssm© l i ^ s u v s t s s h sug©ns©r©ti
sug©rjj;s©r©ti ksma
J"l©ksn© u t k s i p t © bhsksy© m©tsy©h t s t s t h © ! © k s v e t © ©pkrtsn© k a r t s n y s m
v i b h r s s t o / c h s n n © k©rm©ph©l©prepsurl©bdh©h n©bh©hspr J"©m d h a r s t y s m
etstksetrsm

ii. g r h n a t i v s h n i h h n u t e brahmen© p r a n h s s t s h prangh©st©h i s t . a n b h a n h i

©gnimii^e purohitsrrj y©jn©sy© d e v s m r t v i jsirj / hotarsrrj r©tn©dhat©m©m
©gnih p u u r v o b h s r r s i b h i r i i d ^ y o n u u t s n s y r u t © / s© devarrj eh© v s k s s t i
t©trap©Jy©tsthitanparth©h p i t r r n s t h © pitamshan
acaryanmatulanbhrantrrputranp©vtrans©khirrjst©th©

s s k t a h k©rm©i|y©vidvarrjso y s t h a k u r v s n t i b h a r s t ©
kuryadvidvarrjst©tha-s©kt©Jcikiirsurlok©s©ngr©h©m

n©yv© k i r r j c i t k © r o m i i t i y u k t o msnyet© t s t t v s v i t
p© Jysn J r n v s n s p r / © n j i ghr ©nn© J n s n g s c c h s n s v©p©n J* v©s ©n
a j j i a k i i r t i h palsnsirj brahmanarrj dansrrj bhogo mitr©s©mr©ks©n©m c©
y e s a m e t e s©c[guna n© p r s v r t t a h korth©stesairj p a r t h i v o p a / r s y e n ©