Kurs: Languages of the world Seminar fr Sprachwissenschaft WS 2003/2004 Do entin: Dr!

"oni#a $athert

%he Korean language

%orsten "are# shlomme&gm'!net

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Table of contents
(! *ntroduction!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!3 2! +istor, - .enealog,!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!3 2!( %,pological studies!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!3 2!2 +istorical de/elopment of Korean!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4 2!3 Spea#ers!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!0 3! Script!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!0 3!( 1hinese characters: +an2a!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!0 3!2 Korean script: +angul!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!3 4! 4honolog,!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5 4!( 6owels!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5 4!2 1onsonants!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!) 4!3 S,lla7le structure!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!8 4!4 4honological rules!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!8 4!0 4rosod,!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(0 0! "orpholog,!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(0 0!( Word categories!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(0 0!2 Deri/ation!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(( 0!3 *nflection!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(2 0!4 1ompounding!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(3 3! S,nta'!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(4 3!( Sentences!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(4 3!2 "ood9 tense and aspect!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(3 3!3 4assi/e and causati/e!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(3 3!4 4oliteness and honorifics!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(5

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1. Introduction
%he main features of Korean :Chosnmal :; in <orth Korea9 Hangungmal :; in the South; are its S=6 s,nta' and agglutinati/e morpholog,! >s the .reen7erg uni/ersals predict for S=6 languages9 Korean adpositions postpone the /er7 and all modifiers precede the words the, relate to! >s to the morpholog,9 Sohn88 has some ?uite impressi/e e'amples9 the following 7eing one of it: #a@si@ess@#e,ss@sup@ni@ta gone@hon.-past-presumptive-addresse honorific-ind.-decl. ASome7od, :honora7le; ma, ha/e goneB >s can 7e seen 7e the morphemes9 there are clearl, some that do not ha/e an, counterpart in *ndo@Curopean languages! >lso9 the use of honorific suffi'es stri#es9 and indeed9 their use either to honor the su72ect of discourse or the audience is a central feature of Korean morpholog, and s,nta'9 as it is in Dapanese!

2. History & Genealogy

2.1 Typological studies

%hroughout the histor, of t,pological studies of Korean9 researchers ha/e not come to a clean decision a7out its relationship to other languages! %he closest related language is :howe/er9 not undisputedl,; Dapanese9 although the, are not mutuall, intelligi7le and more distinct than .ermanic or $omanic languages among themsel/es! *n a 7roader conte't9 man, researchers 7elie/e that those two languages 7elong the the >ltaic famil, li#e "ongolian9 %ur#ic or "anchu languages! >ltaic languages where spo#en in <orthern :1entral; Curasia :Western Si7eria; in the <eolithic :around 0000E1; and ancestors of the Korean nation are supposed to ha/e mo/ed from there to the Korean peninsula and Dapan during and after this time! Korean :and Dapanese; share a lot of features with other >ltaic languages9 li#e9 7ut not limited to:

S=6 s,nta' :and its implications 7, the uni/ersals; agglutinati/e morpholog, missing strict distinction 7etween singular and plural forms of nouns su72ect implication 7, conte't sentence@final sentence t,pe mar#ers :for declarati/e9 interrogati/e etc!; missing affi'ation for comparati/e or superlati/e forms of ad2ecti/es /owel harmon,

*t is needless to sa, that this theor, is not un?uestioned! Some linguists treat Dapanese and 3/()

Korean as an isolated famil,9 some connect them to Dra/idian languages9 some to the =ceanian famil,!
2.2 Historical development of Korean

%here is little to none documentation on old Korean languages9 which ma#es t,pological studies e'tremel, hard! =nl, /er, few documents dated earlier than from the (0th centur, can 7e found! *n this centur,9 the +angul :or +an#ul; alpha7et was created9 leading to a considera7l, high num7er of written material to stud,! %he most widel, accepted chronological o/er/iew o/er Korean language de/elopment is :,ears acc! to the 1hristian dating scheme;:

until 0: Prehistoric Korean %here is proper #nowledge of the two languages 4u!,e and Samhan in the Southern parts of Korea! During this time9 man, features that Korean shared with proto@>ltaic got lost9 li#e word final /owels in A#uraB :ca/e9 tunnel;9 which 7ecame A#ulB 0 - 10th century: Old Korean %he so called time of the A%hree #ingdomsB with its three languages Sinla9 4a,#ce, and Ko#wul,e! Eoth Sinla and 4a,#ce, are closel, related9 the more distant Ko#wul,e is the language with the most >ltaic features! %his #nowledge mainl, comes from the written source ASam#wu# Sa#iB9 which consists of a /oca7ular, of eight, words and shows similarities to %ungus languages as well as to old Dapanese! >lso in this time9 the first words 7orrowed from 1hinese occur9 although the, are onl, restricted to person names9 ran#s :the title of the #ing was now AwaFB9 1hinese A#ingB; and place names!

10th - 16th century: Middle Korean %he recordings found from the 7eginning of this period are written with 1hinese characters9 later9 the +angul were created9 leading to a /ast num7er of sources to stud, from! Gollowing the first loaned 1hinese words9 proper nouns were ta#en o/er9 thus replacing a huge num7er of older terms! %he num7er of new words of course triggered changes in phonolog, and morpholog,9 which were adapted to the new scheme of word structure! Eut also "ongolian influences can 7e found :whereH;! 17th - 19th century: Modern Korean %he end of the "iddle Korean period is mar#ed 7, the Dapanese in/asion in (0829 that e/entuall, failed in (08)! >fter that9 Korea was under the rule of the "anchu until ()84! %he import of 1hinese words went on and more phonological changes happened :the /oiced fricati/e A B disappeared completel,9 for instance;! >lso9 there were first contacts 7etween Korea and Curopean nations! 20th century: Contemporary Korean %his centur, mar#s some of the dar#est chapters for Korea and the Korean language as well! During the Dapanese colonial reign :(8(0 I (840;9 Koreans where ensla/ed as 4/()

wor#ers for the Dapanese homeland9 Korean women where forced into prostitution for the Dapanese militar, :entitled as Acomfort womenB; and the Korean language was for7idden! >fter the end of the second world war9 Korea was freed and di/ided into to nations9 mirroring the now di/ided world! *n (8009 the Korean war 7ro#e out! C/entuall,9 the 3)th parallel was esta7lished as peace 7order! Linguisticall,9 there were standardi ation mo/ements and the esta7lishment of huge dictionaries9 as well as new words9 now also from Western languages li#e Cnglish!
2.3 Spea ers

%he total num7er of spea#ers of Korean world@wide /aries 7etween 52 million :gi/en 7, Sohn88; and 5) million :7, Wi#ipedia9 http://www!wi#ipedia!org;9 putting it among the top@twent, of the WorldJs languages! C'cept for the two Koreas itself with 23 million people in the <orth and 4) million in the South :num7ers ta#en from the 1*> world fact 7oo#9 http://www!cia!go//cia/pu7lications/fact7oo#/inde'!html;9 there are large communities of Korean people in Dapan9 1hina9 Castern $ussia and the KS>9 which is the most rapidl, enlarging communit,9 due to natural growth and immigration from the homeland! %he Koreans in the KS> are with a7out (!8 million mem7ers one of the 7iggest >sian minorities and9 as said 7, Sohn889 will 7e the second@largest group ne't to the Gilipinos in a couple of ,ears9 larger than the 1hinese or Dapanese ones! Smaller communities are to 7e found in the "iddle Cast9 1anada9 Curope and >ustralia and <ew Lealand9 where the their num7ers also increase!

3. Script
3.1 !"inese c"aracters# Han$a

Ksage of 1hinese characters in Korea is recorded since around the ,ear 09 the earliest de/elopment of these characters themsel/es can 7e dated 7ac# to (400 E1! Kp to ()849 when the go/ernment decided to strongl, support the use of +angul script9 most official correspondence and literature were written 1hinese characters! *n <orth Korea9 1hinese 1haracters were e/en for7idden in (8489 although this 7an could ne/er 7e enforced due to the ongoing interlea/ing of 1hinese and +angul in South Korea! %here9 a set of (!)00 pictograms is taught in school9 7ut the ma2or trends are writing e/er,thing in +angul and o7soleting all the 1hinese characters! Dictionaries list up to 24!000 different characters9 which can 7e of the following groups :e'amples from .rant589 p! (4ff;:

M300 simple pictograms li#e BsunB or AtreeB M(00 simple relations li#e AupB or AdownB M500 simple compounds9 which are comple'es of two or more signs9 li#e AeastB9 0/()

which is composed from sun and tree

M2(!000 phonetic compounds9 which can 7e ideographic or phonetic9 li#e to supportB9 Ato feedB M400 deri/ed meanings9 where concrete pictures get an a7stract meaning9 li#e 9 which originall, is the picture of a sitting person 7ut now means Ato communicateB M300 ar7itrar, meanings9 were the original meaning was a7andoned9 li#e 9 which was once Agrowing stal# of grassB and is now the /er7 Ato comeB

3.2 Korean script# Hangul

Eecause of the huge structural differences 7etween Korean and 1hinese9 +an2a characters are less than ideal for representing the Korean language! =ther s,stems li#e *twu e'isted9 that assigned phonetic /alues to 1hinese characters9 7ut in (440 a group of Korean linguists were ordered to create a nati/e writing s,stem for Korean! %he wor# was finall, pu7lished in (443 and classic literature was transcri7ed into it to demonstrate its practical use! +angul is a wor# of deep linguistic anal,sis of the Korean sound pattern and therefore is /er, logical! %he alpha7et has of course e/ol/ed o/er the last centuries and resulted into (8 consonants and and 3 7asic /owels: Consonants Basic spirated !ensed

:#; :n; :t; :l; :m; :p; :s; :F; :';

:#h; :th;

:#J; :tJ;

:ph;

:pJ; :sJ; :'J;

"o#els

:'h;

:a;

:N;

:o;

:u;
3/()

:O;

:i;

Gor writing9 the 7asic letters are formed to s,lla7le 7loc#s! %he initial position is alwa,s to 7e filled with a consonants9 where the can 7e used as a filling sign with no sound uttered word@initiall,! %he medium position can 7e filled 7, a /owel or a diphthong :com7inations of the /owel signs; and the final position is again filled with a consonant or optionall, left empt,! >n e'ample is :com7ining s and e; and :u and l;9 gi/ing :se!ul9 Seoul;! %here are rules on how the characters ha/e to 7e laid out9 resem7ling the 7asic principle of 1hinese characters! *n the past9 Korean9 li#e 1hinese was written top@down/right@to@left9 7ut the order has changed to the :Western; scheme left@to@right/top@down9 li#e 1hinese and9 /er recentl,9 %raditional 1hinese in %aiwan9 too! Since Korean characters are surprisingl, little fun to use :the Knicode chart lists (((52 different s,lla7les; for the uninitiated computer user9 * used the Pale romani ation of Korean Sohn88 also uses throughout his 7oo#!

%. &"onology
%.1 'o(els
Gront +igh i y Eac# u

"id

e Low

C/er, short /owel has a long counterpart9 although lengthening is not realised in the script! <owada,s9 /owel lengthening is used for stressing and speech rh,thm9 onl, older nati/e spea#ers of Korean use le'icall, assigned /owel length to tell the meanings of two otherwise identical words apart9 li#e mal QmalR JhorseJ and mal Qma:lR JlanguageJ! %he two semi@/owels 2 and w ha/e the same ?ualit, as their /owel counterparts i and u!

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%.2 !onsonants
>cti/e articulator $o#er lip !ip and %lade o& the ton'ue !eeth and al*eolar rid'e al/eo@dental +ard palate palatal Bac( o& the ton'ue "elum /elar "ocal cords ,lottis glottal

4assi/e articulator )pper lip Sound name Plosi*es 7ila7ial

b p ph p'

d t th t' s s'

c ch c'

g k kh k' h

*oiced *oiceless aspirated tensed aspirated tensed *oiced *oiced

-ricati*es

.asals $i/uids

n l/

+angul realised onl, (8 consonant s,m7ols9 7ut some phonemes :li#e or ; are created 7, phonological rules9 so it is logical to include them into a the consonant chart :in contrast to Sohn889 p! (03;! 4honological rules include :Sohn889 p! (04ff;:

stops are not released in s,lla7le@ or word@final position: stops 7ecome /oiced 7etween two /oiced sounds :there is onl, one s,m7ol for the consonant in +angul; QSconsonantal9 @continuant9 @/oicedR @T QS/oicedR / QS/oicedRUQS/oicedR QsR and QsJR are palatali ed 7efore QiR9 Q,R and Q2R! > Q2R gets deleted afterwards QSconsonantal9 Scontinuant9 @sonorantR @T QSpalatalR / U Q@7ac#9 ShighR !" / #$ %

QnR is palatali ed for 7efore QiR or Q2R! Q2R gets deleted QSnasal9 Sal/eo@dentalR @T QSpalatalR / U Q@consonantal9 @7ac#9 ShighR !" / #$ %

QlR is changed into the flap QR :ASpanish rB; 7etween two /owels l @T / Q@consonantalR U Q@consonantalR

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if a se?uence of two QlRs is followed 7, i or 29 the second one is palatali ed l @T / l U Q@consonantal9 @7ac#9 ShighR

Some of these palatali ation processes are omitted in newer loan words from Cnglish!
%.3 Syllable structure

S,lla7ification in Korean is rather simple9 compared to other languages! %he ma'imal s,lla7le is defined 7, :Sohn889 p! (30;: 1.61 :1: consonant9 .: glide9 6: /owel; %he minimal s,lla7le is 6! %hus9 s,lla7le 7oundaries are alwa,s put 7etween two /owels or two consonants! =nset/1ode disam7iguation is done 7, gi/ing the onset higher 7inding Aenerg,B9 1616 will 7e s,lla7ified as 16@169 not as V161@6!

%.% &"onological rules

Despite the relati/e clearness and simplicit, of the +angul character set9 there are a /ast num7er of automatic and le'ical sound alternations which ha/e to 7e learned! =ne e'ample process9 alread, mentioned 7efore9 is the /owel harmon,9 a core feature of >ltaic languages! Gor defining the harmoni ation operations9 there are three /owel categories: 7right9 Pang /owels :a9 o9 W9 &;9 dar#9 Pin /owels :X9 u9 e9 ,; and neutral /owels :i9'! %he processes used in /owel harmon, are sometimes automatic9 sometimes le'icall, moti/ated9 7ut man, e'ceptions e'ist! .enerall,9 there are three t,pes of /owel harmon,9 all are progressi/e :Sohn889 p! ()(ff;:

Suffi'ation harmon, Gor this t,pe9 onl, QaR and QoR are considered as Pang /owels! Gor a num7er of suffi'es9 two allophones for dar# and light /owels e'ist :@X/@a: infiniti/e suffi'Y @XsJ/@asJ: past tense suffi'Y @Xla9 @ala: imperati/e sentence suffi';! <aturall,9 the allophone choice is narrowed down 7, the preceding /owels! >n,wa,9 occurring e'ceptions lead to the assumption that /owel harmon, onl, affects the s,lla7le directl, following the stem!

4refi'ation harmon, %his process is e'tremel, rare and limited to a num7er of words onl,! Le'ical harmon, %his is limited to le'ical groups li#e onomatopoeic or mimetic words! %he aforementioned distinction applies this time9 too!

%.) &rosody

>s mentioned 7efore9 /owel lengthening is used for stressing toda, 7, nati/e Korean 8/()

spea#ers! >lso9 meaning can 7e stressed li#e :Sohn889 p! (83;: ce#i cX@#i QcX!giR Jo/er thereJ ce#i cX::@#i QcX::!giR Jwa, o/er thereJ 6er, important are Aintonation patternsB of whole sentences9 meaning the distri7ution of pitch le/els :on a scale from ( :low; to 4 :high;;! %his is significant for the sentence function :li#e statement9 ?uestion or order;! >n intonational sentence consists of one or more intonational phrases9 and e/er, phrase has a nucleus and ero or more s,lla7les! >n e'ample :Sohn889 p! (8);: eti #e,@se,@,oH where go@hon.-interrog.+pol. JWhere are :,ou; goingHJ QZX :2; !di :2; !ga :2; !se :3;!2o: :3; :(; ZR 4ossi7le intonation se?uences are :i; Z2S!3(Z9 :ii; Z2S!4Z or :iii; Z2S!3Z :'S denotes Aone or more 'B9 ! is the nucleus;! %he se?uences :i; and :ii; are utterance@final9 :iii; occurs internall,! :ii; is also a t,pical pattern for ,es/no@?uestions :Sohn889 p! (8);: ece, ,esterda, ha##,o school e, to an not #a@ss@eH go@past-interrog.

JDidnJt :,ou; go to school ,esterda,HJ QZX :2; !2@e :3; Zha :2; !#J2o :2; !e :3; Zan :2; !ga :2; !sJX :4; ZR

). *orp"ology
).1 +ord categories

%here are different propositions for the different le'ical and functional categories of words in Korean! %he num7er /aries around ten9 this wor# will use the eight categories defined 7, Sohn889 p! 203ff! %he, are all well@#nown9 so onl, important differences to .ermanic word categories will 7e displa,ed in detail!

%he nouns are 7, far the largest class of words! <ot onl, are the man, nati/e Korean nouns of all #inds :names9 common nouns9 defecti/e nouns;9 7ut also nearl, all loan words9 regardless of the original word class9 7ecome nouns in Korean! %he pronouns are not different9 7ut ha/e the special a7ilit, of mar#ing the social position of the referred@to person: in plain speech9 the second person singular is AneB9 7ut the (0/()

pronoun used in familiar speech is Acane,B and e/en different in other conte'ts! Gor a description of the different speech mar#ers9 ha/e a loo# at the inflection section and the s,nta' part a7out sentences!

<umerals can 7e nati/e Korean words or loan words from 1hinese or Cnglish! *n written language9 >ra7ic character are used 6er7s are9 as in other languages9 di/ided into main and au'iliar, /er7s9 the difference mainl, is in inflectional 7eha/iour9 which will 7e co/ered later Korean ad2ecti/es do not wor# li#e Cnglish or .erman ad2ecti/es ha/ing the form Asu72ect I copula I ad2ecti/eB9 7ut are also inflected li#e /er7s :e/en more9 /er7s and ad2ecti/es are the onl, inflected categories; %o modif, a noun li#e using Aad2ecti/e nounB in Cnglish9 a modifier from the determiner categor, is used %he last categor, are the particles9 which are postpositional functional words! %he 7oundar, 7etween a particle and the word 7efore it is not a real word 7oundar, 7ut 7eha/es li#e a morpheme 7oundar,9 for instance phonologicall,! S,ntactic relation9 delimiters and con2unctions are part of this class Qthis class reminded me of clitics9 although Sohn88 ne/er calls them li#e thatR

).2 ,erivation

Li#e in traditional Western morpholog,9 a deri/ational process is defined as creating a new word from another one! 1ategor, change is a sufficient sign for deri/ation9 7ut not necessar,! +owe/er9 prefi'es :li#e negation prefi'es pi@9 pul@; ma, not change the word categor, and are limited to deri/ation onl, :all e'amples from Sohn889 p! 2(8ff;! <oun @T noun: o,@ Jonl,J @aci :diminuti/e; cen@ JentireJ ta,@ JgreatJ @ca JpersonJ o,@atul Jonl,@sonJ :nati/e; #ang@aci :dog@; Jpupp,J :nati/e; cen@se,#e, Jthe whole worldJ :nati/e; ta,@#aco# J7ig famil,J :nati/e; #waha#@ca :science@; JscientistJ :1hinese;

swuh@ Jmale animalJ swuh@#a, Jmale dogJ :nati/e;

Gor noun@to@noun deri/ation9 different affi'es to 7e e'clusi/el, used with either Korean or 1hinese words e'ist! %his is not true for other processes9 simpl, 7ecause there are /er, few loan words in the other categories9 as laid out 7efore! 6er7 @T noun: Jact of9 thingJ suffi': proposed K$ /#i/Y #@T ero / 1SU pel :to earn; S /#i/ @T peli Jmone, ma#ing 2o7J ((/()

po :to see; S /#i/ @T po# Je'ampleJ @po JthingJ >d2ecti/e @T noun: Jha/ing x ?ualit,J suffi': proposed K$ /#i/9 #@T ero / 1SU chwuw :cold; S /#i/ @T chwuw@i JcoldnessJ #hu :7ig; S /#i/ @T #hu@#i Jsi eJ 6er7al clause @T noun: Jact of9 thingJ suffi': proposed K$ /#i/9 #@T ero / 1SU #wi@#el :ear@hang9 compound; S /#i/ @T #wi@#el@i JearringJ ha,@pala :sun@ga e9 compound; S /#i/ @T ha,@pala@#i JsunflowerJ %he citation form of /er7s is alwa,s /er7Sta9 the stem can not sta, alone under an, circumstances :e'amples from Sohn889 p! 224ff;! 6er7al prefi'es: sel@ Jinsufficientl,J: 6er7 @T /er7: @ttuli :intensifier;: >d2ecti/e @T /er7: @chwu :causati/e suffi';: nac@:low;@chwuta Jto lowerJ %here are also other processes :li#e dead/er7ial deri/ation; and the LC$= /er7ali er :as Sohn88; calls it9 which essentiall, is a con/ersion process that changes nouns into /er7 roots! >d2ecti/e and ad/er7 deri/ation function accordingl, and are omitted for the sa#e of 7re/it, here! ##a,@:to 7rea#;ttulita Jto smashJ sel@cwu#ta :to die; J7e half ali/eJ wul@po :cr,@; Jcr,@7a7,J

).3 Inflection

>s mentioned earlier9 inflection is almost e'clusi/el, limited to ad2ecti/es and /er7s :e'cept for the plural suffi' @tul for nouns9 which also 7eha/es li#e a particle in some en/ironments;! *nflectional suffi'es follow deri/ation! %he t,pes of inflectional suffi'es (2/()

are:

non@terminal suffi'es %hese suffi'es are used for honoring the su72ect9 mar#ing tense and aspect and modalit, :all these will 7e co/ered in the s,nta' part;

sentence enders %he three different t,pes of sentence enders are used for mar#ing sentence t,pe :declarati/e9 interrogati/e9 propositi/e9 imperati/e;9 mood :indicati/e9 retrospecti/e9 re?uesti/e; as well as honoring the listener/audience! %he honor/speech le/el also influences the sentence t,pe suffi'9 ma#ing this a portmonteau morph9 which reflects one of the si' speech le/els :intimate9 familiar9 7lunt9 polite9 deferential9 plain;! Special sentence enders can also 7e used to relate a su7 clause to a main clause9 li#e J@ci@ manJ :7ut9 although; J@ta#aJ :and then; or J@#iJ :and also;!

).% !ompounding

%his is the most widel, used process for creating new words from le'ical ones! %hree t,pes e'ist9 su7@compounding :the ma2or t,pe in .erman and Cnglish9 modifier S head;9 co@ compounding :enumeration of two or more words9 forming a new one; and argument predication :/er7 and o72ect;! =ften the meaning of the new compound is created metaphoricall,! %he different #inds of compounding can 7e applied iterati/el, in random order9 forming new9 longer words! Knli#e deri/ation9 nati/e and 1hinese words are not restricted to go together onl, with words from the same language! Some compounding rules are different for argument predication with a transiti/e rootY while Korean compounds of this t,pe follow the =6 scheme of the language9 compounds with 1hinese words follow the 1hinese 6= s,nta'! %his is one more sign for the o/erwhelmingl, huge influence of 1hinese on Korean :30[ of the le'ical words are 1hinese\;! Some e'amples :from Sohn889 p! 240ff; are: <ati/e nouns9 su7compounding: #ho@s@mul mul@s@#a, non@path ce@sung i@sung chen@ci :nose9 water; :water9 dog; Jnasal mucusJ JsealJ

<ati/e nouns9 co@compounding: :rice field9 dr, field; JfarmJ :that9 world; :this9 world; :hea/en9 earth; Jthe world of the deadJ :germ!: Denseits; Jthis worldJ :germ!: Diesseits; Juni/erseJ (3/() <ati/e noun and determiner:

1hinese nouns9 co@compounding:

pu@mo chang@sal #ep@nata #il@tulta

:father9 mother; :window9 strips; :fear9 come out; :road9 enter;

JparentsJ JlatticeJ J7e/get scaredJ Jget used toJ

1hinese noun S Korean noun: <ati/e noun and intransiti/e /er7:

-. Synta.
-.1 Sentences

>s alread, said9 /er7s and ad2ecti/es :together forming the predicate class; mostl, function similarl,! +owe/er9 ad2ecti/es are limited to appearance in declarati/e and interrogati/e sentences and can not 7e made progressi/e! 4redicates can 7e intransiti/e :including reciprocal or passi/e constructions;9 transiti/e :ta#ing one o72ect; or ditransiti/e :ta#ing a direct and an indirect o72ect;! Li#e in Dapanese9 transiti/e /er7s can onl, ha/e animate su72ects9 e'ceptions 7eing personifications or metaphores reser/ed for poetical or literar, use mostl,! Sentences can either 7e simple or comple'9 the latter meaning that a sentence has at least one em7edded sentence which itself can 7e comple' or simple! Sentences can ha/e9 as mentioned with the sentence enders in the morpholog, section9 ha/e different t,pes :declarati/e9 interrogati/e9 propositi/e9 imperati/e;9 which do not show structural differences9 as their t,pe is solel, mar#ed 7, suffi'ation! %he most simple sentence is one consisting of an inflected intransiti/e predicate with optional modifiers li#e :Sohn889 p! 255;: Kim@#wun Kim@"r decl.+pol. i mi#wu# e,se in #,oswu professor #a t,o@ess@e! nom. >merica nom. 7ecome@past-

J"r Kim 7ecame a professor in >mericaJ > transiti/e sentence is :Sohn889 p! 2)); "ia "ia #a cha #a iss@e,o! nom. car nom. e'ist@decl.+pol.

J"ia has a car!J Cm7edded clauses are also mar#ed 7, special sentence enders! %he main t,pes are:

1on2uncti/e clauses9 which are used for coordination :and9 7ut9 or; or su7ordination (4/()

:conditional9 cause9 intenti/e etc!; Gor instance9 one allomorph of the and@coordination is @m,e :Sohn889 p! 300;: nam south un #a,pang#wu# i@m,e pu# un ph,e,so,#wu# i@ta! 7e@decl. contr. open nation 7e@and north contr. closed nation

JSouth Korea is and open nation and <orth Korea is a closed nationJ %he are a lot of t,pes for su7ordination clauses with a great num7er of sentence end suffi'es which are left out for 7re/it,!

$elati/e clauses used to modif, the head noun! %here are not an, relati/e pronouns9 the connection is entirel, esta7lished 7, the suffi'! %he most common t,pe of a relati/e sentence is the AproperB t,pe with the suffi' @:u;n :Sohn889 p! 3(0;: na, * #a manna@n ,eca woman nom. meet@rel.

J%he woman whom * metJ

1omplement clauses for modif,ing the predicate of the em7edding sentence! >gain9 a /ast num7er of suffi'es with different allomorph e'ist to create constructions li#e Aso thatB 9 Aha7ituall,B9 Anearl,B9 Aintending toB and man, others9 used in connection with special :most au'iliar,; /er7s <ominali ed constructions that slightl, resem7le Cnglish gerunds! =ne possi7le suffi' is @#i :Aact ofB;9 a common e'ample :Sohn889 p! 3(8;: pi rain #a o@#i sica#!#a,@ss@ta start@past-decl. nom. come@nom.

J*t started rainingJ

]uotati/e clauses9 which can 7e used similar to complements9 7ecause the, are closel, connected to the main predicate! > structural difference is that the sentence ender of su7clause is a main clause ender followed 7, the ?uotation particle A#oB! "oreo/er9 ?uotation clauses are not 7ound to the tense of the main clause! %he more common t,pe is indirect ?uotation9 which is limited to /er7s of reporting or perception! %he speech le/el in this em7edded sentence is alwa,s neutral9 not ta#ing an, politeness suffi'es at all! *n spo#en language9 the ?uotation particle is often left outY if the main sentence has a :semanticall,; simple /er7 li#e Asa,B9 it can also 7e omitted9 as in :Sohn889 p! 320;: apeci father nun na contr. me hanthe, to #ongpuha@la #o ha@s,@e stud,@imp. ?uote sa,@hon.@decl.+pol.

J", father tells me to stud,J %he stra, suffi'es from the deleted main /er7 are patched onto the ?uotation clause so that the sentence t,pe is not lost!!

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%he Korean case s,stem is particularl, rich compared to Cnglish or .erman9 7ut * will onl, displa, it /er, 7riefl,9 7ecause a rich case s,stem is not uncommon at all9 concentrating on the more uni?ue features of Korean li#e honorifics! >s in most other languages9 there are nominati/e case :usuall, the su72ect;9 geniti/e :possession et al!;9 accusati/e :direct o72ect of transiti/e /er7s;9 dati/e :indirect o72ect of ditransiti/e /er7s;9 static locati/e :place and time;9 d,namic locati/e :occurs with acti/it, /er7s;9 goal9 source :occurs with /er7s of mo/ement;9 direction9 instrument9 function9 a7lati/e :directional and instrumental use;9 comitati/e and connecti/e :connecting two nominals;9 comparati/e :Korean9 li#e other >ltaic languages9 lac#s ad2ecti/e suffi'es for comparison; and /ocati/e! >ll these cases are reali ed 7, particles!

-.2 *ood/ tense and aspect

>s said in the morpholog, part9 sentence enders also ha/e a slot for mood9 which can 7e indicati/e9 re?uesti/e9 retrospecti/e :which implies past and tells of the spea#ers perception or e'perience9 7ut is not used for reporting or telling stories; or suppositi/e! Gor tense and aspect realisation there are two suffi' slots at the /er79 which can 7oth 7e filled with @:a/e;ss! *f onl, one is filled9 the tense if past or perfect9 if 7oth9 past@past or past perfect9 none can 7e one of non@past9 present9 present progressi/e or future! %he distinction is then made e'clusi/el, 7, ad/er7ials!

-.3 &assive and causative

%hese constructions are 7uilt using deri/ational suffi'es! %he occurrence is limited to a certain num7er of words9 and while passi/e is usuall, an intransiti/e /er7 a su72ect and an agent9 a causati/e is a /er7 with one or more o72ects and a su72ect! 4assi/ation is done 7, ma#ing the su72ect the agent9 replacing the predicate 7, its passi/e form and changing the o72ect into su72ect9 li#e in Sohn889 p! 33);: swun#,eng police i #u totwu# thief ul acc. cap@ass@ta :acti/e; nom. the catch@past-decl.

J%he police caught the thief!J #u the totwu# thief i swun#,eng hanthe, 7, cap@h,@ess@ta :passi/e; catch@passive-past-decl.

nom. police

J%he thief was caught 7, the policeJ We see the addition of the passi/e suffi' to the /er7 and the 7,@particle hanthe, :informall, used for animate agents;! %here are other particles9 li#e ##e, :humans onl,9 deferential;9 e,#e, :animate9 formal; or e, :allowing inanimate agents;! <ormall,9 the passi/e is (3/()

preferred to 7e used with animate su72ects9 although a passi/e construction is not alwa,s possi7le :from semantic conte't;! 1ausati/es do not descri7e affectedness li#e passi/es9 7ut the process of e/o#ing a wanted 7eha/iour or action in/with some7od, or something else! > new :super@;su72ect is introduced9 replacing the old su72ect9 which 7ecomes an o72ect of the also introduced /er79 which has to 7e a causati/e one! 1ausati/e construction are di/ided into short and long forms! %he short from ta#es the suffi' @ita and has a direct meaning :die @T causati/e @T #ill;9 while the long form with @#e, ha is indirect :die @T causati/e @T cause to die;! Eoth forms are highl, producti/e! >n e'ample for short :simple; causati/e :Sohn 89 p! 353;: ai #a os ul acc. ip@ess@ta wear@past-decl. child nom. clothes J%he child put on the clothes!J na, * decl. J* dressed the child!J %he simple form has the semantic feature of presupposing the e'istence of the acted@upon o72ects9 which the long :comple'; form has not :resem7ling the meaning of the /er7 ha included in the suffi'9 which can also mean JcreateJ;! #a ai e,#e, os clothes ul acc. ip@h,@ess@ta wear@ma#e :dress;@past-

nom. child to9 acc.

-.% &oliteness and "onorifics

>s mentioned 7efore9 honorifics are used to e'press politeness on the one hand to a referred person :regardless of su72ect9 o72ect or other sentence function; and the addressee of the utterance! > conse?uence of this is that sa,ing a sentence without ha/ing an, command of oneJs own social relation to those two #inds of people is impossi7le! $eferent honorifics are suffi'es added to the nouns and less important compared to addressee honorifics9 which can 7e e'pressed on /arious wa,s:

pronoun usage When tal#ing to an,7od, 7ut a child or ,ounger adult9 the first person pronoun AceB is used9 otherwise AnaB! %he second person shows a 7road /ariation9 from AelusinB :used for male persons o/er si't, ,ears; and Ata,#B :towards a stranger; to AtangsinB :towards a su7ordinate or 7etween partners; and some more li#e AneB :towards children;

address terms Knli#e Cnglish or .erman9 man, terms can 7e used to address people9 including nearl, (5/()

all professional titles and #inship terms! %he address terms can 7e suffi'ed to e'press social relation and politeness le/el

speech le/els >s mentioned alread, in the morpholog, section9 there are si' speech le/els used two different people

plain speech is used towards all children :defined 7, age;9 grandchildren9 children :in famil, terms;9 ,ounger relati/es in general and 7etween close friends intimate speech is used 7, small children towards their famil, mem7ers or /er, close friends familiar speech is used towards an, AinferiorB adult or adolescents9 7ut is o7soleted toda, 7lunt speech is mainl, used 7, older spea#ers9 7ut 7ecomes less and less used toda,9 mostl, 7ecause of its /er, impolite implication polite speech is the most popular le/el nowada,s and used throughout dail, communication 7, male and female spea#ers deferential speech is used onl, towards highl, superior adults and in religious conte'ts! %his speech le/el can 7e freel, intermi'ed with polite speech

Literature:
Sohn88: Sohn9 +o@"in A%he Korean LanguageB9 1am7ridge Kni/ersit, 4ress (888 .rant58: .rant9 Eruce K! A> .uide to Korean 1haracters I Second re/ised editionB9 +oll,m *nternational 1orp!9 Cli a7eth (8)2

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