Lesson #1

The World of the New Testament

Jesus was born into a world very different from that of the Old Testament. Although patriarchal, monarchial, polytheistic and slaveholding, the New Testament Roman Empire was not insular and tribal like that of the Old Testament; rather, it was global, comprising not just Italy and Europe of today, but the entire land mass surrounding the Mediterranean, including all of Asia Minor and North Africa. In Jesus day, the Roman Empire was multicultural and multilingual, with fully developed maritime trade, a network of more than 58,000 miles of roads (what we would call an Interstate highway system), a population of 50-60 million people, a large and robust economy, and vibrant cultural developments in art, theater, music, architecture and popular entertainment.

The world of the New Testament was also fraught with political strife and rebellious factions, none more troublesome than the Jews living in Palestine on the far-eastern edge of the Empire. Within Judaism intrigue, rebellion and infighting permeated society, with the Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes and Zealots vying for political power and influence. Jesus was born into this tumultuous world, and he lived on the extreme edge of its radical fringe.

The Hebrew Scripturesor Old Testamentspans roughly 2,000 years, 2100 B.C. through the 2nd century B.C.
2,100 - 1786 B.C.
1446 B.C. 1355 - 1245 B.C. 1050 - 586 B.C. 930 B.C. 722 B.C. 586 B.C. 539 B.C. 331 B.C. 146 B.C.

Abraham and the Patriarchs (Egyptian Middle Kingdom period) The Exodus Conquest of Canaan The Kings of Israel (Saul through Zedekiah, 39 kings) Civil War (10 northern tribes become kingdom of Israel; 2 southern tribes become kingdom of Judah) Assyrians conquer northern kingdom of Israel Babylonians conquer southern kingdom of Judah Persians conquer Babylonians Greeks conquer Persians Romans conquer Greeks

The Roman Republic began in the 6th century B.C. and continued for half a millennium until Augustus became Emperor in 27 B.C., marking the birth of Imperial Rome. Contrary to popular belief, the Roman Empire was not a brutal oppressive dictatorship; rather, it created unprecedented stability and prosperity in government and civil life for most of its 1,000-year history, while introducing extraordinary advancements in virtually every area of knowledge.

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At its peak under the Emperor Trajan (A.D. 98-117), the Roman Empire consisted of 5 million square kilometers, encompassing 40 different modern-day countries and as many different cultures. Its three largest citiesRome, Alexandria and Antiochwere over twice as large as any city on earth until the modern-day 18th century industrial revolution. 50-60 million people lived in the Roman Empire. Although commerce was conducted primarily by sea, the Roman empire built over 58,000 miles of roads, many of which are still evident today, over 2,000 years later. To encourage efficient and effective commerce the Roman Empire had a fully-developed banking system and common coinage. Thanks to Alexander the Great, Greek was the common language of the empire until the 4th century A.D., creating cohesion in a very geographically and culturally diverse population, although a plethora of local languages were also used (e.g., Jesus and his friends spoke Aramaic, the local language of Palestine, but the entire New Testament was written in Greek).

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Unlike most other ancient cultures, the Roman Empire did not have a rigid class system, but evidenced a high degree of social mobility. 8. The Roman Empire practiced slavery. Overall, 10-20% of the population throughout the Empire were slaves. Slaves were primarily war captives or indentured servants; slavery was not racially based. Slaves could earn their freedom or be granted their freedom by those who owned them. 9. Freeborn women were Roman citizens, kept their family name (not their husbands), could own property independent of their husbands, could own and operate businesses, could inherit property and wealth, wrote their own wills and could travel freely throughout the Empire. 10. Roman law formed the basis for the entire Western legal tradition, including the United States. 11. Religion in the Roman Empire was an integral part of civil life, and it encompassed practices and beliefs the Romans considered their own. Religions of other cultures within the Empire were respected and protected: the Jews, for example, were free to practice their religion and to operate their temple in Jerusalem.

Roman Arches of the tri-level Agora. Smyrna (Izmir, Turkey).

The Romans learned the arch from the Etruscans, perfected it and realized its full potential.

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

Aqueduct, built by Herod the Great, 22-10 B.C. Caesarea Maritima, Israel.
Arches enabled Herod the Great to move fresh water 10 miles from Mt. Carmel to Caesarea.

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

Theater of Aspendos. Pamphylia, Asia Minor (Antalya, Turkey).

Built in A.D. 155, this 7,000-seat structure is the best-preserved theater of antiquity .

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

The Great Theater. Ephesus, Asia Minor (Kusadasi, Turkey).

Originally built in the Hellenistic period, the Romans greatly augmented the theater to seat 25,000.

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

Library of Celsus. Ephesus, Asia Minor (Kusadasi, Turkey).

Completed in A.D. 135, the 3rd largest library in the Roman world, housing 12,000 volumes.

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

Library of Celsus, detail. Ephesus, Asia Minor (Kusadasi, Turkey).

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

Mosaic Pavement. Ephesus, Asia Minor (Kusadasi, Turkey).

Parallel to Main Street on the right, this mosaic pavement fronted expensive shops on the left.

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

Going Where Paul Went, Ephesus, Asia Minor (Kusadasi, Turkey).

Ephesus boasted a marble public rest room, an underground sewage system and street lighting at night.

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

Temple of Trajan, Pergamum, Asia Minor (Pergamum, Turkey).

High atop an acropolis, Pergamum had a population of 200,000, the 2nd largest library in the Roman Empire (after Alexandria, Egypt), two theaters and beautiful, marble temples.

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

Trajan, 13th Emperor of the Roman Empire, A.D. 98-117. Glyptothek Museum, Munich.

Ancient sources are unanimous in their praise of Trajans personality and accomplishments. Pliny the Younger (A.D. 61-112) celebrates him as a wise and just ruler and a moral man. Dio Cassius (A.D. 155-235) praises him for being dignified and fair. St. Thomas Aquinas (A.D. 1225-1274) discusses Trajan as a virtuous pagan. In the Divine Comedy Dante (A.D. 1265-1321) has a mural of Trajan helping a poor woman on the first terrace of Purgatory, as a lesson for the proud. Dante also places Trajan among the saved in Paradise, residing in the Sphere of Jupiter. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon (A.D. 1737-1794) places Trajan 2nd among the Five Good Emperors who presided over eras of peace and prosperity.

On the whole, Roman civilization was a great blessing to humanity, bringing stability and prosperity to millions. Of course, like any great civilization it had its share of rascals and rogues, heroes and villains, wars and brutalities, scandals and horrors. The New Testament mirrors a brief slice of Romes 1,000 year history, a time of great achievement but also of great turmoil and strife.

The Greek Scripturesor New Testamentspans roughly 100 years, from the birth of Jesus in 4/6 B.C. through the apocalyptic vision of Revelation, A.D. 95.
63 B.C.

40 B.C. 27 B.C.
4/6 B.C. A.D. 14 A.D. 26 A.D. 32 A.D. 37 A.D. 66-72

Roman General Pompey conquers Jerusalem and the people of Palestine come under Roman rule. Roman Senate appoints Herod as king of Judea Augustus becomes the first Roman Emperor, establishing Imperial Rome, displacing the 500 year old Roman Republic. Birth of Jesus. Augustus dies and is succeeded by his son, Tiberius. Pontius Pilate appointed Prefect of Judea (A.D. 26-36) Death, burial and resurrection of Jesus. Tiberius dies and is succeeded by a series of nine emperors: Caligula (A.D. 37-41) through Domitian (A.D. 81-96). Jewish revolt against Rome; destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in A.D. 70; 1.2 million Jews killed in the fighting.

At the time of Jesus about 4,000,000 Jews lived in the Roman Empire (6-7% of the population), primarily in Jerusalem, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and other urban cities and towns. Jews were free to worship their own God, but as monotheists in a polytheistic culture they tended to separate themselves from the Gentiles and cluster together for familiarity and mutual support. From the time of the Babylonian captivity onward (586-539 B.C.) Judaism experienced considerable social, political and religious contention from within and intermittent persecution from without. At the time of Jesus Judaism had four major sects or divisions:: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and Zealotsalong with countless splinter groups.

Pharisees
The Pharisees are first mentioned by Josephus (A.D. 37-95) as one of four sects of Judaism in the 1st century A.D. The Pharisees emerge out of the Babylonian Captivity (586 539 B.C.) and become established after the Maccabean Revolt, 167-160 B.C. The movement was at various times a political party, a social movement and a school of thought. The Pharisees are the people of the synagogues, Jewish houses of study and prayer scattered throughout the Roman Empire. The Pharisees are primarily the common people, striving to live good and holy lives. Jesus, Mary, Joseph, most of the Apostles, Paul and most early Jewish Christians tended to identify with the Pharisee sect. Jesus did not attack the Pharisees per se; rather, he attacked the dark side of their religious piety: hypocrisy and self-righteousness.

Sadducees
The Sadducees were active in Judea from the 2nd century B.C. through the destruction of the Temple in A.D. 70. Drawn primarily from the upper socio-economic strata of Jewish society, the Sadducees were people actively involved in Temple operations, people who had a vested political and economic interest in maintaining the status quo. After the Maccabean Revolt, the Sadduceean leadership became increasingly corrupt and the target of intense criticism. After the destruction of the Temple in A.D. 70, the Sadducees faded from the scene, being mentioned only rarely in extra-biblical sources, such as the Talmud.

Essenes
The Essenes were a separatist group, highly critical of the Sadducees and to a lesser degree critical of the Pharisees. The Essenes are first mentioned by Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23-79) in his Natural History, where he writes that they do not marry and possess no money. Josephus (A.D.37-95) discusses the Essenes in greater detail in his History of the Jewish War, where he says they are celibate, have no possessions, live in community, practice extreme forms of asceticism, await the coming of the righteous one, and have a decidedly apocalyptic vision of the future. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea scrolls were discovered in 1946/47, was most likely an Essene community. John the Baptist may have been affiliated with the Essenes, and Jesus clearly shared their eschatological thinking.

Zealots
The Zealots were members of a movement in violent opposition to Roman rule, claiming that only God could be their king. Although active during the reign of Herod the Great (37 B.C. A.D. 4) the movement solidified under the leadership of Judas of Galilee in A.D. 6 in opposition to Quirinius Tax Reform, shortly after the Roman Empire declared that what had formerly been the tetrarchy of Herod Archelaus would henceforth be a Roman province. The Zealots chief tactic was the targeted assassinations of Romans and Jews who opposed them. The reign of the Emperor Caligula (A.D. 37-41) triggered an open break between Rome and the Jews, culminating in the Jewish Revolt of A.D. 66-72 and the destruction of the Temple. During the Revolt the Zealots took control of Jerusalem, using the Temple complex as a staging area for war. The Zealots were eliminated during the Jewish Revolt, making their last stand against the 10th Roman Legion at Masada in A.D. 73.

1. How are the worlds of the Old and New Testaments similar? 2. How do the worlds of the Old and New Testaments differ? 3. Why would Jews in the Roman Empire experience discrimination and persecution by the majority population? 4. How would you characterize the social, political and religious environment of the Roman Empire at the time of Jesus? 5. What were the primary strengths of the Roman Empire? What were its weaknesses?

Copyright 2014 by William C. Creasy

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