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 E EJAI

1 16-5 -6 +

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0EIJ HEGKA A J = JE @A E EJA AIJ @=> H@ =FF=HKA A JK@E= J A ? F H JA A J @AI IKEJAI K HEGKAI  = @ LK =K ?D=FEJHA % GKK A IKEJA @ EA F=H H ?KHHA ?A FAKJ IA H=FFH ?DAH @A B= LE@A JA @K >HA GK A F=HLEA J F KHJ= J F=I B H? A J @ JAH E AH =EI A B=EJ = JE = F KI HE?DA AIJ ?A A @A E EJA @A B ?JE  LAHH= A ! " ? A J AI IKEJAI A I J K ?=I F=HJE?K EAH = ?AIIEJ @K A @ EJE HEC KHAKIA =FF=H=EJ @ I GK AN= E A K ANA F A LE@A J ?=H = HI = HECKAKH @A = @A @AI FHAKLAI E F IIE> AI B KH EH =LA? K A sin x E =CA E JKEJELA = @ EA )E IE = B ?JE f : x IE KI @A x AIKH x A @ACH I AIJ F=I @ EA F KH  @AI AII=EI = ?= ?K =JHE?A FH I @A  @ A J 4 F=H ANA F A f (1) 0, 0174524 f (0, 1) 0, 01745328 f (10 ) 0, 0174532925 +AI L= AKHI IA > A J IA H=FFH ?DAH @K A L= AKH E EJA K A = = OIA I EC A KJE EI= J A JD H A @A = > H A IKF HEAKHA JHA @=E AKHI GKE IK J @A FH KLAH f @ ?H EII= JA ? A A LAHH= A ! & = E I A >HA E EJA =FF=H=EJ F=I ? =EHA A J E IAH= ?= ?K A & AJ @K B=EJ A A GKA f (0) ANEIJA F=I E @ EJ AJHA @ JAH E @A = E HA E @EHA?JA @EJ GKA ?A >HA IE F=HLEA J A FH KLAH ANEIJA ?A AIJ = E EJA @A f GK= @ x JA @ LAHI  A >KJ @AI F=H=CH=FDAI IKEL= JI AIJ @A @ AH K A @ EJE HEC KHAKIA @A ?AJJA JE L= = ? IJHKEHA FH CHAIIELA A J A F=HJ= J @A ?=I LE@A JI AJ A C H= EI= J = B H K =JE ? F JA ?A GK =FFA A = @ EJE @A +=K?DO IA JH KLA A ! 

E EJA A 

-J J KJ @=> H@ IA HAIJHAE J =K ?=I x JA @ LAHI  ? ?H JA A J ?A = LAKJ @EHA GK IE J HAIIA =KN L= AKHI FHEIAI F=H f GK= @ x @ALEA J @A F KI A F KI FAJEJ E B=K@H= I= I @ KJA KJE EIAH = J=E A @A x =KJHA A J @EJ |x| @EHA GKA f (x) IA H=FFH ?DA @A L ?AIJ @EHA GKA (f (x) L) IA H=FFH ?DA @A  1 IK J @ ? @ JK@EAH ?AJJA @AH E HA JE KI @EH I = HI GKA f AIJ @A E EJA K A A  ?A GKA KI JAH I lim f = 0  K A ? HA lim f (x) = 0
0 x0

 !

E EJAI LE@A JAI

A F KI LE@A J ?AIJ GK @ EJ =L EH lim IdR = 0 ?=H IdR (x) = x . . . 2=HJ= J @A
0 0

E =CA @AI J=E AI IA H=FFH ?D= J @A  L EJ GK FAKJ FHA @HA F KH FHA E HA H C A GKA IE |g (x)| < |f (x)| ?AIJ @EHA GKA g AIJ F KI FAJEJ GKA f  AJ IE lim f = 0 = HI lim g = 0

x2 < |x|

)E IE ?

= F KH |x| < 1 AI E
0

C= EJ I |xn | < . . . < |x3 | <

= F KH J KJ n > 0 lim xn = 0

L EJ GK A IAIJ E J HAII GK x =IIA FAJEJ E?E 1 < x < 1 A A AJ ? A JK@EA A ? F HJA A J @A f (x) GK= @ x AIJ JH I FAJEJ AI L= AKHI @A x AJ @ ? @A f (x) ANJ HEAKHAI K L EIE =CA @A  ?AIJ @EHA K E JAHL= A @A = B H A a; a A JHA J F=I A EC A @A ? FJA => KJEJ =E IE A C H= EI= J AI E C= EJ I FH ? @A JAI = @ EJE @A +=K?DO f = F KH E EJA  GK= @ x JA @ LAHI  IE f (x) FAKJ AJHA HA @KA F KI FAJEJA GKA J KJA L= AKH N A A ?D EIEII= J x IK I= A J FAJEJ

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HEC KHAKIA AJ I

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( > 0)( > 0)(x)(|x| < |f (x)| < )

1 AIJ E F HJ= J @=FFHA @HA EHA ?A CA HA @A B H K A >JEA J @ ? E?E F KH J KJ H A IJHE?JA A J F IEJEB IE FAJEJ I EJ E  E ANEIJA K H A IJHE?JA A J F IEJEB JA GKA F KH J KJ x @= I E JAHL= A , E =CA f (x) AIJ @= I E JAHL= A ,  5 =FF E?=JE IKH ANA F A f (x) = x @ A ( > 0)()(x)(|x| < 2 x < ) GKE AIJ LH=EA A FHA = J = ?AIJ K > ANAH?E?A @A H @ECAH ? F JA A J = @ IJH=JE  HA =HGKAH=  GKA @ FA @ @A  GKA AI FH > AI @A @ =E AI @ANEIJA ?A J J AI?= J I AI HAJH KLAH= A % KI LA I @ ? @A @ JHAH HEC KHAKIA A J GKA lim x = 0 1 AIJ ? =EH GKA A A F KH @AI ?=I JH I IE F AI K A JA A @ IJH=JE AIJ J K KHI @E ?E A A H = EJ A HALEA J =@ EJE @A +=K?DO GKA @= I @AI ?=I AN?AFJE A I K F KH @ AH @AI @ IJH=JE I HEC KHAKIAI @A H IK J=JI C H=KN IE =FF EGKA AI B H K AI AJ AI JD @AI GK LAHH= F KI E
x 0

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A ?=I |f | < |g | GK= @ lim g = 0

)LA? = @ EJE HEC KHAKIA GK LEA J @A L EH FAKJ FH KLAH =JD =JEGKA A J GKA IE F KH J KJ x =IIA FAJEJ |f (x)| < |g (x)| AJ IE lim g = 0 = HI lim f = 0 E IK J @A FHA @HA F KH f A A A GKA F KH g H IK J=JI JA I GKA lim x sin(1/x) = 0 @AI H IK J=JI F KI C
x 0

>JEA J =E IE =EI A J @AI H=KN IAH J >JA KI A

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CH=FDEGKA

E JAHFH J=JE CH=FDEGKA IAH= FH ?EI A A ? =IIA A A HALEA J AIIA JEA A A J JHAH GKA A CH=FDA HAIJA ? JA K FH I @A  HECE A @= I @AI HA?J= C AI =KIIE JH EJI GK LAKJ
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(G )

L EJ IKH ?A CH=FDEGKA GKA = F=I >AI E @AJHA ?D EIE =K JA GK I EJ ?AHJ=E GKA f HAIJA ? FHEI A JHA AJ

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= @EJ A  +AJJA @

F IA F=H @ EJE

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lim (f (x) L) = 0

IA > A FH IKFF IAH GKA L AIJ ?

=EI A >HA A A

H = EJ FAKJ @ JHAH ?AIJ =EII A ANAH?E?A GKE O = =K F KI GKK L A LEI=CA=> A F KHH= @ ? =FF EGKAH @AI JA?D EGKAI @A ?= ?K @A E EJA K @EIF IAH @A JD H AI @ANEIJA ?A I= I F KL EH @= I ?AHJ=E I ?=I ANF E?EJAH L

A JD H

A @AI CA @=H AI
A A E EJA I=JJA @

5E f AIJ A ?=@H A F=H @AKN B ?JE I g1 AJ g2 =O= J = ?A GKE A I EJ @A A A @A f ?AIJ A

6D H

A @AI CA @=H AI
0 0

(x)(|x| < a g1 (x) f (x) g2 (x)) AJ lim g1 = lim g2

lim f = lim g1
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= @ IJH=JE K FAK JA?D EGKA HAF IA IKH K ?= ?K @A KJE EI= J @AI >EA ?D EIEI F KH g1 AJ g2 ?AIJ K ANA F A ? =IIEGKA @A @ IJH=JE @K H IK J=J C H= IKH AI E EJAI LAHH= @A >HAKN ?=I @=FF E?=JE @K JD H A @AI CA @=H AI F=H ANA F A = JE @A IKEJAI =@ =?A JAI A C H= ?AIJ  KJE A F OAH GK= @ K A B ?JE f @A B H A ? F EGK A FAKJ AJHA =FFH NE A F=H @AI B ?JE I g F KI IE F AI

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0 0 0

lim g lim(f g ) = (lim f )(lim g ) AJ GKA I KI AI H IAHLAI @A

K A lim(f /g ) = (lim f )/(lim g )
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A J lim x a = a ?AI H IK
0

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AI B H AI E @ JAH E

AI

1 O = B H A E @ JAH E A GK= @ A FAKJ ?= ?K AH = E EJA ?DAH?D A A IA IAHL= J K EGKA A J @AI E EJAI @AI ? F I= JI F=H?A GKA KIJA A J = =JKHA AN=?JA @A ?AI ? F I= JI E JAHLEA J )E IE IE lim f = 2 AJ lim g = 3 lim f g 2 = 18 =EI IE

lim f = lim g = 0
0 0

A FAKJ FH L EH lim(f /g ) ?

A A

JHA J AI ANA F AI @EJ GKA =

f (x) = g (x) = x f (x) = x AJ g (x) = 3x B H A   AIJ E @ JAH E A

K f (x) = x AJ g (x) = x2

+AIJ A IAK ANA F A A J=EHA IE A FHA @ F=I A ? FJA AI E EJAI E EAI GKE IAH J LKAI A ! 6 KJAB EI A C H= EI= J K FAK FAKJ >JA EH =KIIE = B H A 
E A A B=EJ . ? A A LAHH= F KI E

3K= @ HA ? JHA K @K ?= ?K @K A E EJA E I KLA J >JA EH =KJHA A J F=H=CH=FDAI =FFHA @H J IEJK=JE I LH=E A J I= I I

A B H A E @ JAH E A IKHJ KJ K A J=FA E JAH @E=EHA A B=KJ F=I ? ? KHA GKA A ?= ?K AIJ E F IIE> A FAKJ = E EJA ?DAH?D A AJ AI JA?D EGKAI @A ?= ?K @AI FH ?D=E I ALAH E @ JAH E =JE  =EI >EA IKH E O = =KIIE @AI KJE . . .

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O = F=I @A E EJA
?JE JA A GKA x 1/x = F=I @A E EJA A  A A AJ = JHA GKA f AIJ > H A IKH , F=H L +  H 1/x AIJ

6 KJ @=> H@ K A B EJE @A lim f = L

0

F=I = H A FH I @A  +A ?=I IAH= J KJAB EI JH=EJ A ! E I=CEJ @K A E EJA E EA =EI  JK@A @K A B ?JE JA A GKA sin(1/x) B=EJ =FF=H=JHA K A @E ?K J F KI CH=LA ?AJJA B ?JE AIJ > H A F=H 1 AJ  =EI A A I?E A A JHA ?AI @AKN L= AKHI =K L EIE =CA @A  F=II= J F=H 1 AJ  F KH x = 1/(/2+ k ) 7 A = = OIA I EC A JHA GK=K?K A E EJA  A A C H= EI A AIJ F IIE> A A A AIJ ANF I A @= I ANAH?E?A JOFA #

*EA GKE A FKEIIA A =K?K ?=I I=CEH @K A FHAKLA ANEIJA ?A AJ F=HB EI = L= AKH AN=?JA @K A E EJA FAKJ A F KI I KLA J AJHA ? A?JKH A F=H K A JK@A ANF HE A J= A E IK J @A FHA @HA @AI L= AKHI @A f (x) F KH x JH I FAJEJ IA AH= ?AFA @= J = @AI B ?JE I L=HE=JE I A JAI JA AI GKA ln x > @AI AHHAKHI @A ?= ?K E AI @AI @E HA ?AI @A GK= JEJ I L EIE AI LAHH= A ? =IIA ANA F A @A f (2x) 2f (x) + f (0) x2

$ +
0

F IEJE

@AI E EJAI lim g f GK= @ lim f = 0

0 0

5E lim f = 0 AJ IE lim g = L = HI lim(g f ) = L  = @

IJH=JE

IAH= B=EJA A

? =IIA 7 A JK@A =JJA JELA @A ?A H IK J=J JHA J KJAB EI GKE AIJ ?AII=EHA GKA g (0) ANEIJA AJ I EJ C= L AI @E ?K J I CEGKAI =E IE I K AL AI HA @A J ?AII=EHAI AI FH ?EIE I @K FH ?D=E F=H=CH=FDA

% 2H >

AI E I =KN @

=E AI @A @

EJE
IAI = = CKAI @AJHA J K KHI LH=E

2 KH FAH AJJHA =K JD H A FH ? @A J AJ FH ?EIA =E IE = @ EJE @A lim f = L

0

= 5E f (0) ANEIJA E B=KJ GKA f (0) = L > A @ =E A @ANEIJA ?A @A f @ EJ ? JA EH =K E I K E JAHL= A @A = B H A a; a K L EIE =CA @A   J= J = IAK A L= AKH E JAH@EJA LA JKA A  LAHH= A B=EJ A !  GKK E JAHL= A @A = B H A 0, a IK J F KH F KL EH F=H AH @A E EJA @H EJA )E IE lim x 1 = F=I @A IA I AJ E JAH@EJ =KIIE lim 1/(tan2 (1/x) + 1) ?A @AH EAH ANA F A @ EA K AE EJ @A L= AKHI FH ?DAI @A   = IKEJA @AI L= AKHI E JAH@EJAI {2/(2k +1) }kZ  F KHH=EJ ?AFA @= J = HECKAKH AJHA JH=EJ A FH CA= J = B ?JE F=H ? JE KEJ ? A A LAHH= A "
0 0

&

AI JA?D EGKAI FH=JEGKAI @A ?= ?K

EJE @A

)LA? = @

L EJ GKA lim f (x) = f (0)

0

K GKA 

=FF=HJEA J

F=I ,f K GKA f = F=I @A E EJA ,= I ?A @AH EAH ?=I @EJ GKA f AIJ F=I ? JE KA A  E AIJ = HI BH GKA J GKA f =EJ A B=EJ K A E EJA A  @E HA JA @A f (0) IE HAIJHAE J f R JA ?AJJA E EJA lim f 0AKHAKIA A J J KJAI AI B ?JE I KIKA AI I J ? JE KAI E I=CEJ @AI B ?JE I >JA KAI F=H ? F IEJE @AI B ?JE I A J=EHAI @ ? @ AI F=H K A B H K A AN?AFJE @A = B ?JE E (x)  F=HJEA A JE HA @A x  AI B ?JE I ? JE KAI AI F KI ? KH= JAI I J >JA KAI F=H E JAHL= AI LAHH= ? A J AI JK@EAH A "
x0,x=0

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FH

= @ EJE @A % = F KH ? I GKA ?A GKA IE f (0) ANEIJA F=I AJ IE g AIJ K CA A J @A f =LA? lim g = L = HI lim f (x) = L  @EJ = HI GKA g FH CA f
0 x 0

F=H ? JE KEJ  +AIJ =E IE GK ?= ?K A A F KI I KLA J AI E EJAI E @ JAH E AI @A = B H A   A A AJ IE f (x) = N (x)/D(x) AJ IE F KH = JE?EFAH IKH AI IEJK=JE I @A !  N (a) = D(a) = 0 FAKJ B=?J HEIAH (x a) @= I N AJ D ? A @= I A ?=I @AI F O AI >JEA J =E IE K A B ?JE IE F E A GKE FAKJ AJHA @ EA A a AJ GKE =KH= = HI F KH L= AKH = E EJA ?DAH?D A AI E @ JAH E =JE I @A E EJAI ? JA = J @AI H=@E?=KN IA H= A J I KLA J ?=I A KJE EI= J AI GK= JEJ I ? KCK AI A LAHH= @AI ANA F AI A ANAH?E?A ?A

AI IEJK=JE I F KI @ E?=JAI GK= @ = B=?J HEI=JE  A IA B=EJ F=I I J I K LA J E AI =KN JA?D EGKAI @=FFH NE =JE @AI FH ?D=E I ?D=FEJHAI  AI @ LA FFA sin x A JI E EJ I F=H ANA F A HAJEA @H= IAK A A J E?E = E EJA lim = 1 GK x 0 x KIJE AH= A ? =IIA A JH= J C JHEGKA A J A ?=@HA A J sin x < x < tan x AJ AI ? I GKA ?AI GK FAKJ A JEHAH - @ EJELA =K?K @A ?AI ?=I FH=JEGKAI  > ECA @ ? HALA EH = @ EJE @A +=K?DO FAKJ @ ? IA @A = @AH GKA A A AIJ = L HEJ=> A KJE EJ KJHA GKA A =KH= KI AIF H I ? A ? =?? KJK AH A A?JAKH =KN L HEJ=> AI ANECA ?AI @AI =JD =JE?EA I @AH AI AJ =KIIE =K IJO A @= I AGKA @=KJHAI @ EJE I F KI ? F ANAI IAH J E JH @KEJAI A 5F A A IE F IA A B=EJ ? A = @EJ @= I  JK@A @A ?=I LH=E A J C H=KN GK= @ = B ?JE JK@E A AIJ ? KA GKE @EHA?JA A J F=H ANA F A AJ F KH @ JHAH @AI H IK J=JI @E ANEIJA ?A

! /
! 

H= EI=JE

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x a

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x a

lim f (x) = L ( > 0)( > 0)(x)(|x a| < |f (x) L| < ) x B=EJA A  " =L=EJ C EC A FH > A @K @ =E A =LA? = @ EJE A FAKJ F=I LH=E A J ?HEHA lim x @EJ GKE I=CEJ @K A E EJA
AIJ @ J= J
>

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@H EJA F=H?A GKA = B ?JE C H= EIA = @ EJE A GK

=>H CA I KLA J F=H lim f (x) AJ A

xa

xa,x>a

EA GK @H EJA @A  ?AIJ @EHA F KH x > 0 lim f (x) = L  E EJA @H EJA @A f A a HA F = = J @= I = B H K A FH ? @A JA

x 0

|x a| < F=H 0 < x a <

FAKJ ANAH?E?A ? IE@ HAH = B ?JE g @ EA F=H E JAHL= AI F=H g x f x IE x > a AJ g x L IE JHAH= GKA g AIJ ? JE KA A a IE AJ IAK A A J IE f = L F KH E EJA @H EJA A a

@ EJ @A A A = E EJA C=K?DA @A f A a ? HHAIF @= J x < a AJ J A =KIIE lim f (x) ?AIJ =KIIE F=H ?D= CA A J @A L=HE=> A = E EJA @H EJA @A f (x)
xa
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A a 4A =HGKA

AI =>H LE=JE

I lim f AJ lim f I
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F=H?A GKA AI A HAIFA?JA J F=I A JD H

A @A ?

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!
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AI @ EJE I FH ? @A JAI E JAH@EIA J @A F=H AH @A = E EJA A  @A 1/x = H= EI=JE lim 1/x = + AIJ F=I K A ? I GKA ?A =JKHA A @A ?A GK = @

LK E B=K@H=EJ =K E I @EIF IAH @K IOIJ A @A >HAI KLA=KN 1 AIJ F IIE> A @A A ? IJHKEHA A F=HJ= J @AI B H K AI @A ! ! AJ A KJE EI= J @AI FHE ?EFAI = = CKAI ?AKN GKE J = A = ? IJHK?JE @AI >HAI ? F ANAI =K ?D=FEJHA " =EI ?AI KLA=KN >HAI A HAIFA?JA J F=I AI H C AI @A ?= ?K KIKA AI F=H ANA F A = F KI B H? A J a a = 0 = ? IJHK?JE HEC KHAKIA @A A IA > A =E IE >JA K  = @H EJA K HEGKA =?DAL A J A R K , +  AIJ D HI FH CH= A AJ E AIJ HA? = @ A ?=I @A @ KJA @A KJE EIAH A IO > A + GKA ? A K A =>H LE=JE @A = FDH=IA . . . JA @ LAHI F KI E E. . .  F IA F=H @
xa

EJE

 = JH=@K?JE

E JKEJELA IAH= B=EJA A ? KHI

lim f (x) = + (A)( > 0)(0 < |x a| < f (x) > A)

x a

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = +

x a

1 AIJ = HI B=?E A @A @ 
0

JHAH GKA lim 1/x = +. . . =

0+

JE

@A E EJA E

EA AIJ E A

?A A @A B ?JE = H A E AIJ ? =EH GKA IE f AIJ = H A F=H M =K L EIE =CA @A A FAKJ F=I =L EH lim f = + =EI = H ?EFH GKA AIJ F=I LH=EA JK@EAH= FAKJ JHAH GKA f =@ AJ

ANA F A @A |(1/x) sin(1/x)|  =EI @= I ?A @AH EAH ?=I = HI =K?K A E EJA

! ! += ?K I =LA? E

2=H = = CEA =LA? AI ?= ?K I @A ! E AIJ JA J= J @ ?HEHA @AI C= EJ I JA AI F=H ANA F A GKA lim(f + g ) = lim f + lim g = + 3 = + F KH F KL EH A B=EHA =EI ?A = AIJ = DAKHAKIA A J E B=KJ @ ? FH CAH AI F H=JE I KIKA AI R F=I J K KHI F IIE> A FKEIGK LAKJ ? A ANA F A ?E @AIIKI A H=FFA A F KL EH =L EH + + a = + ?A GKE E JAH@EJ A ?= ?K @A + (+). . . FAKJ ?AFA @= J HAJA EH GKA F KH J KJ H A a =

) 4 C AI @A ?= ?K
+ + a = + + = + + a = = (+) = ; () = +
5E a > 0 a.(+) = + AJ a.() =  5E a < 0 a.(+) = AJ a.() = + a a = =0 + AJ I KI J KJAI H IAHLAI IE a ? =IIA K |a/0| = + ?A GKE IAH= ? A J A

AI H C AI @K JOFA e = 0 ln 0 = )H?JC+ = /2 . . . I @ ? IAE AI

J LELA A J

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JE KEJ

F %

AI =KJHAI ?= ?K I A LEI=CA=> AI A I E @ JAH E AI

J F=I @

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@EJ GKE I=CEJ @A B H AI

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(+) (+) (+) + () 0.(+) 0.() / AJ >EA IKH 0/0
2=H @

AI

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EJE A J=EHAI 

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A @ @KEJ AI B H AI E @ JAH E

AI

4A =HGKAI  1 HAIJA FH B H=> A @A I=L EH H @ECAH ?AI H C AI I KI B H A @A H=EI ANA F AI @A H @=?JE I ? HHA?JAI IAH J LKI A ? =IIA A A JI @AI

 + A ANF EGK A " AI B H AI E @ JAH E AI IEC E A J GK A FAKJ F=I JH KLAH = E EJA A HAIJ= J I KI ?AJJA B H A =EI E O = F=I B H? A J @E F IIE>E EJ =>I KA E B=KJ JA JAH @A ALAH E @ JAH E =JE  AI OA I @O F=HLA EH I J JH I L=HE I A LAHH= GKA GKAI ANA F AI A ! %

! "

E EJAI A + AJ A A ?=I @AI IKEJAI

0+

2KEIGKA lim 1/x = + A =@ AJJ= J A FHE ?EFA @A ? L EH ! #

x0+

F IEJE 

@AI E EJAI

>JEA J F=H ?D= CA A J @A L=HE=> A = @ A JHA I GKEL= A ?A =LA? = @

EJE EJE

X +

lim f (X ) =

lim f (1/x)
7 A = = OIA I EC
x+

@A +=K?DO

lim f (x) = L ( > 0)(A)(x > A |f (x) L| < )

A A@ KJE EIA AI EH lim f (x) A F I= J X = x

FAKJ @A - FH=JEGKA   = JE

>JEA J =EI

lim f (x) = L ( > 0)(A)(x < A |f (x) L| < )

A AI JA?D EGKAI @A ?= ?K GK=K L EIE =CA @A a JE KEJ  = F KI @A IA I FKEIGKA f (+) A LAKJ HEA @EHA. . .

@A ?

HA ? JHA >A=K? KF F KI I KLA J @AI B H AI E @ JAH E AI @ = ?AIIEJ @K A JD @A IOIJ =JEGKA A A IAH= LKA A ! % AJ FH ?EI A =K ?D=FEJHA  H= EIA ?AI @ EJE I =K ?=I @AI IKEJAI A A C=H@= J GKA AI L= AKHI @A x >JEA J lim un = L ( > 0)(N )(n > N |un L| < )
n+

C A JE HAI

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+

A AI E

EAI F=H = = CEA

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A L AJ L FAKLA J AJHA EI K E EI =EI E B=KJ GKA AI @ =E AI @A f g AJ (g f ) HAIFA?JA J AI H C AI @ AI A % ,f @ EJ ? JA EH K L EIE =CA @A A IE f (A) ANEIJA = HI f (A) = L AJ?. . . IE A AIJ + f (x) @ EJ AJHA @ E F KH x =IIA CH= @ . . . IE F KHH=EJ =L EH @AI IEJK=JE I F=JD CEGKAI @K JOFA @A lim 1/x sin x
+

1 AIJ @=E AKHI AIIA JEA A A J F=I F IIE> A @A C ? F IEJE =K ?=I @A E EJAI C=K?DA F=H ANA F A A sin x/x = F KH E EJA  A + =EI I=FFH ?DA @A  E EJ @A B EI ?A = HA @ @E ?E A  JK@A @K A E EJA JA E JAH@E?JE @A = J=JE

H= EIAH A ? HA A JD H A @A A AJ K A B ?JE JA A GKA A ?D= CA= J @A IEC A K A A GKA lim ex/ sin x AJ ANF EGKA
+

lim f = a+

KJE EI=JE FH=JEGKA @A ?A JD H A =E IE GKA I= @ IJH=JE  IA B=EJ F=H ?D= CA A J @A L=HE=> A F IA X = f (x) AJ @EJ GKA lim f (x) = L IEC E A GKA X JA @ LAHI L  AJ @ ? GKA g (X ) = g (f (x)) = F KH E EJA L

! $ 1 JAHFH J=JE

I CH=FDEGKAI

AI E JAHFH J=JE I CH=FDEGKAI GK = LK =K ?D=FEJHA # F KH AI B ?JE I A J=EHAI @ ELA J AJHA >EA ? KAI AI >JEA J A E JAHFH J= J CH=FDEGKA A J AI @ EJE I @A +=K?DO AI ?=I AI F KI E J HAII= JI ? HHAIF @A J =KN E EJAI E EAI AJ =KN E EJAI E E =IO FJ JAI LAHJE?= AI ?AIJ @EHA F=H= AI =NA Oy @ GK=JE X = a  IE lim f AIJ E EA =IO FJ JAI D HE J= AI ?AIJ @EHA F=H= AI =NA Ox @ GK=JE
a

Y = b  IE lim f = b ?

F HJA A J > EGKA

IE lim f = ?A @AH EAH ?=I @ EJ AJHA FH ?EI A F = @ JK@A AN=?J = J LK =K ?D=FEJHA FH ? @A J @AI JA?D EGKAI @A ?= ?K F KI => H AI IAH J LKAI =K ?D=FEJHA 

! % += ?K I FH=JEGKAI B

?JE

I KIKA AI

AI @E ?K J I HA ? JH AI @= I K ?= ?K @A E EJA @A B ?JE KIKA A ? >E =EI @A B ?JE I ? =IIEGKAI A FAKLA J LA EH GKA @K FH > A @A @ =E A @A @ EJE K @K A HA?DAH?DA @A E EJA E E ? A A LAHH= A " AI E EJAI @AI B ?JE I ? =IIEGKAI =KN > H AI J= J ? KAI L EJ =EI A J GKA J= J GKA @AI B H AI E @ JAH E AI ? JA = J E E E JAHLEA A J F=I A FAKJ HA ? JHAH GKA AI @AKN JOFAI A/0  AJ 0/0  A FHA EAH ?=I AIJ A J=EHA = E EJA AIJ B H? A J E EA E IK J @A @ JAH E AH A IEC A @A = B ?JE =K L E IE =CA @K F E J ? IE@ H  =EI = LK GKA A JOFA 0/0  AIJ F=I IE F A GK= @ AI HA?AJJAI @A & A IK IA J F KI A FH ?D=E ?D=FEJHA JHAH= GK AIJ I KLA J = A KJE EIAH AI @ HEL AI @AI B ?JE I ? IE@ H AI AJ GKE FAKJ A A O =L EH @AI ?=I IAK I @AI KJE I F KI FKEII= JI  AI @ LA FFA A JI E EJ I @ A J = H F IA AI E EJAI ? JA = J E E I J F KI L=HE AI = J K KHI = I KJE @A ?D= CA A JI @A L=HE=> A @A = B H A X = 1/x F KH JA JAH @A IA H= A AH A  =EI ?AIJ C H= A A J A JA JAH GKA @AH EAH HAII HJ E L=KJ EAKN AII=OAH @=> H@ @A @ JAH E AH GKA I I J AI F KI CH= @I E EI E JAHLA = JI AJ JA JAH @A AI B=?J HEIAH ,AI ANA F AI JOFEGKAI IAH J @ I A ? =IIA K ?=I F=HJE?K EAH >EA ? K AIJ = H C A @AI JAH AI @A F KI D=KJ @ACH  F KH AI F O AI AJ AI BH=?JE I H=JE A AI IA H=FFA AH= GKA A AIJ L= => A GK E E

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a

lim g = + FHE ?EFA @A E H=JE  ?AJJA B EI E I=CEJ >EA @K OA @A JHAH a GKA = E EJA ANEIJA = = CKA =K JD H A @AI CA @=H AI =EI ?AHJ=E AI IEJK=JE I F KI @ E?=JAI A FAH AJJA J GKA @ J=> EH ANEIJA ?A @K A E EJA ? A = @EJ =K @ >KJ LAHH= =E IE =K ?D=FEJHA  ? A J JK@EAH AI E EJAI @A IKEJAI @ EAI F=H @AI B H K AI ANF E?EJAI =EI E ? LEA J @ @A HA =HGKAH E F HJ= J JD H A IKEL= J =KGKA E = J B=EJ = KIE =K ?D=FEJHA %
?

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AI

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x 1

  ,


JHAH HEC KHAKIA A J GKA lim 1/x = 1 A

KJE EI= J = @

EJE

@A

+=K?DO =KJHA A J @EJ

LA => A

 5E f AIJ K A >E A?JE ? JE KA JA A GKA f (0) = 0 GKA FA IA L KI @K H=EI A A J IKEL= J lim f 1 (x) = 0 A A AJ E B=KJ F KH ?D=GKA > 0 @ JAH E AH
x 0

K JA GKA x < f 1 (x) < AJ E IK J @A FHA @HA = f () 

KJE EI= J = HI = @

6 # , JAH E AH AI I KJE I @A  GK=JE

EJE
x0

sin(1/x) = 0 AJ @A sin(1/x) = 1 @A +=K?DO @A lim sin(1/x) = JHAH GKA FHA = J

< 1/2 ?AI I KJE

=> KJEH=EJ K A ? JH=@E?JE F KH @AI x ? LA => A A J ?D EIEI F=H E I A @ @KEHA GKA = B ?JE x sin(1/x) = F=I @A E EJA A 

+= ?K I @A E EJAI
!   , JAH E AH AI E EJAI IKEL= JAI
lim (1 /x x 1/x)/x3/2 x0
x>0

xm 1 x1 xn 1 lim

xm + am xa xn + an lim

"   , JAH E AH AI E EJAI IKEL= JAI

x3 sin(1/x) + x2 cos x x 0 x2 + |x|7/2 lim ; lim x1/
x+ x

; lim x sin(1/x)
x

# 

 , JAH E AH I= I KJE EIAH = @ HEL A

x1/n a1/n x a xa lim

$ 

 KIJE AH = H C A @A 0 FEJ=  F KH AI F O AI IE P (a) = Q(a) = 0 = HI lim P (x)/Q(x) = lim P (x)/Q (x) + A ?AH F=H JH=EJAH A ?=I a AIJ H=?E A IE F A FKEI H=EI
xa x a

AH F=H H ?KHHA ?A

! +

JE KEJ
A @K F E J NA 0; 1 @= I 0; 1 E ANEIJA =K JHAH GKA IE f AIJ K A =FF E?=JE E I K x JA GKA f (x) = x ? JE KA @A

%   6D H

GKA lim f = 0
+

6 $ 5 EJ f K A =FF E?=JE

? JE KA @A 0, + @= I 4 JA A GKA f (0) = 1 AJ JHAH GKA  GK=JE f (x) = 1/2 =@ AJ =K E I K A I KJE

& 

,f

JHAH GKA IE f AIJ ? JE KA ?H EII= JA AJ GKA A AJ sup(A) I J ? JA KI @= I = f (sup(A)) = sup f (A) 2 KHGK E A IK J E F=I GKA f I EJ ?H EII= JA

'

1 16-5 -6 +

61 716
2=

E EJAI
  ! " # $  ! " # $ % &

.................................................................. F 
7 ANA F A E EJA A  E EJAI LE@A JAI =@ EJE HEC KHAKIA AJ I CH=FDEGKA KJE EI=JE F KH A ?=I |f | < |g | GK= @ lim g = 0 1 JAHFH J=JE LE@A J

+= ?K I @A E EJAI
, 5 EJE
0

..................................................... F !

@A lim f = L A @AI CA @=H AI AI

A JD H

AI FH @KEJI GK JEA JI AI B H AI E @ JAH E O = F=I @A E EJA @AI E EJAI lim g f GK= @ lim f = 0 =E AI @A @ EJE AI E I =KN @

3K= @ E + F IEJE 2H >

AI JA?D EGKAI FH=JEGKAI @A ?= ?K

! /
! ! !! !" !# !$ !% !&

H= EI=JE

........................................................ F #
@H EJA AJ E F IEJE ?JE @AI E EJAI ?=I C I KIKA AI A I=EJ F=I ?= ?K AH H= C=K?DA EAI

E EJAI A a E EJAI E EJAI E += ?K I =LA? E A JD H A @A ?

E EJAI A + AJ A A ?=I @AI IKEJAI 1 JAHFH J=JE + A J I CH=FDEGKAI JHAH ANEIJA ?A @K A E EJA GK

+= ?K I FH=JEGKAI B

" +

JE KEJ
" " "! "" "# "$
, 2H

.............................................................. F '
EJE I A @AI L= AKHI E JAH JE KEJ JE KAI @E=EHAI CA A JI H=?? H@I

A JD H

JK@AI @A ? *E A?JE I?

1 =CA @K E JAHL= A

-NAH?E?AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 

'

1 16-5 -6 +

61 716

. H K =EHA

 ,

EJE

I @A +=K?DO
EAI A a EJE  
EA =K L EIE =CA @A a IE E ANEIJA K H A

E EJAI ,

@EJ GKA f AIJ @ b > 0 JA GKA ( a b, a a, a + b ) Df

@EJ GKA f =@ AJ L F KH E EJA A a  K GKA f (x) JA @ LAHI L GK= @ x JA @ LAHI a IE f AIJ @ EA =K L EIE =CA @A a AJ IE

EJE

( > 0)( > 0)(x Df )(|x a| < |f (x) L| < )

?A GK JA lim f = L K lim f (x) = L
a x a

4A =HGKA AI H C AI CEGKA @A C=JE =@ AJ F=I L F KH E EJA A a  GKEL=KJ

@AI GK= JE ?=JAKHI @

A J @

? f

( > 0)( > 0)(x Df )(|x a| < AJ |f (x) L| )

E EJAI ,

@H EJA AJ EJE  !

C=K?DA
@H EJA IE f AIJ @
EA IKH K

f =@ AJ L F KH E EJA A a E JAHL= A @A = B H A a, a + b AJ IE

( > 0)( > 0)(x Df )(0 x a < |f (x) L| < ),

?A GK ,A A A JA lim f = L
a+

K lim f (x) = L
xa
>

f =@ AJ L F KH E EJA A a E JAHL= A @A = B H A a b, a AJ IE

EJE

 "

C=K?DA IE f AIJ @

EA IKH K

( > 0)( > 0)(x Df )(0 a x < |f (x) L| < ),

?A GK JA lim f = L
a

K lim f (x) = L
xa
<

E EJAI E
a AJ IE
,A A A

EAI E EJAI  #

E

E
EA =K L EIE =CA @A

EJE

f =@ AJ + F KH E EJA A a IE f AIJ @

(A > 0)( > 0)(x Df )(|x a| < f (x) > A)

f =@ AJ + F KH E EJA A a E JAHL= A @A = B H A a, a + b AJ IE

EJE

 $

@H EJA IE f AIJ @

EA IKH K

(A > 0)( > 0)(x Df )(0 x a < f (x) > A)

E EJAI AJ ?

JE KEJ

B H K =EHA

a AJ IE
AI @

EJE

 %

f =@ AJ F KH E EJA A a IE f AIJ @

EA =K L EIE =CA @A

(A > 0)( > 0)(x Df )(|x a| < f (x) < A)

EJE I = = CKAI I J =EII AI =K A?JAKH = @A A A

+ ?AIJ
AJ A

EJE

f =@ AJ L F KH E EJA A + IE f AIJ @ EA =K L EIE =CA @A @EHA IE ,f ? JEA J K E JAHL= A @A = B H A c, +  AJ IE ( > 0)(A > 0)(x Df )(x > A |f (x) L| < )

 &

F=H ANA F A

+ AJ IE

EJE

 '

f = F KH E EJA + A + IE f AIJ @

EA =K L EIE =CA @A

(B > 0)(A > 0)(x Df )(x > A f (x) > B ).

IE

EJE

 

= IKEJA (un ) ?

LAHCA LAHI L R IE lim un = L ?AIJ

@EHA

( > 0)(N )(n)(n > N |un L| < ).

5E ?AIJ @EJ GKA = IKEJA (un ) @ELAHCA ?AIJ A F=HJE?K EAH A ?=I IE lim un = + @EHA IE (A > 0)(N )(n)(n > N un > A).

+= ?K @A E EJAI
- ?=@HA A JI 6D H
5E =K L EIE =CA @A a = f1 g f2 ?AIJ @EHA IE ANEIJA b > 0 JA GKA F KH J KJ x ( a b, a a, a + b ) =EJ f1 (x) g (x) f2 (x) AJ IE lim f1 = lim f2 = L = lim g = L
a a a

A @AI CA @=H AI

6D H
a

A @A

H=JE

)LA? AI

A AI DOF JD IAI AJ IE lim f1 = +

a

lim g = +

2HE ?EFA @A FH
a

AJ IE lim f1 = L1 AJ lim f2 = L2 = HI L1 L2
a

CA A J @AI E

C= EJ I

5E =K L EIE =CA @A a

= f1 < f 2

+= ?K I = C >HEGKAI
1 AIJ FAKJ JHA F KI FHK@A J @A A ? IE@ HAH AI B H K AI GKE IKELA J AJ GKE ? H HAIF @A J =KN H C AI @A ?= ?K @= I R GKA ? A @AI =E@AI EHA @AI ANA F AI @A H @=?JE I ? HHA?JAI I J @ AI F KI E

+ + a = + + = + + a = = (+) = ; () = +
5E a > 0 a.(+) = + AJ a.() =  5E a < 0 a.(+) = AJ a.() = + a a = =0 + AJ I KI J KJAI H IAHLAI IE a = @A F KI A K |a/0| = +

E EJAI AJ ?

JE KEJ

B H K =EHA

F !

6D H
xa

A @A ?

F IEJE
a b AJ c I

@AI E EJAI
J EI K E

5E lim f (x) = b AJ lim g (x) = c = HI EI

xa x b

lim g (f (x)) = c 

AI B H AI IKEL= JAI I J E @ JAH E @= JAI A I J F=I @ EAI @= I R 2=H @ EJE f g = eg ln f J=EHAI 1+ 1 00 (+)0 ,AI H C AI HEC KHAKIAI I

AI ?AIJ

@EHA GKA AI F H=JE

I ? HIF

(+) (+) (+) + () 0.(+) 0.() / AJ >EA I H 0/0

A @ @KEJ AI B H AI E @ JAH E AI IKFF A

J A H = EJ @A = B H A
b b b

a > 0, a. + = +  5E lim f = a > 0 AJ IE lim g = + = HI lim f g =

xb

lim f (x)g (x) = +

b

a = 0, |a/0| = +  5E lim f = a = 0 AJ IE lim g = 0 = HI lim |f /g | =

xb

lim |f (x)/g (x)| = + ?A?E A IK J F=I

JK@EAH A IEC A

@ JAH E AH = E EJA @A f /g @

J E B=KJ

-J A JE AH= =FF=HEJE @K A B H A E @ JAH E A F=H K A FDH=IA JA A GKA lim f = lim g = + = E EJA @A f /g AIJ @ ? @A = B H A E @ JAH E A + +  AJ a a A FAKJ AJHA >JA KA I KI ?AJJA B H A AL I E @ JAH E =JE . . . 

! +

JE KEJ
,

EJE !  @EJ GKA f AIJ ? JE KA A a a Df  IE lim f (x) = f (a) xa F AIJ ? JE KA IE A A AIJ ? JE KA A J KJ F E J @A I @ =E A @A @ EJE , EJE !
<

f AIJ ?
xa

JE KA

@H EJA A a IE lim f (x) = f (a) f AIJ ?

xa
>

JE KA

C=K?DA A a IE lim f (x) = f (a)

AI B ?JE I ? IJHKEJAI F=HJEH @A B ?JE I ? JE KAI F=H F H=JE I = C >HEGKAI AJ ? F IEJE I J ? JE KAI ?AIJ =KIIE A ?=I @AI >E A?JE I H ?EFH GKAI @A >E A?JE I ? JE KAI AJ @AI FHE EJELAI @A B ?JE I ? JE KAI L EH ?D=FEJHA   ?A GKE FAH AJ @A FH ?DA A FH ?DA @A JHAH GKA J KJAI AI B ?JE I KIKA AI I J ? JE KAI

6D H A @AI L= AKHI E JAH @E=EHAI 5E f AIJ ? AJ IE y AIJ ? FHEI A JHA f (a) AJ f (b) E ANEIJA K x =K GKA f (x) = y 2HE ?EFA @K
x a,b

JE KA IKH E JAHL= A a, b E I @A E JAHL= A a, b JA

5E f AIJ ? sup f (x) ANEIJA AJ E ANEIJA K x =K

=NE K

JE KA IKH E JAHL= A a, b A >HA M = E I @A E JAHL= A a, b JA GKA f (x) = M

1 =CA @K E JAHL= A

5E f AIJ ? JE KA IKH E JAHL= A I E =CA F=H f @A I f (I ) = {y / x I, f (x) = y } AIJ K =KJHA E JAHL= A @K A A JOFA  KLAHJ IA E KLAHJ K BAH  GKA I

+=H=?J HEI=JE

5E f AIJ K A =FF E?=JE L= A a, b a < b IKH B = Im(f ) @AKN GKA ? GKAI @AI JH EI ? @EJE E F EGKA J = JH EIE A  f AIJ ? JE KA  f AIJ J

@AI >E A?JE

I?

JE KAI

@K E JAH I IKEL= JAI

A IJHE?JA ! f AIJ >E A?JELA @A a, b LAHI B