Government Engineering College Kozhikode-5

Electrical Machines Lab Manual

AI09 308(P), ME09 307(P)

(Version 1.1.0 - June 25, 2012)

Prepared by :- Mohammed Sadik.P.K(2010 AEI batch) Ranjith A.R (2010 AEI batch) Nikhil Narayanan (2010 AEI batch) Guided by :- Smt. Sangeetha K (Associate Professor(EEE))

A Type set in L TEX 2 , circuit designs and graphs in X Circuit.

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2011, 2012, Some Rights Reserved. You may get a copy of this work from www.sadiq.tk. This work is licensed under : Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 India License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/in/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900, Mountain View, California, 94041, USA.

Thanks to:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Smt. Sangeetha K(Associate Professor(EEE)) Sri. Asokan (Assistant Professor(EEE)) Dr. Reena P(Associate Professor(ECE)) Najmudheen P.K (Cherumukku) Jazeel M (Kolappuram) Selil C.P(MES Kuttippuram-EC) Mansoor M (GECK-2008 AEI batch) Sajith P.P (GECK-2010 AEI batch) Misthah K.M (AWH Kozhikode-EEE)

CONTENTS

1. Load test on single phase transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2. Load test on 3 squirrel cage induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3. O.C.C of dc shunt generator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 4. Load test on dc shunt generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 5. Load test on dc series motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 6. Measurement of coupling coecient of transformer coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 7. O.C and S.C tests on single phase transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 8. Three phase power measurement by two wattmeter method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 9. Calibration of single phase energy meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 10. Resistance measurement using Wheatstones bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 11. Resistance measurement using Kelvins double bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 12. V-I Characteristics of incandescent lamp and linear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 13. Open circuit and short circuit test on three phase alternator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 14. No load and blocked rotor tests on 3 slip ring induction motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF LOAD TEST

0-10A MI 150V,10A,upf M L 10A B 0-5A MI S

P
230V 1- 50 Hz AC

A
S1

V P1

V
E C NL

0-150V MI P2

V
0-250V MI S2 Load

120/240V 1KVA TRANSFORMER

Rated current on primary side =

1000 = ...... 120 1000 = ...... 240

Rated current on secondary side =

REGULATION AND EFFICIENCY CURVES

Regulation Regulation (%) Efficiency (%) Efficiency

Output (watts)

Experiment 1

Experiment 1

LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

AIM
To conduct load test on the given single phase transformer at unity power factor and determine the eciency and regulation curve.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Voltmeter 0-250V MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Voltmeter 0-150V MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ammeter 0-10A MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ammeter 0-5A MI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Wattmeter 150V, 10A, upf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Autotransformer(cont. variable) 0-270V, 10A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. no. no. no. no. no.

THEORY
Regulation of a transformer is dened as the drop in terminal voltage of a transformer expressed as a percentage of the no-load terminal voltage. %Regulation = Vno load Von load Vno load

When a purely resistive load is connected across the secondary, the transformer will be working at unity power factor. Terminal voltage, V = Induced emf [E2 ] I2 r2 I2 x2 Where r2 and x2 are the secondary winding resistance and leakage reactance respectively and I2 is the secondary load current. Output 100. The eciency of transformer is dened as Input As the load current increases the power output increases. The iron loss remains constant from no load to full load. The copper loss increases as the square of the load current. Thus the eciency curve starts from zero, increases to a maximum value(When iron loss = Cu loss) and thereafter starts decreasing.

OBSERVATION
Sl. No. V1
(volts)

I1
(Amp)

W1
(watts)

V2
(volts)

I2
(Amp)

Output
(watts)

Eciency (%)

Regulation (%)

V2 at no load = VN L = . . . . . . Sample Calculation (set no . . . ) Primary Voltage (V1 ) Primary Current (I1 ) = ......... = .........

Wattmeter Reading (W1 )= Input power = . . . . . . . . . Secondary Voltage (V2 ) = . . . . . . . . . Secondary Current (I2 ) = . . . . . . . . . Output = I2 V2 Eciency = = .........

Output power 100= . . . . . . . . . Input power VNL VL 100 VNL = .........

Regulation =

PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. The supply is switched on keeping the autotransformer in the minimum position and at no load. Adjust the autotransformer to get the rated voltage of the transformer. The readings of all the meters are noted down. The secondary voltage at no load is also noted down. This value is VNL . A small load is added on the secondary side and the meter readings are again noted. The experiment is repeated for dierent values of load current till the current on the primary side equals the rated value. The load is then reduced to zero, the autotransformer is brought back to the zero position and the supply is switched o. The readings are then tabulated as shown and the regulation and eciency curves are plotted.

RESULT
Conducted load test on the given 1- transformer and plotted the regulation and eciency curves.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What do you understand by regulation of a transformer? What are the other methods of testing transformers? What is the disadvantage of testing a transformer using load test? Is a high or low value of regulation preferred for a transformer? Give reasons. What are the reasons for the drop in terminal voltage as the secondary current is increased?

CONNECTION DIAGRAM
0-10A MI

R
10A

600V,10A,upf L M C V

50Hz AC

V Y
10A

0-600V MI

R
IM

S1

S2

400V 3 -

Y B

B
10A D.O.L STARTER

C M

V L

600V,10A,upf

MACHINE DETAILS Voltage V Current I Power Connection Speed(rpm) Phase 415 V 7.5A 5HP 1440 3

Synchronous speed = =

120f P 120 50 4

= 1500 rpm

Experiment 2

Experiment 2

LOAD TEST ON 3 SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR

AIM
To conduct load test on the given 3- squirrel cage induction motor and plot the performance characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Tachometer 0-600V MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0-10A MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600V,10A, upf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . To measure speed 1 no. 1 no. 2 nos.

THEORY
A squirrel cage induction motor essentially consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator is a hollow cylindrical structure with slots on the inner periphery and carries a three phase winding. The winding can be connected in star or delta and is connected across a 3- supply. The rotor is also a cylindrical structure with slots on the outer periphery. The slots carry thick Al or Cu bars. These bars are short circuited at both ends by means of end rings. When a 3- supply is given to a 3- winding displaced by 120 in space, a magnetic eld of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed is produced. This ux links with the stationary rotor, thus inducing an emf in it. As the rotor circuit is closed, a current ows through it. The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the cause producing it. The cause is the relative motion between the stator magnetic eld and the rotor. So the rotor starts rotating in the same direction as the stator magnetic eld and tries to catch up with it. But practically it is never able to do so. Because if it does so, there would be no relative motion, no emf and hence no torque.

OBSERVATIONS Sl. V I W1 W2 S1 No. (volts) (Amp) (watts) (watts) (Kg)

S2 N T Output (Kg) (rpm) (N m) (watts)

Input slip pf Eciency (watts) (%) (%)

10

Thus an induction motor always runs at a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed. The term slip is of importance in an induction motor and is dened as %slip = Ns N 100 Ns

Where, Ns - Synchronous speed =

120 f P

N - rotor speed f - frequency P - No. of poles of the machine An induction motor can never operate at s=0. It always operates between s=0 and s=1(starting). The performance characteristics are plots of eciency, torque, speed, slip, pf and line current versus output. Current and torque increases with increase in output. The induction motor is essentially a constant speed motor. However speed reduces gradually with increase in output and slip increases gradually with increase in output. The pf is low at low loads and increases with increase in output. The eciency increases with increase in output, reaches a peak value and then gradually drops with further increase in output.

PROCEDURE
The load on the motor is completely removed by loosening the brake drum. The motor is to be always started and stopped at no load, The supply is switched on and the motor is started using a Direct On Line Starter (DOL Starter). The readings of the voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeters and spring balance are noted down. The speed is measured using a tachometer. The load is then increased in steps, each time noting down all the above readings. The experiment is repeated for dierent values of load currents till the rated current of the machine is reached. During the experiment, the machine may get heated up. It is cooled by pouring some water into the brake drum.

11

Sample Calculation (set no . . . )

Voltage (V) = . . . . . . . . . Current (I) = . . . . . . . . . Wattmeter Reading 1 (W1 ) = . . . . . . . . . Wattmeter Reading 2 (W2 ) = . . . . . . . . . Spring balance Readings S1 = . . . . . . . . . S2 = . . . . . . . . . Speed (N) = . . . . . . . . . Torque (T) = (S1 S2 )Rg = . . . . . . Where, R = Radius of brakedrum = . . . . . . . . .

g = 9.8 m/s2 120 f 120 50 Synchronous speed = = = 1500 rpm P 4 (Ns N ) 100 = . . . . . . . . . slip(%) = Ns Input power = (W1 + W2 ) = . . . . . . . . . powerfactor(cos ) = (W1 + W2 ) = ......... 3V I 2N T Output power= = ......... 60 Output = ......... Input

Eciency =

Performance Characteristics
Slip pf (%) T N (rpm) (Nm)

(%)

Efficiency

Speed pf Torque Slip

Output (watts)
12

At low loads,(when pf < 0.5) one of the wattmeters read negative, in such cases, the supply is switched o and the connections to the M and L terminals of the wattmeter are interchanged. The meter now reads positive, but it is to be recorded as negative. The load on the machine is removed completely and the supply is switched o. The readings are tabulated and the performance characteristics are plotted.

RESULT
Conducted load test on the given 3- squirrel cage induction motor and plotted the performance characteristics.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. How are the meter ratings selected for this experiment? Why does one of the wattmeters read -ve at starting? What is slip in an induction motor? What are the two types of 3- induction motors and what is the dierence between the two? What is the value of slip at starting? What are the advantages and disadvantages of squirrel cage induction motor? What is the condition for maximum torque in an induction motor? What are the dierent losses in an induction motor? Give some applications of 3- squirrel cage induction motor? Explain a typical Torque-slip characteristic. What is the eect of increased rotor resistance on the performance of an induction machine?

13

CONNECTION DIAGRAM

+
20A

L F A

3 POINT STARTER 600 2A S A1 A1 Rh2 + 600 2A F1 + 0-30V MC F2 0-2A MC + 0-300V MC

Rh1 220V DC F1

M
A2

G
A2

V
-

20A

F2

MACHINE MOTOR 3.5 KW Speed - 1500rpm volts - 220V Amps - 18.6 A Winding - shunt Field - 220V,0.46A

DETAILS GENERATOR 3.5 KW Speed - 1500rpm volts - 220V Amps - 16 A Winding - shunt Field - 220V,0.46A

OBSERVATION
Sl No. Field current Eo at rated speed Eo at 1000 rpm

To determine O.C.C at 1000 rpm We have E N at same ux or eld current E1 N1 = E2 N2 Where, N2 is 1000 rpm N1 Rated speed = 1500 rpm E2 = N2 N1 E1

Experiment 3

14

Experiment 3

O.C.C OF DC SHUNT GENERATOR

AIM
To conduct no load test on the given d.c shunt generator and determine the following:1. Open circuit characteristics at rated speed. 2. Predetermine the O.C.C at 1000 rpm. 3. The critical eld resistance at rated speed. 4. The critical speed of the machine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Voltmeter Voltmeter Ammeter Rheostat Tachometer MC (0-300V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. MC (0-30V). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 no. MC (0-2A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. 600, 2A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 nos.

THEORY
The O.C.C is a curve showing the relationship between the no load emf generated and the shunt eld current (Eo and If ). Even when the eld current is zero there is some residual magnetism present in the poles. Hence there is a small voltage generated even at zero eld current, which is called the residual voltage. As the eld current is increased, Eo also increases and the curve traced is almost a straight line. As If is further increased the poles start getting saturated, the straight line relation no longer holds good and the curve bends and becomes almost horizontal.

Critical resistance
It is that value of resistance in the eld circuit at which the generator will just excite(or voltage build up begins). If the resistance is higher, the machine will fail to build up voltage. It is given by the slope of the tangent drawn to the linear portion of the magnetization curve from the origin.

15

MEASUREMENT OF SHUNT FIELD RESISTANCE

+
220V DC

100,2.8A

0-2A MC + +

F1

V
-

0-250V MC

F2

OBSERVATION
Sl No. V I Rf

16

Conditions for voltage build up in a d.c shunt generator

1. There should be some residual magnetism in the poles. 2. For the given direction of rotation, the shunt eld coils should be properly connected. That is, The coils should be so connected that the ux generated by the eld current aids the residual ux. 3. When excited at no load, the shunt eld circuit resistance should be less than the critical resistance.

Critical speed
It is that value of speed at which the given shunt eld resistance represents the critical resistance. It is determined as follows. For the same value of If determine E1 and E2 from the eld resistance lines. Then E1 N1 E2 N1 = Nc = E2 Nc E1 Where, Nc is the Critical speed

PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in the diagram. The motor eld rheostat (Rh1 ) is kept in minimum position, the generator eld rheostat (Rh2 ) in maximum position and switch S is kept open at starting. Supply is switched on. The starter handle is gradually moved to cut o the starter resistance. The rheostat Rh1 is varied till the speed equals the rated speed of the machine. With S open, the residual voltage is measured using the smaller range voltmeter. Switch S is then closed. Rheostat Rh2 is then decreased in steps, each time noting down the voltmeter and ammeter readings. The process is repeated till the voltage equals 120% of the rated voltage of the machine. [If Eo does not increase, it means that the machine is not building up voltage. The eld terminals F1 and F2 are interchanged and the process is repeated] Rheostat Rh2 and Rh1 are brought back to the original position and the supply is then switched o.

17

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

Critical Field resistance line

Eo (V) E1

O.C.C at rated speed O.C.C at 1000 rpm Given shunt field resistance line

E2

residual{ voltage If1 If (A)

Critical resistance at rated speed, Rc = E1 = ......... If 1

Critical speed of the Machine, Nc = E2 E1 N1 = . . . . . . . . .

18

Measurement of eld resistance

Connections are made as shown in the diagram 2. For dierent values of voltages determine the current. The ratio gives the eld resistance. The O.C.C and eld resistance line is drawn and the critical speed of the machine is determined.

RESULT
No load test was conducted on the given d.c shunt generator and the O.C.C was plotted. Critical resistance at rated speed = . . . . . . . . . Critical speed of the machine = .........

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What is the need for starter in a d.c motor? How does a 3-point starter function? Why is Rh1 kept in minimum position at starting? Why is Rh2 kept in maximum position at start up? What is residual voltage? How is it measured? What is critical resistance? How can it be determined? What are the conditions necessary for voltage build up in a d.c shunt generator? What is critical speed? Explain the shape of the O.C.C.

19

LOAD TEST

20A

L F A

3 Point Starter

0-20A MC + -

0-300V MC

200V DC

Rh1 600 2A F1

A1

A1

600 2A F1 F2 0-2A MC

Rh2 +

M
A2

G
A2

V
Load

20A

F2

A
-

S1
MACHINE DETAILS MOTOR GENERATOR 3.5 KW 3.5 KW Speed - 1500rpm Speed - 1500rpm volts - 220V volts - 220V Amps - 18.6 A Amps - 16 A Winding - shunt Winding - shunt Measurement of Armature Resistance 0-5A MC + -

S2

20V DC

50 5A 0-10V MC

A1

V
-

G
A2

Sl No.

Voltage, V (volts)

Current, I (Amperes)

Resistance, R (ohms)

Armature Resistance Ra = . . . . . . . . .

Experiment 4

20

Experiment 4

LOAD TEST ON D.C SHUNT GENERATOR

AIM
To conduct load test on the given D.C shunt generator and plot the external and internal characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Voltmeter Voltmeter Ammeter Ammeter Rheostat Tachometer MC (0-300V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. MC (0-10V). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 no. MC (0-2A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. MC (0-5A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. 600, 2A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 nos.

THEORY
Load characteristics of the machine can be broadly classied into:1) External characteristics 2) Internal Characteristics

External Characteristics(V vs IL )
It is a curve showing the variation in terminal voltage of the generator as the load on the generator is increased. The characteristics are as shown in the gure. At no load, the terminal voltage of the generator is at its rated value. As the load current is increased the terminal voltage drops. The drop in terminal voltage is due to the following reasons:1. For a generator V = Eg Ia Ra , as the load current increases, Ia increases, Ia Ra drop increases, thus decreasing the terminal voltage V. 2. As the load current increases, Ia increases, armature reaction eect also increases. Due to demagnetizing eect of armature reaction, the induced emf Eg decreases, thereby decreasing V. 3. Due to reasons (1) and (2), the terminal voltage decreases, which in turn reduces the eld current Ish , thereby decreasing Eg causing further decrease in V.

21

OBSERVATION - LOAD TEST

Sl no. V (volts) IL (A) Ish (A) Ia (A) Eg (V )

Sample Calculation (set no . . . ) Terminal Voltage (V) Load Current (IL ) Shunt Field Current (Ish ) Armature Current (IA ) = IL + Ish Generated emf (Eg ) = .........V = .........A = .........A = .........A = V + Ia Ra = . . . . . . . . .

Internal and External Characteristics

V/ Eg (V) Drop due to armature Reaction Effect Internal Characteristics Eg vs Ia External Characteristics V vs IL IL/ Ia (A)

Drop Due To Armature Resistance

22

Internal Characteristics [Eg vs Ia ]

It is a plot of the internally generated emf (Eg ) and armature current (Ia ). It is a curve similar to the external characteristics and lies above it. E g = V + I a Ra & Ia = IL + Ish

PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in the diagram. rheostat Rh1 is kept in minimum position and Rh2 in maximum position. Switch S2 is kept open. Supply is switched on and the motor is started using a 3-point starter. The motor eld rheostat Rh1 is varied till the speed equals the rated speed of the motor. The generator eld rheostat Rh2 is varied till the voltmeter reads the rated voltage of the machine. Switch S2 is then closed. The load on the generator is increased. The readings of the voltmeter and ammeters are noted down. The experiment is repeated for dierent values of load current till the rated current of the generator is reached. During the experiment, the speed is to be maintained constant at the rated value. The load is then switched o completely, the rheostats are brought back to the original position and the machine is switched o.

Measurement of Ra
Connections are made as shown in the diagram. Keeping the rheostat in the minimum output voltage position, supply is switched on. The rheostat is then varied in steps and the voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted. The ratio gives the armature resistance. The readings are then tabulated as shown. The external and internal characteristics are then plotted.

RESULT
Conducted load test on the given DC shunt generator and plotted the external and internal characteristics.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What is the need for starter with a d.c motor? How does a 3-point starter function? Why is Rh1 kept in minimum position at starting? Why is Rh2 kept in maximum position at starting? Why does the terminal voltage of a generator decrease with increase in load? How are the meter ratings selected for this experiment? What are the dierent losses in a d.c generator? What is the condition for maximum eciency in a d.c machine? What is armature reaction? How does it eect the functioning of the machine?

23

CONNECTION DIAGRAM

+
20A

L A

2 Point Starter + -

0-20A +

F1

F2 A1

S1

S2

220V DC

V
-

0-300V MC A2 BRAKE DRUM

20A

Machine Details HP 5 Volts 230 V Amp 17 A speed - 1500 rpm Radius of brakedrum, R = . . . . . . . . .

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. No. V volts I Amp. S1 Kg S2 Kg Speed rpm Torque N m Output watts Input watts Eciency (%)

Sample Calculation (set no. . . . ) Voltmeter reading (V ) = . . . . . . . . . Current (I ) = ......... Spring balance readings, S1 = . . . . . . . . . Speed(N ) Torque(T )

S2 = . . . . . . . . . Where R is the radius of brake drum

= ......... = 9.8 (S1 S2 ) R = . . . . . . . . . 2N T = ......... 60 = VI = ......... Output power = ......... = Input power 24

Output power = Input power Eciency

Experiment 5

Experiment 5

LOAD TEST ON DC SERIES MOTOR

AIM
To conduct load test on the given d.c series motor and plot the performance characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Voltmeter (0-250)V MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. 2. Ammeter (0-20)A MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. 3. Tachometer - to measure speed

THEORY
In a series motor, the eld winding is connected in series with the armature winding. Thus the same current ows through the eld and armature windings. Electrical characteristics(T vs Ia ) :- It shows the variation of torque with the armature current. We have T Ia where is the ux/pole Ia Ia (as Ia up to the point of magnetic saturation) Thus 2 T Ia However after magnetic saturation remains almost constant, Hence T Ia Thus the curve is a parabola up to magnetic saturation and shows a linear variation after the point. Mechanical Characteristics(N1 vs T ):- It shows the variation of speed with torque. Eb 1 We have N as Eb is almost constant where Eb is back emf In a series motor Ia 1 N Ia That is, as Ia increases, Speed decreases. The same pattern is followed in the N -T characteristics. The curve traced is a rectangular hyperbola. A series motor should never be started at no load. At no load, Ia is very small, hence the ). speed of the motor becomes dangerously high(as N I1 a 25

T N (Nm) (%) (rpm)

Performance Characteristics

Torque Efficiency

Speed O Output (watts)

Electrical Characteristics

Mechanical Characteristics

T (Nm)

N (rpm)

Ia (A)

T (Nm)

26

Performance characteristics shows the variation of speed, torque and eciency with change in output.

PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in the connection diagram. A small load is applied to the motor by tightening the brake drum. The motor should never be started at no load. Supply is switched on and the motor is started using a 2-point starter. The voltage, current, speed and spring balance readings are noted down. The experiment is repeated for dierent loads till the rated current of the machine is reached. During the experiment when the machine gets heated up, it is cooled by pouring water into the brake-drum. The load is then reduced till the current reaches a small value and the supply is switched o.

RESULT
Load test was conducted on the given DC series motor and the performance, electrical and mechanical characteristics are plotted.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What is the precaution to be taken when working with a d.c series motor? What is the need for starter with a d.c motor? How does a 2-point starter function? Explain the shape of the electrical and mechanical characteristics. What is the condition for maximum eciency in a d.c motor? What are the dierent losses occurring in a d.c machine? How are the meter ratings selected for this experiment? Give some applications of d.c series motor.

27

CONNECTION DIAGRAM
FLUX AIDING

P
230V 50Hz 1- AC

1A B Auto Transformer

0-500mA MI

A
0-250V MI V

230/115V, 3kVA Transformer P1 S2

0-250V MI

P2

S1

NL
V1 V2 + V3 FLUX OPPOSING

P
230V 50Hz 1- AC

1A B Auto Transformer

0-500mA MI

A
0-250V MI V

230/115V, 3kVA Transformer P1 S1

0-250V MI E

P2

S2

NL
V1 V2 V3

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE OF COILS

0-5A MC +

P1 0-20V 50 5A +

S1

V
-

0-10V MC

P2

S2

Experiment 6

28

0-150V MI

V1

V3

0-150V MI

V1

V3

Experiment 6

MEASUREMENT OF COUPLING COEFFICIENT OF TRANSFORMER COILS

AIM
To determine the self inductance, mutual inductance and coupling coecient of the given transformer windings.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Transformer 230/115V, 1KVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. Voltmeter 0-250V MI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 nos. Voltmeter 0-150V MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. Voltmeter 0-10V MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. Ammeter 0-500mA MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. Ammeter 0-5A MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. Autotransformer 0-270V, 10A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no.

PRINCIPLE
The property of a coil due to which it opposes any change of current through it is known as self inductance. The coecient of self induction(L) is dened as Weber turns per ampere in the coil. L= N N N I0 r A N2 = = (H ) I Il S

Mutual inductance is the ability of one coil to produce an emf in a nearby coil by induction when the current in the rst coil changes. The coecient of mutual inductance(M) is dened as the Weber turns in one coil due to ampere current in the other coil. M= N2 N1 I 1 N1 N2 N2 1 = = I1 I1 S S

29

OBSERVATIONS
Measurement of impedance of coils Condition Flux aiding Flux opposing V1 ( v ) V2 ( v ) V3 ( v ) I (A) Z () L(H )

Measurement of resistance of coils Sl. No. 1 2 3 V (v ) I (A) R()

Winding Resistance R = r1 + r2 = . . . . . . . . .

30

Consider two coupled coils A and B L1 = L2 =

2 N1 S

2 N2 S N1 I1 Flux produced in A due to current I1 is 1 = S

Let a fraction k1 of this link with the second coil ie, 2 = k1 1 Then M= (k1 1 N2 ) (k1 N1 N2 ) = I1 S N2 I2 S

........................

(1)

Flux produced in B due to current I2 is 2 = Suppose a fraction k2 of this links with A

ie, 1 = k2 2 M= from (1) and (2)

2N 2) N2 N2 (k1 k2 N1 2 = k1 k2 1 2 SS S S M M 2 = k1 k2 L1 L2 or k = ( L1 L2 ) where k = k1 k2

(k2 N1 N2 ) (k2 2 N1 ) = I2 S M2 =

........................

(2)

The constant k is called the coecient of coupling and may be dened as the ratio of mutual inductance actually present between the two coils to the maximum possible value. If the ux due to one coil completely links the other then k = 1. If the ux of one coil does not link the other coil at all then k = 0.

31

CALCULATION
For coils connected in series with uxes aiding each other V1 Total impedance of coils ZA = = ......... I 2 R2 = . . . . . . . . . Reactance of coils XA = ZA Where, R = r1 + r2 is the total resistance XA = ......... of both windings Inductance LA = 2f For coils connected in series with uxes opposing V1 = ......... Total impedance of coils ZB = I 2 R2 = . . . . . . . . . Reactance of coils XB = ZB XB Inductance LB = = ......... 2f When coils are connected with ux aiding each other Total inductance, LA = L1 + L2 + 2M

(1)

When coils are connected with ux opposing each other Total inductance, LB = L1 + L2 2M (2) subtracting (2) from (1), M = L1 L2 = N1 N2
2

( LA LB ) 4

240 120

=4

L1 = 4L2 Substituting in (1), LA = 5L2 + 2M or L2 = L1 = 4L2 = . . . . . . . . . Coupling coecient k = M = ......... L1 L2 LA 2M = ......... 5

32

PROCEDURE
Measurement of impedance of coils
Connections are made as shown in the rst gure. Supply is switched on with autotransformer in the minimum position. The autotransformer is adjusted to get the rated voltage in voltmeter1. The corresponding readings in all meters are noted down. In this case the uxes produced by both the coils are additive in nature (ie, V1 = V2 + V3 ). Next the connections of the second coil are reversed. The uxes produced by the two coils are now in subtractive polarity (ie, V1 = V2 V3 ). The autotransformer is adjusted so as to get the same reading in V2 as with the additive polarity. This is done to maintain the same ux in both the cases. The readings of all meters are noted down and tabulated as shown.

Measurement of resistance
Connections are made as in the third gure. For dierent values of voltages the readings of both meters are noted down and tabulated.

RESULT
The coupling coecient of the given transformer windings is . . . . . . . . . .

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by coupling coecient of a transformer? What are the limiting values? 2. Why is the voltage V2 maintained constant in the second case? 3. How are the meter ratings selected for this experiment?

33

CONNECTION DIAGRAM(OPEN CIRCUIT TEST)

P
230V 1- 50Hz AC

2A B

0-2A MI 150V, 2A, lpf L M

V
C NL E

0-150V MI l.v h.v

120/240V, 1KVA Transformer

OBSERVATION
Vo Io Wo

CONNECTION DIAGRAM(SHORT CIRCUIT TEST)

P
230V 1- 50Hz AC

5A B

0-5A MI 75V, 5A, upf M L

V
C NL E

0-50V MI h.v l.v

120/240V, 1KVA Transformer

Rated Current = Rated KV A 1000 = = ......... Rated V oltage on h.v side 240

OBSERVATION
VSC ISC WSC

Experiment 7

34

Experiment 7

O.C AND S.C TESTS ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

AIM
To conduct open circuit and short circuit tests on the given 120/240 V, 1KVA transformer and predetermine the following:1. Equivalent circuit as referred to l.v side 2. Equivalent circuit a referred to h.v side 3. Eciency curve at 0.8 pf 4. Regulation curve at 1 /2 Full load

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Voltmeter 0-150V MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Voltmeter 0-50V MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ammeter 0-2.5A MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ammeter 0-5A MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Wattmeter 150V, 2.5A, lpf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Wattmeter 75V, 5A, upf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Autotransformer 0-270V, 10A no. no. no. no. no. no.

PRINCIPLE
Open Circuit test
This test is usually conducted on the l.v side of the transformer. It is conducted to determine the core loss(iron loss or no load loss). The low voltage side of the transformer is supplied at rated voltage with the h.v side left open. The current, voltage and power on the input side is noted. Since the no-load primary current is small(2-10% of the rated current) the copper losses in the primary winding can be neglected and the power loss read by the wattmeter is the core loss of the transformer. Since the ux linking with the core is constant at all loads, the core loss remains same for all loads. The parameters R0 and X0 (the shunt branch) are determined using this test.

35

From O.C test (l.v side) :V0 = . . . . . . . . . I 0 = . . . . . . . . . W 0 = . . . . . . . . . W0 W0 = V0 I0 cos 0 cos 0 = = ......... V0 I 0 sin 0 = . . . . . . . . . Iw = I0 cos 0 = . . . . . . . . . I = I0 sin 0 = . . . . . . . . . Core loss component resistance as referred to l.v side R0 = Magnetising reactance as referred to l.v side X0 =

V0 = ......... I The parameters R0 and X0 as referred to the h.v side are R0 = R0 k 2 = . . . . . . . . . N2 E2 240 = X k2 = . . . . . . . . . where k = X0 = = 0 N1 E1 120 From S.C test (h.v side) :VSC = . . . . . . . . . ISC = . . . . . . . . . WSC = . . . . . . . . . Total eqvt. wdg. resistance as referred to h.v side R02 = Total eqvt. impedance as referred to to h.v side Z02 = Total eqvt. leakage reactance referred to h.v side X02

V0 = ......... Iw

VSC = ......... ISC 2 R2 = = Z0 02 2

WSC = ......... ISC

The parameters R02 , Z02 , and X02 as referred to l.v side are R01 = R02 |K 2 = . . . . . . . . . X01 = X02 |K 2 = . . . . . . . . . Z01 = Z02 |K 2 = . . . . . . . . . EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT as referred to l.v side as referred to h.v side

I1

I'2 I0 R0= 1 X01= Z'L X0 = 240V R'0=

I1

I'2 I0 R0= 2 X02= ZL X'0=

120V = R0

36

Short Circuit test

The short circuit test is conducted to determine the full load copper loss and the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance referred to the winding in which the test is conducted. The test is conducted on the h.v side with the l.v side short circuited by a thick conductor. A low voltage just enough to circulate the rated current of the transformer is supplied to the transformer. The voltage supplied is usually only 5-10% of the normal supply voltage and so the ux linking with the core is small. Thus core losses can be neglected and the wattmeter reading gives the full load Cu loss of the transformer.

PROCEDURE
Open Circuit test
Connections are made as shown in the connection diagram 1. The h.v side is left open. The supply is switched on with the autotransformer in the minimum position. The autotransformer is gradually varied till the voltmeter reads the rated voltage of the primary side of the transformer. The corresponding ammeter and wattmeter readings are noted down and tabulated as shown.

Short Circuit test

Connections are made as shown in the diagram 2. The l.v side is short circuited. Supply is switched on with the autotransformer in the minimum position. The autotransformer is gradually varied till the ammeter reads the rated current of the transformer on the h.v side.

Rated current =

Rated volt Amperes of transformer Rated voltage on h.v side

37

Calculation of eciency :Eciency of the transformer at any load and p.f is given by = Power Output x F.L(V A) cos = Power Input x F.L(V A) cos + Wi + x2 WCu

Where, Wi - is the core loss WCu - full load Cu loss x - is the fraction of full load x
1/ 4 1/ 2 3/ 4

Output

Wi

x2 WCu

Input

Eciency

1 Sample Calculation(set no. . . . ) x = ......... F.L(V A) = . . . . . . . . . p.f cos = . . . . . . . . . Power output = x F.L(V A) cos = . . . . . . . . . Power input = Power Output + Wi + x2 WCu = . . . . . . . . . Power Output Eciency = = ......... Power Input

Eciency curve

1/4 FL

1/2 FL

3/4 FL

O/P FL

38

The corresponding voltmeter and wattmeter readings are noted down and tabulated as shown. Using the readings obtained from the two tests, the equivalent circuit as referred to the l.v side and h.v side are drawn. The eciency at various fractions of full load are calculated and tabulated. The eciency curve is then plotted. Regulation of the transformer (which gives the variation of the secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load expressed as a percentage of the secondary terminal voltage with the primary voltage held constant) is then calculated using the approximate formula at various power factors and half the full load, Regulation curve is then plotted.

39

Calculation of Regulation Regulation at any load and p.f is given by % Reg = I2 R02 cos I2 X02 sin o E2 + for lagging - for leading

Where I2 is the current at any load and = xI2 F L Where x Fraction of full load I2 F L full load current on secondary side 0 rated voltage on secondary side E2 0 0.2 lagging 0.4 0.6 0.8 upf 1 0.8 leading 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

Sample calculation . . . . . . (for one lead and one lag case) Regulation Curve

%Reg

(upf) 0 0.2 0.4 p.f (lead) 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 p.f (lag)

%Reg

40

RESULT
O.C and S.C tests were conducted on the given 1- transformer and predetermined the regulation and eciency curves.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. How are the meter ratings selected for O.C and S.C tests? 2. Why is the O.C test conducted on the l.v side of the transformer and S.C test on h.v side? 3. What are the losses measured in an O.C test? 4. What are the losses measured in an S.C test? 5. What is the condition for maximum eciency in a transformer? 6. What is meant by regulation of a transformer? 7. Is a high or low value of regulation preferred? Why? 8. How can the parameters on one side of the transformer be transferred to the other side?

41

CONNECTION DIAGRAM
0-5A MI 600V, 5A, upf M C 50, 5A C1 E1 L

R
5A B1

0-600V 3 Inductive Load 0-10A

400V 3 - 50Hz AC

5A

B2

C2

E2 50, 5A 50, 5A

5A

B3 C C3 E3 M V L

NL

600V, 5A, upf

PHASOR DIAGRAM

V BY IB V RY VB 30 30 IY IR VR

VY

Experiment 8

42

Experiment 8

THREE PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT BY TWO WATTMETER METHOD

AIM
To measure the power factor and power consumed by a 3- RL load using two wattmeter method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Voltmeter (0-600V) MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. Ammeter (0-5A) MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. Wattmeter 600V, 5A, upf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 nos. Rheostat 50, 5A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 nos. 3- Inductive load (0-10A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. 3- Autotransformer (0-415V, 10A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no.

PRINCIPLE
In two wattmeter method the current coils of two watt meters are connected in two phases and the potential coils between the corresponding phase and the third phase. It can be proved that the sum of the wattmeter readings gives the total power. From the phasor diagram Reading of Wattmeter 1, W1 = VRY IR cos(30 + ) Reading of Wattmeter 2, W2 = VBY IB cos(30 ) W1 + W2 = VRY IR (cos 30 cos sin 30 sin ) + VBY IB (cos 30 cos + sin 30 sin ) = VRY IR cos 30 cos + VBY IB (cos 30 cos ) Assuming balanced load VRY = VBY = VBR = VL & IR = IB = IY = IL Where VL and IL are the line values of voltage and current. = VL IL cos 30 cos + VL IL cos 30 cos = 2VL IL 23 cos = 3VL IL cos 43

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. No. 1 2 3 Case W1 and W2 read +ve W1 reads +ve, W2 reads zero W1 reads +ve, W2 reads -ve voltage V(V ) Current I(A) Wattmeter reading W1 W2 Power P(W ) Phase angle Power factor cos

Sample Calculation (set no . . . ) Voltage V = . . . . . . . . . Current I = . . . . . . . . . Wattmeter reading W1 = . . . . . . . . . Wattmeter reading W2 = . . . . . . . . . Total power P = W1 + W2 = . . . . . . . . . Phase angle = tan1 3(W1 W2 ) W1 + W2 = .........

Power factor = cos = . . . . . . . . .

44

From (1) and (2) tan When When When When =

For leading pf (When the load is capacitive) W1 = VL IL cos(30 ) W2 = VL IL cos(30 + ) = Power in a 3 circuit W1 + W2 = VL IL cos(30 ) + VL IL cos(30 + ) = [2 cos 30 cos ]VL IL = 3 cos VL IL W1 W2 = VL IL cos(30 ) VL IL cos(30 + ) = [2 sin 30 sin ]VL IL = sin VL IL (W1 W2 ) (W1 W2 )/VL IL = 3 (W1 + W2 ) (W1 + W2 )/ 3VL IL

.............................

(1)

.............................

(2)

pf is unity, = 0 and W1 = W2 . 1.0 > pf > 0.5, 0 < < 60 and both W1 and W2 read positive. pf = 0.5 , = 60 and W1 = 0, hence W2 alone reads the total power. 0.5 > pf > 0, 60 < < 90 , W1 reads negative and W2 positive

PROCEDURE
Connections are done as shown in the gure. The resistance is kept in the maximum position and the inductive load is set to minimum. The supply is switched on with the autotransformer in the minimum position. The autotransformer is adjusted to get rated voltage in the voltmeter. The load is purely resistive, the power factor is nearly unity and both wattmeters read positive. Readings are taken corresponding to this condition. The inductive load is then increased till one of the wattmeter becomes zero. This corresponds to a pf of 0.5. Again all readings are noted. On further increasing the inductive load one of the wattmeters starts deecting in the negative direction. This indicates that the power factor of the circuit is less that 0.5. The supply is now switched o and the pressure coil or current coil (ie, C & V or M & L) connections of the wattmeter reading negative is interchanged. Supply is switched on and the readings corresponding to this condition are noted. The reading of the wattmeter whose terminals are interchanged is be recorded as negative. The power factor and power are calculated using the formula given.

RESULT
Power consumed by a 3- RL load is measured using two wattmeter method.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. What is the expression for power in a 3- circuit? Derive the expression for power factor in terms of the wattmeter readings. What are the other methods of measuring 3- power. What does a zero reading in one of the wattmeters signify?

45

CONNECTION DIAGRAM
C.C N1 N2 Energy Meter K= 240V, 5A P2

P
230V 1- 50Hz AC

5A B

250V, 5A, upf 0-5A MI L P.C M

V P1

V
C NL E

0-250V MI LAMP LOAD

ERROR CURVE
% Error

Line Current

Experiment 9

46

Experiment 9

CALIBRATION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER

AIM
To calibrate the given 1- energy meter at unity power factor by direct loading.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Energy meter 240V, 5A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Wattmeter 250V, 5A, upf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ammeter (0-5A) MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Voltmeter (0-250V) MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1- Autotransformer (0-270V, 13A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Stop watch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Connecting wires Lamp load no. no. no. no. no. no.

PRINCIPLE
An energy meter is an instrument used to measure electrical energy. It keeps a record of the total energy consumed in a circuit during a particular period. It is an integrating type of instrument. It essentially consists of two electromagnets called the shunt magnet and series magnet. A coil having a large number of turns of ne wire is tted on the shunt magnet called the pressure coil and is connected across the supply mains. The series electromagnet is wound with a few turns of heavy gauge wire called the current coil and is connected in series with the load. An aluminium disc is mounted on a vertical spindle and is free to rotate between the two magnets. The reaction between the magnetic elds setup by the two electromagnets and eddy currents set up a driving torque in the disc and the disc starts rotating. The average torque thus produced is proportional to the true power of the circuit.

47

OBSERVATIONS(direct loading)
Sl. no. V(v ) I(A) W(w) T(s) T.R(kwh) I.R(kwh) % Error

Sample Calculation(set no. . . . ) Energy meter constant k = . . . . . . . . . Voltmeter reading (V ) = . . . . . . . . . Ammeter reading (I ) = . . . . . . . . . Time for 5 rev. of energy meter disc (t) = . . . . . . . . .

1 = ......... k 5 Indicated energy for 5 revolution of energy meter disc (IR) = = . . . . . . . . . k Wattmeter reading (W ) = . . . . . . . . . True energy for t seconds (T R) = W t = . . . . . . . . . I.R T.R % Error = 100 = . . . . . . . . . T.R Indicated energy for 1 revolution of energy meter disc =

48

Calibration involves comparing the energy measured by an energy meter with a standard instrument. The standard chosen here is a wattmeter. Since the wattmeter measures only the power, it has to be multiplied with time to get the energy reading. The readings are then compared to nd the error in the energy meter. Calibration can be done either by direct loading or phantom loading. In direct loading both the current and pressure coils are fed from the same supply at rated voltage. Energy meters of high rating when tested by direct loading would involve large amount of power. Such meters are thus tested using phantom loading, wherein the pressure coil is supplied from rated supply and current coil circuit from a separate low voltage supply.

PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in the connection diagram. The supply is switched on, keeping the autotransformer in the minimum position. The autotransformer is then varied to get the rated voltage. The lamp load is then switched on and the ammeter adjusted for a small value of current. The corresponding readings of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter are noted down. The time for ve revolutions of the energy meter disc is also noted. The experiment is repeated in steps adding loads till the rated current of the energy meter is reached. The true energy and indicated energy is evaluated and the error found out. The error curves are then plotted as shown.

RESULT
The given energy meter is calibrated by direct loading at upf and the error curve plotted.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is meant by calibration of the energy meter? What is the standard used for calibration of energy meter? How does an induction type energy meter work? What is the disadvantage of direct loading method? How are the meters selected for this experiment?

49

WHEATSTONES BRIDGE

P I1

G
I2 R S

PORTABLE FORM OF WHEATSTONES BRIDGE

100 10 1000 M1000 M100 3 M10 .1 2 1 5 4 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8 9

G A L V O

1 .01 .001

10V
EXT. BATT.

RATIO
3 2

x1000
6

SERIES x100 10 ARM 5 6

7 8 3 9 2 1 10 4 7 8 9

50,5

GALV EXT INT G MIN MAX SENSITIVITY CONTROL

EXT B INT

10

x1 B G R1

x10 X R2

0-30V

Experiment 10

50

Experiment 10

RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT USING WHEATSTONES BRIDGE

AIM
(a) To measure the resistance of given voltmeter (0-30V) using Wheatstones bridge. (b) To draw the circuit for extending the range of the given voltmeter (0-30V) to read up to 300V.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wheatstones bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Voltmeter (0-30V) MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Galvanometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Rheostat 50, 5A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 D.C source (0-30V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 no. no. no. no. no.

PRINCIPLE
This is the best and most common method of measuring medium resistance (from 1 - 0.1 M). The general circuit arrangement is shown in the gure. P and Q are two known and xed resistances. S is a known variable resistance and R is the unknown resistance. When the bridge is balanced, no current ows through the galvanometer, then I1 P = I2 R I1 Q = I2 S , ie, P Q = R S or R = P Q S

The unknown resistance can then be determined. In the portable form of the Wheatstones bridge the ratio(P/Q) can be set to values of 1, 10, 100, 1000. The standard resistance S can be adjusted using decade dials of x1, x10, x100 and x1000. R can be found out using the above formula.

51

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. no. Unknown resistance Voltmeter (0 30V ) Resistance of the given voltmeter is . . . . . . . . . P Q S1 1000 S2 100 S3 10 S1 1 S = S1 + S2 +S3 + S4 X Mean X

EXTENSION OF INSTRUMENT RANGE

RS

V
0-30V VV VT 300V

RV

Let Rv Rs Vv VT

be be be be

the the the the

resistance of the voltmeter. resistance to be connected in series. range of the given voltmeter. range to which the extension is to be made.

The value of the resistance to be connected in series to extend the range is Rs = VT Vv 1 Rv = (m 1)Rv VT , is the multiplying factor. Vv

where m =

52

PROCEDURE
The given voltmeter(unknown resistance) is connected to the terminal marked R1 and R2 on the bridge. The toggle switches are adjusted for external battery and galvanometer. An external battery is connected to terminals BB through a rheostat. A galvanometer is connected to the terminals marked Galvo . on the bridge. The P/Q ratio (range selector) is suitably selected. The resistance S is varied by varying the four decade resistances (one at a time starting from the highest range) till null deection is observed in the galvanometer, when the B and G keys are pressed. Adjustments are made till null deection is obtained, The reading of the Range selector and the four dials of the variable resistance S are noted. The readings are tabulated as shown. The experiment is repeated for dierent values of range selector(P/Q ratio). Extension of range of meter:- First the resistance of the given voltmeter Rv is measured using Wheatstones bridge. To extend the range of given voltmeter a resistance Rs is connected in series with voltmeter as shown in the gure. Since they are in series, current is the same through voltmeter and series resistance. I= Rs = ( V T V v ) Vv ( VT Vv ) = Rv Rs VT Vv 1 Rv = (m 1)Rv

Rv = Vv VT . Vv

where m is the multiplying factor =

RESULT
1) Resistance of given volt meter is . . . . . . 2) Resistance to be connected in series to extend its range to 300V is . . . . . .

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the range of resistances that can be measured using a wheatstones bridge? 2. Why cant a wheatstones bridge be used for measurement of small value of resistance? 3. How can a low range voltmeter be used for measurement of high voltages?

53

G
p q r

R1

KELVINS DOUBLE BRIDGE

10V 45,5

G
DC SOURCE GALV.
20 5 4 x100 x10 x1 x.01 x.1 3 2 1 0 10 6 7 8 9
100

+C1
10 10 0

0-2.5A

+P1 -P2

X.00002/DIV

CURRENT SWITCH -C2 PRESS KEY REV. INITIAL FINAL OFF FOR.

Experiment 11

54

Experiment 11

RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT USING KELVINS DOUBLE BRIDGE

AIM
a) To measure the resistance of the given ammeter(0-2.5A) using Kelvins double bridge. b) To draw the circuit for extension of range of the meter to read up to 25A.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Kelvins Double Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 D.C source (0-30V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ammeter (0-2.5A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Galvanometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Rheostat 45,5A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 no. no. no. no. no.

PRINCIPLE
This method is the best available for precise measurement of low resistances(less than 1). In the gure R is the low resistance to be measured and S is a standard variable resistance of the same order of magnitude, P,Q, p and q are four non-inductive resistances, one pair of which are variable. These are connected to form two sets of ratio arms, which are used for range selection. The ratio Q/P is kept same as q/p ratio along with S being varied till null deection of the galvanometer is obtained.

Then

Q q Q R = = or R = S S P p P

55

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. No. 1 2 Unknown resistance Ammeter +leads Leads alone remarks direct reverse direct reverse Range multiplier S1 m S2 104 S = S1 + S2 m X m mean m

Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance

of of of of

ammeter + leads = . . . . . . . . . leads alone = . . . . . . . . . ammeter alone = . . . . . . . . . the given ammeter (0-2.5A) = . . . . . . . . .

Extension of range of ammeter To extend the range of ammeter a resistance is connected in shunt as shown

IT=25A IM

A
RSH

2.5A RA

Let RA RSH IM IT

be the resistance of the ammeter the resistance to be connected in shunt the range of the given ammeter the range to which the extension is to be made

The value of resistance to be connected in shunt to extend the range of the given ammeter to (0-25A) = RSH = ( I M RA ) = (IT IM ) IT IM RA IT 1 IM = RA m1

where m is the multiplying factor =

56

PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in the gure. Choose a suitable range multiplier . Set the current switch in forward position. Press the galvanometer initial key rst and adjust main dial and slide wire to get null deection in the galvanometer. Then press the galvanometer nal key and check whether the galvanometer reads null deection. If not, adjust the dial readings to get null deection. The readings of the main dial and slide wire are noted down. The current switch is then put to the reverse position. This reverses the direction of current in circuit. The main dial and slide wire are adjusted to get null deection and the readings are noted again. The mean of the two is taken as the correct value. This is done to eliminate errors due to thermal eect. The ammeter is then disconnected and the resistance of the connecting leads alone is measured using the same method. The experiment is repeated with dierent values of range multiplier. The readings are tabulated as shown. Resistance of ammeter = (Resistance of ammeter + leads) - (Resistance of leads alone) Extension of range To extend the range of ammeter a resistance is connected in shunt as shown. Since both are in parallel, voltage across both is the same. IM RA = ISH RSH RSH = IM ISH RA = (IM RA ) = (IT IM ) IT IM RA IT 1 IM = RA m1

where m is the multiplying factor =

RESULT
1) Resistance of given ammeter( 0 2.5A) = . . . . . . 2) Resistance to be connected in shunt to extend its range to (0 25A) = . . . . . .

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. How does a Kelvins double bridge dier from a wheatstones bridge? 2. What is the range of resistances that can be measured using a Kelvins double bridge? 3. How can a low range ammeter be used for measurement of larger values of currents?

57

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR LINEAR RESISTANCE

+
220V DC

2A

0-1A + +

300 1.7A 2A

V
-

0-250V

1000 1.2A

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR INCANDESCENT LAMP

+
220V DC

2A

0-1A + +

LAMP

300 1.7A 2A

V
-

0-250V

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Sl. no. Linear Resistance Voltage Current Resistance V I R=V /I Incandescent lamp Voltage Current V A

V-I CHARACTERISTICS
V Linear Resistance Incandescent Lamp

I
Experiment 12

58

Experiment 12

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF INCANDESCENT LAMP AND LINEAR RESISTANCE

AIM
To determine the V-I Characteristics of linear resistance and incandescent lamp.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Rheostat Voltmeter Ammeter Incandescent lamp Rheostat 300, 1.7A 0-300V MC 0-2A MC 240V, 100W 1000, 1.2A ................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................................. 1 1 1 1 1 no. no. no. no. no.

PRINCIPLE
The resistance of a material is practically a constant at constant temperature, so for the linear resistance, according to ohms law the current owing through the circuit is directly proportional to the voltage applied. ie, I V V = IR where, V is voltage applied, I the current and R the resistance. Here R is a constant therefore we get a linear relationship between voltage and current. But in the case of incandescent lamp, large amount of heat is produced so there is a considerable change in the resistance thus as the voltage increases we get a non linear relationship between voltage and current.

PROCEDURE
The connections are made as per the circuit diagram. The linear resistance is connected in the circuit rst. Keeping the potential divider in the minimum output voltage positions, the supply is switched on. The rheostat(300, 1.7A) is adjusted to get dierent voltages till the rated voltage is reached and corresponding current readings are noted down. The experiment is repeated by connecting incandescent lamp in place of the rheostat. The V-I characteristics of linear resistance and incandescent lamp are plotted.

RESULT
V-I characteristic of linear resistance and incandescent lamp are plotted. 59

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM - OCC & SCC

15A

L F A

0-10A MI

A
A1 R

220V DC

Rh1 300 1.7A F1

0-300V MI

S3 R Y B

M
A2 B

GS
N Y F2

15A S1 2A

F2

F1

Rh2 1000 1.2A +

S2 2A

D.C motor V -230V I -17A H.P -3.5 rpm-1500

alternator V -415V I -5A KV A-3.5 rpm-1500 Conn.-Star

0-2A MC

MEASUREMENT OF ARMATURE RESISTANCE

+
20V DC

5A 50 5A

0-5A MC +

R + 0-10V MC

V
N

5A

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS O.C TEST

If VOC

S.C TEST
Ia If

Measurement of Ra
V I Ra

Experiment 13

60

Experiment 13

OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON A THREE PHASE ALTERNATOR

AIM
To conduct open circuit and short circuit tests on a three phase alternator and predetermine the regulation curve by emf method at half load and full load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Voltmeter Ammeter 0-300V, MI 0-10V, PMMC 0-10A, MI 0-2A, PMMC 0-5A, PMMC 300, 1.7A 1000, 1.2A 50, 5A ...................................................... ...................................................... ...................................................... ...................................................... ...................................................... ...................................................... ...................................................... ...................................................... 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 no. no. no. no. no. no. no. no.

Rheostat

PRINCIPLE
As the load on the alternator is varied the terminal voltage also varies. This is due to 1. Voltage drop due to armature resistance IR. 2. Voltage drop due to armature reactance IXL . 3. Voltage due to armature reaction eect. The voltage regulation of a synchronous generator is dened as the rise in voltage at the terminals when the load is reduced from full load rated value to zero, speed and eld current remaining constant %Reg = EV 100 V

Where E - Generated emf V - Terminal voltage For small machines the regulation may be found by direct loading. For large machines the voltage regulation is predetermined by using indirect methods like emf method, mmf method, Potier and ASA methods All these methods require open circuit characteristics and short circuit characteristics. The open circuit characteristics [also called open circuit saturation curve or magnetization curve] is a plot of no load terminal voltage versus eld excitation with the machine running at rated speed. Under these conditions the induced voltage is directly proportional to the ux. The shape of curve is therefore a typical B-H curve or magnetization curve. The short circuit characteristics is a plot between armature current and eld excitation with a symmetrical short circuit applied across the terminals. Under these conditions current in the armature winding 61

Regulation curve
%Reg (full load)

O.C.C and S.C.C of 3 alternator

VOC (V)

Ia (A)

(half load)

S.C test O.C test

(upf) 0 0.2 p.f (lead) 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 p.f (lag)

If (A)

%Reg

Line voltage

VL VP H Ra (dc) Ra Zs Xs

Eective value From graph

= ......... VL = = ......... 3 = ......... = 1.6 Ra (dc) = . . . . . . . . . = VOC /ISC = . . . . . . . . . 2 R2 = . . . . . . . . . = Zs a

Sample Calculation Eo = (V cos + IRa )2 + (V sin IXS )2 -ve for leading +ve for lagging % regulation = Eo V 100 V
1/2

0 Reg.(FL) Reg.(HL)

lagging 0.2 0.4 0.6

0.8

upf

0.8

leading 0.6 0.4 0.2

62

wholly depends on the internal impedance consisting of synchronous reactance Xs and the winding resistance Ra . Now Ra being small compared to Xs the pf under short circuit condition is zero power factor lagging and therefore the armature reaction mmf is almost wholly demagnetizing. The short circuit characteristics is a straight line. From O.C.C & S.C.C the synchronous impedance is evaluated as follows. For any value of excitation or eld current If , if VOC is the open circuit voltage & ISC is the short circuit current, then synchronous impedance Zs =VOC /ISC . The value of Zs is calculated for the unsaturated region. For the computation of regulation, it is convenient to take Zs at such a value of excitation which give rise to Vph [normal voltage per phase]on open circuit. The armature resistance is measured using ammeter-voltmeter method. Under working conditions the eective value of Ra is increased due to skin eect and temperature eect. The eective value of Ra is generally taken as 1.6 times the d.c value. 2 R2 per phase. Synchronous reactance per phase Xs = Za a Eo = (V cos + IRa )2 (V sin IXs )2

where +ve sign for lagging power factor and -ve for leading. Now percentage regulation for each case is computed as Eo V % Regulation = 100 V

PROCEDURE
O.C test
Connections are made as shown in the connection diagram. Switches S3 and S2 are kept in the open position. The motor eld rheostat Rh1 is kept in minimum position and the alternator eld rheostat Rh2 in the maximum position. Supply is switched on by closing switch S1 . The dc motor is started using the 3-point starter. The motor eld rheostat Rh1 is varied till the speed becomes equal to the rated speed. Switch S2 is closed. Rh2 is varied in steps and the eld current and voltmeter reading are noted down. The experiment is repeated for dierent values of eld current till the voltmeter reading shows 120% of the rated voltage of the alternator. Rheostat Rh2 is brought back to the maximum resistance position.

S.C test
Switch S3 is closed and rheostat Rh2 is varied till the ammeter reading in the alternator (A2 ) reads the rated current of the machine. The corresponding value of eld current is noted down. Armature resistance is found by voltmeter-ammeter method. The regulation is then determined at various power factors for half and full loads and the regulation curve is plotted.

RESULT
The open circuit and short circuit test was conducted on the given 3- alternator and the regulation curves for half load & full load are plotted.

63

CONNECTION DIAGRAM - NO LOAD TEST

0-5A 600V,5A,lpf M C L V

R
10A B1

R1

400V 3 - 50Hz AC

C1

E1

0-500V

10A

B2

Y
STATOR C2 E2

B
R3 ROTOR

R2

10A

B3 C C3 E3 M V L

600V,5A,lpf

BLOCKED ROTOR TEST

0-10A

250V,10A,upf L V

R
10A B1

M C

R1

S1

S2

400V 3 - 50Hz AC

C1

E1

0-250V

10A

B2

Y
STATOR C2 E2

B
R3 ROTOR R2

10A

B3 C C3 E3 M V L

250V,10A,upf

Machine Details Voltage - 415V Current - 7.5A speed - 1440rpm Phase 3- H.P - 5.0

BLOCKED ROTOR

Experiment 14

64

Experiment 14

NO LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TESTS ON 3 PHASE SLIP RING INDUCTION MOTOR

AIM
To perform no load and blocked rotor test on a three phase slip ring induction motor and determine the equivalent circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Voltmeter (0-500V) MI (0-250V) MI (0-30V) PMMC (0-5A) MI (0-10A) MI (0-10A)PMMC 500V, 5A, lpf 250V, 10A, upf 9, 8.5A ............................................... ............................................... ............................................... ............................................... ............................................... ............................................... ............................................... ............................................... ............................................... 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 no. no. no. no. no. no. nos. nos. no.

Ammeter

Wattmeter Rheostat Autotransformer

PRINCIPLE
Slip ring motors are always started with full line voltage applied across the stator terminals. The value of starting current is adjusted by introducing a variable resistance in the rotor circuit.The controlling resistance is in the form of resistances connected in star. The resistance is gradually cut out of the rotor circuit as the motor gathers speed.

65

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

No load test:
V0 ( V ) I0 (A) W1 W2 W0 = W1 + W2

Blocked rotor test:

VSC (V ) ISC (A) W1 (w ) W2 (w ) WSC =W1 + W2

MEASUREMENT OF STATOR RESISTANCE

5A 50 5A 220V DC 0-5A +

0-20V 5A

V
Y B

For nding stator resistance, Rs :

No. V (V ) I (A) Rs

R R(meas) R R

R(meas)

R 2R 2 = R 3R 3 2 Rs /ph(dc) = R(meas) 3 2 Rs /ph(ac) = 1.6 R(meas) = . . . . . . . . . 3 =

66

By introducing the rotor resistance, the rotor current is reduced at starting and the starting torque is increased the latter due to improvement in power factor.

No load test:If the motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any mechanical load, it will draw power necessary to supply the no load losses. The no load current will have two components. The active component and the magnetizing component, the former being very small as the no load losses are small. The power factor at no load is therefore very low. The no load power factor is always less than 0.5 and hence at no load one of the wattmeter at input side reads negative. The no load input W0 to the stator consists of 1. Small stator copper loss 2. Core losses 3. The loss due to friction and windage. The rotor copper loss can be neglected, since slip is small at no load.

Blocked rotor test :The stator is supplied with a low voltage of rated frequency just sucient to circulate rated current through the stator with the rotor blocked and short circuited. The power input, current and the voltage applied are noted down. The power input during the blocked rotor test is wholly consumed in the stator and rotor copper losses. The core loss is low because the applied voltage is only a small percentage of the normal voltage. Again since the rotor is at stand still the mechanical losses are absent. Hence the blocked rotor input can be taken as approximately equal to the copper losses.

67

From no load test:V0 = . . . . . . . . . I 0 = . . . . . . . . . W 0 = . . . . . . . . . V0 /ph = V0 = . . . . . . . . . Line current(IL ) = I0 = ......... IL phase current(I0 /ph) = = ......... 3 Power consumed = W0 = . . . . . . . . . cos 0 0 sin 0 R0 /ph = W0 3V0 I0 = .........

= ......... = ......... V0 /ph = I0 /ph cos 0 = V0 /ph I0 /ph sin 0

= .........

X0 /ph

= .........

From blocked rotor test:VSC = . . . . . . . . . ISC = . . . . . . . . . WSC = . . . . . . . . . VSC /ph = VSC = ......... WSC = ......... WSC /ph = 3 ISC ISC /ph = = ......... 3 WSC /ph (Total winding resistance as R01 = 2 ISC /ph referred to the stator side) VSC /ph Z01 = ISC /ph (Total leakage reactance as referred to the stator side) (Rotor resistance as referred to the stater side) (Electrical equivalent of the mechanical load) X01
R2

= ......... = ......... = ......... = .........

2 R2 Z0 01 1

= R01 RS(ef f )
= R2

RL

1s s

R0= 1 V/ph= R0= X0=

X01= RL

68

PROCEDURE
No load test:Connections are made as shown in the diagram for no load test. Brake drum is made free to rotate by loosening the belt. The autotransformer is placed in zero position. Then the supply is switched on and the auto transformer is adjusted to supply the rated voltage to the machine. The handle of the starter is rotated to cut out the rotor resistance. Readings of the wattmeters, voltmeter and ammeter are noted and tabulated.

Blocked rotor test:Connections are made as shown. The rotor is blocked by tightening the belt on the brake drum. The auto transformer is set to the zero voltage position. Then the three phase supply is switched on. By adjusting the autotransformer, the ammeter reading is made equal to rated current of the machine. Readings of the two wattmeters, voltmeter and the ammeter are noted and tabulated.

Measurement of stator resistance:Connections are done for the stator resistance measurements. It is measured using the voltmeter2 ammeter method. The measured value is Rph as the machine is connected. Thus Rph = 3 1.5Rmeas . Rs(ef f ) is taken as 1.6 times Rph to account for skin eect and heating eect.

RESULT
No load and blocked rotor tests were conducted on the given three phase slip ring induction motor and the equivalent circuit parameters were determined.

69