Dual Spaces

Paul Skoufranis February 23, 2012

The purpose of this document is develop the theory of the dual space of a vector space. It will be demonstrated that several properties of a vector space can be examined through the use of the dual space in addition to several abstract results which are important beyond this course. It has already been discussed in class that if V and W are two vector spaces over a eld F, then the set of all linear maps from V to W , denoted L(V, W ), is a vector space over F. We will be examining the specic case where W = F. Denition) Let V be a vector space over a eld F. The dual space of V , denoted V , is the set of all linear maps from V to F; that is V = L(V, F) = {T : V F | T is linear}. The elements of V are called linear functionals on V . Note) We recall that L(V, F) is a vector space over F and thus V is a vector space over F with pointwise addition and scalar multiplication. Moreover, if V is nite dimensional with dim(V ) = n, then dim(V ) = dim(L(V, F)) = n as well. Example) Fix x [0, 1]. x (C ([0, 1])) . Dene x : C ([0, 1]) R by x (f ) = f (x) for all f C ([0, 1]).
1 0

Then

Example) Dene T : C ([0, 1]) R by T (f ) =

f (x) dx for all f C ([0, 1]). Then T (C ([0, 1])) .

n i=1 n i,j =1

Example) Dene tr : Mn (R) R by tr([ai,j ]) = Example) Dene : Mn (R) R by ([ai,j ]) =

ai,i for all [ai,j ] Mn (R). Then tr Mn (R) . ai,j for all [ai,j ] Mn (R). Then Mn (R) .

Through the above examples we have see that there are a plethora of interesting linear functionals on a given vector space. In general V can be poorly behaved (look at the linear functionals given on C ([0, 1])). However V is very well-behaved in the nite dimensional setting. Theorem 1) Let V be a nite dimensional vector space and suppose = {v1 , . . . , vn } is a basis for V . For each j {1, . . . , n} we dene fj V by fj (a1 v1 + + an vn ) = aj (that is, fj is the unique linear map from V to F (guaranteed to exist by Theorem 2.6 of the text) such that fj (vj ) = 1 and fj (vi ) = 0 if i = j ). Then = {f1 , f2 , . . . , fn } is a basis for V and is called the dual basis n of . Moreover, if f V then f = i=1 f (vi )fi .

Proof: Since we have already noted that dim(V ) = dim(V ), to prove that = {f1 , f2 , . . . , fn } is a basis for V , it suces to show that span( ) = V . Along the way we will verify the statement that if f V n then f = i=1 f (vi )fi . n n Let f V be arbitrary. To see that f = i=1 f (vi )fi it suces to show that f (v ) = i=1 f (vi )fi (v ) for all v V . To begin, let v V be arbitrary. Since is a basis for V , there exists scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , an F n such that v = j =1 aj vj . Hence
n i=1

f (vi )fi (v )

= = = = f

n i=1 n i=1 n i=1

f (vi )fi f (vi )ai ai f (vi )

n j =1

n j =1

aj vj

aj vj = f (v ).

Therefore, as v V was arbitrary, f = and thus is a basis for V .

n i=1

f (vi )fi . Therefore, as f V was arbitrary, V = span( )

Example) Let = {e1 , . . . , en } be the standard ordered basis for Fn . Then the dual basis {f1 , f2 , . . . , fn } of are the linear functionals with the property fj (a1 , . . . , an ) = fj (a1 e1 + + an en ) = aj for all a1 , . . . , an F and for all j {1, . . . , n}. One important use of the dual basis of a vector space is that it can be used to gain information about the vector space through a few easy computations. It is like in quantum mechanics where a few measurements can be made of subatomic particles to determine which subatomic particles are present. Theorem 2) Let V be a nite dimensional vector space, let = {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis for V , and let n = {f1 , f2 , . . . , fn } be the dual basis of . If v V then v = i=1 fi (v )vi . Hence, if v V is such that f (v ) = 0 for all f V , then v = 0V . Proof: Let v V be arbitrary. Since is a basis for V , there exists scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , an F such that v = a1 v1 + + an vn . Hence fj (v ) = fj (a1 v1 + + an vn ) = aj for all j {1, . . . , n}. Hence
n

fi (v )vi = a1 v1 + + an vn = v
i=1

as desired. Suppose v V is such that f (v ) = 0 for all f V . Then fj (v ) = 0 for all j {1, . . . , n} so
n

v=
i=1

fi (v )vi = 0

as desired. We have seen that knowledge of the dual space of a vector space V can be used to gain information about the vectors in V . In addition, we can also relate the theory of linear maps and dual spaces. To begin, suppose V and W are vector spaces over a eld F and T : V W is a linear map. If g W , then the map 2

g T : V F is also a linear map. This shows that we can use the linear map T and elements of W to construct elements of V . This leads us to the following result. Theorem 3) Let V and W be vector spaces over a eld F and let T : V W be a linear map. Dene T t : W V by T t (g ) = g T . Then T t is a linear map and is called the transpose of T . Moreover, if V and W are nite dimensional vector spaces with bases and respectively, and if and t are the corresponding dual bases, then [T t ] = ([T ] ) . Proof: As mentioned in the previous paragraph, T t is a well-dened map. To see that T t is linear, let F and g1 , g2 W be arbitrary. Then T t (g1 + g2 ) = (g1 + g2 ) T = (g1 T ) + (g2 T ) = T t (g1 ) + T t (g2 ) (where we are using the fact that the composition of linear maps is linear in each component; Theorem 2.10 in the text). Hence T t is a linear map. Let = {v1 , . . . , vn } and = {w1 , . . . , wm } be bases for V and W respectively and let = {f1 , . . . , fn } t and = {g1 , . . . , gm } be the corresponding dual bases. To show [T t ] = ([T ] ) , we notice that
n

T t (gj ) = gj T =
i=1

gj (T (vi ))fi

by Theorem 1). Therefore the (i, j )th entry of [T t ] is gj (T (vi )). However, if [T ] = [ai,j ] then n

T (vi ) =
k=1

ak,i wk

by the denition of [T ] . Hence

n

gj (T (vi )) = gj
k=1

ak,i wk

= aj,i

t t by the denition of gj . Hence the (i, j )th entry of [T t ] is aj,i . Thus [T ] = ([T ] ) .

Now that we have investigated the dual space of a vector space, we note that the dual space is a vector space so there exists a dual space of each dual space. Again this can lead to some interesting results. Denition) Let V be a vector space over a eld F. The double dual of V (also called the second dual space of V ), denoted V , is the dual space of V ; that is V = (V ) = {S : V F | S is linear} One interesting property of the double dual of V is that vectors in V can be viewed as vectors in the double dual. Theorem 4) Let V be a vector space over a eld F. For each vector v V , dene v : V F by v (f ) = f (v ) for all f V . Then v V for each vector v V . Moreover the map : V V dened by (v ) = v for all v V is linear. The map is called the canonical inclusion of V into V . Proof: Fix v V . Since v : V F, to show that v V we need to show that v is linear. To see this, let f1 , f2 V and F be arbitrary. Then v (f1 + f2 ) = (f1 + f2 )(v ) = f1 (v ) + f2 (v ) = v (f1 ) + v (f2 ) by the denition of v by the denition of the sum of two linear maps by the denition of v 3

Hence v is linear so v V for all v V . To show that : V V is linear, we need to show for all v1 , v2 V and F that (v1 + v2 ) = (v1 ) + (v2 ); that is, we need to show that v1 + v2 = v1 + v2 . Since v1 + v2 and v1 + v2 are functions from V to F, to show that v1 + v2 = v1 + v2 is suces to show that v1 + v2 (f ) = (v1 + v2 )(f ) for all f V . However, if f V is arbitrary v1 + v2 (f ) = f (v1 + v2 ) = f (v1 ) + f (v2 ) = v1 (f ) + v2 (f ) = (v1 + v2 )(f ) by the denition of v1 + v2 since f is linear by the denition of v1 and v2 by the denition of the sum of linear maps

Hence, as f V was arbitrary, is a linear map. In the nite dimensional setting, the canonical inclusion of V into V is an isomorphism. Theorem 5) Let V be a vector space over a eld F. The canonical inclusion of V into V , : V V , is an isomorphism. Solution: Notice dim(V ) = dim((V ) ) = dim(V ) = dim(V ). Therefore, since is linear and dim(V ) = dim(V ), will be an isomorphism if and only if is one-to-one. To see that is one-to-one, suppose v ker(). We desire to show that v = 0V . Since v ker(), (v ) = 0V so v = 0V . Therefore, for all f V , f (v ) = v (f ) = 0V (f ) = 0. Hence v = 0V by Theorem 2). Thus is an isomorphism.