Chapter 15: Quantity of Heat and Heat Transfer Please remember to photocopy 4 pages onto one sheet by going

A3A4 and using back to back on the photocopier Heat is a form of energy that can cause a rise in temperature when added or a fall in temperature when withdrawn. The Specific Heat Capacity* of a substance is the heat energy needed to change one kilogram of the substance by one Kelvin. The symbol for Specific Heat Capacity is c. Its unit is the Joule per kilogram per el!in "J #g$1 $1%. Change in Heat Energy !"ass#!Specific Heat Capacity#!change in Temperature# Q + mc

!representing change in temperature# is pronounced $delta theta%& Storage Heaters In an electric storage heater' bricks with a high specific heat capacity are heated overnight by passing an electric current through a heating coil in the bricks. The bricks are surrounded by insulation. The bricks are heated by night when electricity is cheaper. The system is closed in but has a cover which can be opened to release the heat when needed. (uring the day the bricks slowly give out their heat' thus heating the room. )ecause the bricks have a high specific heat capacity they can absorb a lot of heat without increasing very much in temperature' therefore not losing much back to the environment.

&atent Heat *raph of Temperature versus Time for water+ ,atent Heat Curve+& -t the melting and boiling points' the energy taken in is used to change the state of the substance rather than causing an increase in temperature. .nce all the substance has changed state then the temperature begins to rise again. The Specific &atent of 'usion "lf% of a substance is the amount of heat energy need to change / kg of the substance from a solid to a li0uid without a change in temperature. The Specific &atent of (aporisation "l!% of a substance is the amount of heat energy needed to change / kg of the substance from a li0uid to a gas without a change in temperature. The unit of Specific &atent Heat is the Joule per #ilogram "J#g $1%. 1ote that there is no reference to Kelvin in this unit. This is because there is no temperature change. Heat needed to change state 'ormula for &atent Heat "ass 2 Specific ,atent Heat

Q + ml

The Heat )ump is a device that e3tracts available heat from one area and transfers it to another to either heat or cool an interior space. E3amples+ /. 4efrigerator& 5. 6erspiration&. Heat Transfer* Three methods of Heat Transfer+ /. Conduction 5. Convection 7. 4adiation

1. Conduction is the movement of heat energy through a substance by the passing on of molecular vibration from molecule to molecule' without any overall movement of the substance. 8ou are e3pected to be able to demonstrate how to compare rates of conduction through different solids !9unior Cert# *$(alue*

The :;value of a house is a measure of the rate of heat loss to the surroundings. :;<alues are used in domestic situations to give an indication of how well a substance !roof' walls' tiles' etc# allows heat to flow !conduct# through it. :;<alues are a measure of the conductivity of a substance' i.e. a structure that is a good insulator has a low :;<alue. The :;<alue of a structure is the amount of heat energy conducted per second through / s0uare metre of that structure when a temperature difference of /= C is maintained between its ends. ,. Con!ection is the transfer of heat through a fluid by means of circulating currents of fluid caused by the heat. )ecause hot water e3pands' it is less dense than cooler water and so rises. This principle is used in domestic hot water and heating systems. -. .adiation is the transfer of heat energy from one place to another in the form of electromagnetic waves. &ea!ing Cert /andatory 01periments: "easurement of Specific Heat Capacity of >ater "easurement of the Specific ,atent Heat of fusion of ice "easurement of the Specific ,atent Heat of <aporisation of water TH-T?S -,, @.,KSAA &ea!ing Cert )hysics Syllabus Content /. Concept of heat. B:-1TIT8 .@ HE-T /. Heat capacity' specific heat capacity 5. ,atent heat' specific latent heat. 2epth of Treatment Heat as a form of energy that causes a rise in temperature when added or a fall in temperature when withdrawn. (efinitions and units. (efinitions and units. -ppropriate calculations. -ppropriate calculations. Storage heaters. Heat pump' e.g. refrigerator' perspiration. 3cti!ities STS

HE-T T4-1S@E4
/. Conduction 5. Convection 7. 4adiation 4adiation from the sun. Bualitative comparison of rates of conduction through solids. Simple e3periments. Simple e3periments. Simple e3periments. :;valueC use in domestic situations. (omestic hot;water and heating systems. Everyday e3amples. Solar heating.

/03S*.0/04T 5' TH0 S)0C6'6C H03T C3)3C6T7 5' 83T0. 3))3.3T*S 6ower supply' Doulemeter' heating coil' calorimeter' thermometer' electronic balance. 2639.3/

).5C02*.0 /. @ind the mass of the water by first measuring the mass of the empty calorimeter' then the mass of the calorimeter with water in it' and subtracting one form the other. 5. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram !with a power supply connected to the Doulemeter#. 7. 4ecord the initial temperature of the water !we assume this to be the same temperature as the calorimeter#. E. Switch on the power supply and allow the temperature of the water to rise by about /= degrees. F. Switch off the power supply. G. 1ote the reading on the Doulemeter and the final temperature of the water !and calorimeter#. H. Calculate the specific heat capacity of water !c water# using the e0uation+ 0nergy supplied + "mc:;%cal < "mc:;%=ater where IJ is the change in temperature and ccal is known. **************************************************************** .0S*&TS "ass of calorimeter+ "ass of calorimeter K water+ "ass of water+ Initial temperature of water !and calorimeter#+ @inal temperature of water !and calorimeter#+ Change in temperature IJ+ 9oulemeter reading+ C54C&*S654 The theoretical value for the specific heat capacity of water E5== 9 kg L/ KL/. >e got an answer of H. ConclusionM I need to start copying my answers from someone else. S5*.C0S 5' 0..5. /. Heat may be gained from or lost to the surroundings. 5. If a mercury thermometer is used' this may only be accurate to the nearest degree. ).0C3*T654S /. Ensure that the heating element is covered with water to avoid any loss of heat energy. 5. Ensure that the calorimeter is well insulated to avoid loss of heat energy. 7. Stir the water throughout the e3periment to ensure that the thermometer reading reflects the heat supplied. E. :se a sensitive thermometer graduated to =./ or =.5 degrees. -n error of / deg. in /= is a large percentage error. F. Ensure that room temperature is midway between the initial and final temperatures of the water. 45T0 >hat you are not told in the te3t;book is that all these NHeat? e3periments are notoriously inaccurate due to heat loss. 6ersonally I think anything within 77O of the correct value is great. )ut then I never was much good at 6hysics.

/03S*.0/04T 5' TH0 S)0C6'6C &3T04T H03T 5' '*S654 5' 6C0 3))3.3T*S+ Ice' water' calorimeter' lagging' beakers' kitchen paper' thermometer and electronic balance. 2639.3/:

).5C02*.0 /. 6lace some ice cubes in a beaker of water and keep taking the temperature with the thermometer until the ice; water mi3ture reaches = PC. 5. @ind the mass of the calorimeter. 7. Half fill the calorimeter with water. E. @ind the combined mass of the calorimeter and water ice. The mass of the water can be calculated by subtraction. F. @ind the mass of the beaker and its contents. The mass of the ice can be calculated by subtraction. G. 4ecord the initial temperature !Jinitial# of the calorimeter plus water. H. Crush some ice and dry it carefully with blotting paper or filter paper. Q. -dd the pieces of dry crushed ice to the calorimeter. (o this until the temperature of the water has fallen by about /= PC. R. Take a note of the lowest temperature reached !Jfinal# /=. :se the formula below to calculate a value for the latent heat of fusion of ice. .0S*&TS "ass of calorimeter+ "ass of calorimeter plus water+ 4oom temperature+ Temperature of ice+ Initial temperature of water !Jinitial#+ @inal temperature of water !Jfinal#+ "ass of calorimeter plus water plus ice+ C3&C*&3T654S The rise in temperature of the ice !JI melted ice# Jfinal L = PC . . . . . . . . . . . The fall in temperature of the calorimeter !IJ cal# is Jinitial L Jfinal . . . . . . . . . . . . The fall in temperature of the water !IJ water# is Jinitial L Jfinal . . . . . . . . . . . . "ass of water+ "ass of ice+ >e now have Heat lost by calorimeter K heat lost by water Heat gained by ice turning to water K heat gained by melted ice "mc:;%cal < "mc:;%=ater + "ml%ice < "mc:;%melted ice

C54C&*S654 The theoretical value for specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 7.7 2 /= F 9 kg;/. >e got a value of H' so obviously either the theory is crap or I need a new lab partner. ).0C3*T654S /. Ensure that the ice is dried !dab it with tissue paper# before adding to the calorimeter. 5. :se warmed water !about /= deg. above room temp.# at the start of the e3periment so that' on average' heat is neither lost or gained from the surroundings. This also helps the ice to melt more 0uickly speeding up the e3pt. 7. :se a well insulated calorimeter to avoid loss or gain of heat to the surroundings. E. Stir well and record the lowest temperature when all of the ice has melted.

/03S*.0/04T 5' TH0 S)0C6'6C &3T04T H03T 5' (3)5.6S3T654 5' 83T0. 3))3.3T*S Calorimeter' beaker' conical flask' steam trap' retort stand' heat source' thermometer' electronic balance. 2639.3/

).5C02*.0 /. @ind the mass of the calorimeter. 5. Half fill the calorimeter with water. 7. @ind the mass of the water plus calorimeter and by subtraction find the mass of the water. E. 4ecord the temperature of the calorimeter plus water J initial F. )oil the water in the flask until steam issues freely from the delivery tube. G. -llow dry steam to pass into the water in the calorimeter until the temperature has risen by about 5= PC' then remove the steam delivery tube from the water. H. 4ecord the final temperature Jfinal of the calorimeter plus water plus condensed steam. Q. @ind the mass of the calorimeter plus water plus condensed steam and by subtraction find the mass of the condensed steam. .0S*&TS "ass of the calorimeter........................... "ass of calorimeter plus cold water .................................. Initial temperature of water..................... Temperature of the steam........................ @inal temperature of water ...................... @inal mass of steam calorimeter plus water plus steam ............................... C3&C*&3T654S "ass of cold water .................................. "ass of steam .................................. IJcondensedSsteam . . . . . . . . IJcal . . . . . . . . . . . . . IJwater . . . . . . . . . . Energy lost by steam K energy lost by condensed steam cooling down energy gained by calorimeter K energy gained by the water mlsteam K mcIJcondensedSsteam mcIJcal K mcIJwater C54C&*S654: The theoretical value for the latent heat of vapourisation of water is 5.5G 3 /=G 9 kg;/C we got an answer of H. Therefore we conclude that this e3periment sucks. ).0C3*T654S: /. Ensure that only steam !not water# enters the water in the calorimeter. :se a Tsteam trapT !it actually traps water# if available 5. :se a tilted insulated tube as an alternative delivery pipe for dry steam. This does away with the need to use a steam trap. 7. If the water in the calorimeter is initially cooled to/= PC below room temperature and then heated to /= PC above room temperature the heat gains and heat losses appro3imately cancel each other out. E. :se a well insulated calorimeter to avoid loss or gain of heat to the surroundings F. Stir well and record the highest temperature when the steam has stopped bubbling into the water.

01tra Credit &Specific Heat Capacity It doesn?t matter if the obDect is being heated from 5 = C to 7= C' or from R5= C to R7= CC each is an increase of /= C and therefore the same amount of heat energy is re0uired in both cases. )asically' if a substance has a high s.h.c. a lot of heat is re0uired to change its temperature. If a certain amount of heat is needed to raise the temperature of an obDect by / = C !/ K#' this same amount of heat will be given out if the obDect cools by /= C. 4emember that a temperature difference of / K is the same as a temperature difference of / = C. * : pronounced >delta theta? The symbol is used in many conte3ts to symbolise $change%. In fact the e3pression dyUd3 is shorthand for yU 3 C Na change in y divided by a change in 3?. This corresponds to the slope of a line where y is on the vertical a3is. The formula y5 L y/ U 35 L3/ is merely a more cumbersome way writing this same thing. .f course it?s easy to calculate the slope when you Dust have a straight line. )ut what about if instead of a line you have a curve' and you want to find the slope of the curve !at a specific point#M This is where the genius of 1ewton came in. He invented N(ifferentiation? and its associated rules to enable us to calculate this. (ifferentiation' together with its sister NIntegration? come together to form an area of mathematics called NCalculus?. -t appro3imately the same time as 1ewton was coming up with this' another mathematician called ,eibtniV was discovering it independently' but with different notation. >hen 1ewton found out about this he accused ,eibtniV of stealing his ideas and threw the mother of all sulks. To make things worse' it was ,eibtniV? who used the notation yU 3. 1ewton?s was considered to be too cumbersome. 8ou might still come across it in places. He used f?!3# and f??!3# to signify first order and second order differentiation. &*raph of Temperature versus Time for water+ ,atent Heat Curve 01planation If youWve got a block of ice at LF= C and heat it up' you will notice that while itWs melting the melted water will not rise above == C until all the ice has melted. The heat which is being added is not causing a rise in temperature L hence the term Nlatent heat? !Nhidden heat?#. .nly when all the ice has turned to water does the temperature begin to rise again. Similarly when the water reaches boiling point at /== = C' the water which turns to water vapour first will not rise above /=== C until itWs all water vapour. 1obody has ever asked me why this should be the case' which is a small cause for concern' but Dust goes to show that we really are teaching students not to think for themselves. -nyway' to make sense of the curve' I think it must mean that ice absorbs heats better than water' which would e3plain why all the ice turns to water before the water heats up' and similarly at the waterUsteam point. 1ow this merely begs the follow up 0uestionC why does ice absorb heat more 0uickly than waterM This in turn brings us back to our definitions of heat capacity. >hy does one substance have a different specific heat capacity than anotherM I guess it must mean that the forces between the water molecules in the ice stage are less than the forces between them in the water stage. )ut isnWt it interesting that we as physics teachers give the impression that what you read in the book is all there is to it' whereas in actual fact these 0uestions only serve to open the door on a whole new and deeper level of understanding. ItWs no wonder that students are walking away from physics in the classroom. .r maybe it?s Dust me. .h by the way' all !and I mean all# te3tbooks which give this diagram conveniently omit to mention that it is ne3t to impossible to achieve this in practice.. It assumes all energy goes into the waterC that there is no loss of energy by conduction' convection or radiationC that water evaporates only when it is boiling' and that pressure is kept constant. *.efrigerator (id you know that if you leave a fridge open it will not cool down a roomM This is because all the heat it removes merely gets transferred to the back of the fridge where it gets pushed out into the room.

*)erspiration and &atent heat The reason we perspire is to cool us down L everybody knows that' but how does it workM It?s not obvious' but we are relatively large source of heat' and when a drop of water forms on our skin it can take heat from the skin and as a result heat up and then evaporate as it turns to a gas. )ut because water has 0uite a high shc and lh' one drop can actually absorb a lot of heat. @or e3ample one gram of sweat evaporating from your body removes 5'E/= 9oules of Heat energy. So why don?t you catch a cold in a swimming pool? >hile we?re at it' why does it seem so cold when you get out of a swimming poolM >hy might getting caught in a shower of rain result in you catching a cold' or even worse L pneumoniaM 6ut a dollop of perfume on your hand ; what should you notice and whyM (ip a thermometer in !warm# perfume' or wrap an alcohol;soaked rag around a thermometer. >hat happensM >hy is water a very good substance for fire e3tinguishersM >hy is a steam burn more dangerous than a burn from boiling water' even when both are at the same temperature !/=== C#M *Heat Transfer Conduction 8ou get up for a pee in the middle of the night. .n your way to the bathroom you pass over different floors composed of !i# ceramic tiles' !ii# timber and !iii# woollen carpet. 1ow all three floors are at the same temperature !room temperature#' so why do they seem to be at different temperaturesM Con!ection @ill balloon with water' heat it first with a match' then a cigarette lighter. -maVingly the balloon does not burst. >hyM Even though the plastic material the balloon is made from would not be considered a good conductor' it is very thin !the e3periment works best when the balloon is full' causing the skin to be stretched# and heat is 0uickly transferred away from the point of contact due to convection. It is also helped by the relatively large specific heat capacity of waterC it can take in a very large amount of heat before it gets very hot. Eventually however the balloon does develop tiny holes and the water will flow out. (emo is best done over a basin Dust in case there is a problem with the balloon. )ut over a student?s head is much more fun. .adiation >e have /Q foot NSolar )alloons? which rise very nicely on a sunny day !there must be very little breeVe#. The black material absorbs heat and the air inside heats up' e3pands and because the system is now less dense than the surrounding air' up she goesA - thermos flask uses the principles of conduction' convection and radiation to keep the li0uid inside from cooling down !or indeed heating up# Can you figure out the role played by eachM **$(alue So why the letter N:?M -pparently it?s short for the term N:nit Heat ,oss 4ate?. It seems to have the opposite meaning to Ntog value? for fibres in that the greater the :;value the poorer an insulator it is.

01am @uestions Specific heat capacity of copper 7R= 9 kgL/ KL/C Specific heat capacity of water Specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 7.7 2 /=F 9 kg;/ /. X5==7YX5==Q .,YX5=/= .,Y >hat is heatM 5. X5==7 .,YX5==E .,YX5==F .,YX5==G .,YX5==H .,YX5==Q .,YX5==RY 1ame two methods by which heat can be transferred. 7. X5==E .,Y >hat is meant by conductionM E. X5=/= .,Y E3plain how heat is transferred in a solid. F. X5==E .,YX5=/= .,Y (escribe an e3periment to show how different solids conduct heat at different rates. G. X5==E .,Y >hy are the pipes in the solar panel usually made from copperM H. X5=/= .,Y E3plain the term N:;value?. Q. X5==5 .,Y >hat is the effect of increasing the :;value of a structureM R. X5==E .,YX5=/= .,Y The :;value of a house is a measure of the rate of heat loss to the surroundings. *ive two ways in which the :;value of a house can be reduced. /=. X5==G .,Y In an electric storage heater' bricks with a high specific heat capacity are heated overnight by passing an electric current through a heating coil in the bricks. The bricks are surrounded by insulation. >hy is insulation used to surround the bricksM //. X5==G .,Y 1ame a material that could be used as insulation in a storage heater. /5. X5==G .,Y >hat is convectionM /7. X5==G .,Y (escribe an e3periment to demonstrate convection in a li0uid. /E. X5==5 .,Y >hy is the heating element of an electric kettle near the bottomM /F. X5==G .,Y E3plain how the storage heater heats the air in a room. /G. X5==E .,Y >hy does warm water rise to the top of the solar panelM /H. X5==QY -n electric toaster heats bread by convection and radiation. >hat is the difference between convection and radiation as a means of heat transferM E5== 9 kgL/ KL/

/Q. X5==EY >hy are the pipes in the solar panel usually painted blackM /R. X5==GYX5==EY X5==5 .,YX5==Q .,Y (efine specific heat capacity. 5=. X5==EY (efine specific latent heat. 5/. X5==EY Storage heaters have a large heat capacity. E3plain why. 55. X5==HY >hy does the temperature of an athlete reduce when she perspiresM 57. X5=/=Y E3plain why snow is slow to melt as the day;time temperatures rises above = PC. 5E. X5==G .,Y !i# The total mass of the bricks in a storage heater is Q= kg and their specific heat capacity is /F== 9 kg L/ KL/. (uring a ten;hour period the temperature of the bricks rose from /F oC to 7== oC. Calculate the energy gained by the bricks. !ii# Calculate the power of the heating coil. 5F. X5==RY How much energy is re0uired to raise the temperature of F== litres of water from 5= =C to F= =CM !specific heat capacity of water E5== 9 kgL/ KL/C density of water /=== kg mL7C / litre /=L7 m7# 5G. X5==5 .,Y !i# -n electric kettle contains /.F kg of water. The specific heat capacity of water is E/Q= 9 kg ;/ K;/. Calculate the amount of energy re0uired to raise the temperature of the water from /F =C to /== =C. !ii# The kettle takes E minutes to heat the water from /F =C to /== =C. Calculate the power of the kettle. !-ssume all the energy supplied is used to heat the water#. 5H. X5==GY !i# E== g of water at a temperature of /F oC is placed in an electric kettle. The power rating of the kettle is 7.= k>. Calculate the energy re0uired to raise the temperature of the water to /== oC. !ii# Calculate the energy supplied by the kettle per second. !iii# Calculate the least amount of time it would take to heat the water to /== oC. !iv# In reality' the time taken to heat the water will be greater. E3plain why. 5Q. X5==Q .,Y - saucepan containing F== g of water at a temperature of 5= PC is left on a 5 k> ring of an electric cooker until it reaches a temperature of /== PC. !i# Calculate the rise in temperature of the water. !ii# Calculate the energy re0uired to heat the water to /== PC. !iii# Calculate the amount of energy the ring supplies every second. !iv# Calculate the time it will take to heat the water to /== PC. 5R. X5==EY !i# F== g of water at a temperature of /F =C is placed in a freeVer. The freeVer has a power rating of /== > and is Q=O efficient. Calculate the energy re0uired to convert the water into ice at a temperature of L5= oC. !ii# How much energy is removed every second from the air in the freeVerM !iii# How long will it take the water to reach a temperature of L5= oCM !iv# -llowing a li0uid to evaporate in a closed pipe inside the freeVer cools the air in the freeVer. The vapour is then pumped through the pipe to the outside of the freeVer' where it condenses again. E3plain how this process cools the air in the freeVer. !v# The freeVer causes the room temperature to rise. E3plain why.

/=

7=. X5==RY 4ead the following passage and answer the accompanying 0uestions. The sun is a maDor source of Ngreen? energy. In Ireland solar heating systems and geothermal systems are used to get energy from the sun. There are two main types of solar heating systems' flat;plate collectors and vacuum;tube collectors. /. - flat;plate collector is usually an aluminium bo3 with a glass cover on top and a blackened plate on the bottom. copper pipe is laid on the bottom of the bo3' like a hose on the groundC water is passed through the pipe and transfers the absorbed heat to the domestic hot water system. 5. In a vacuum;tube collector' each tube consists of an evacuated double;walled silvered glass tube in which there is a hollow copper pipe containing a li0uid. The li0uid inside the copper pipe is vaporised and e3pands into the heat tip. There the vapour li0uefies and the latent heat released is transferred' using a heat e3changer' to the domestic hot water system. The condensed li0uid returns to the copper pipe and the cycle is repeated. In a geothermal heating system a heat pump is used to e3tract solar energy stored in the ground and transfer it to the domestic hot water system. !a# !b# !c# !d# !e# >hy is the bottom of a flat;plate collector blackenedM The li0uid in a vacuum;tube solar collector has a large specific latent heat of vaporisation. E3plain why. How is the sun?s energy trapped in a vacuum;tube solar collectorM (escribe' in terms of heat transfer' the operation of a heat pump. *ive an advantage of a geothermal heating system over a solar heating system.

7/. X5=/= .,Y The diagram shows a solar heating system. !i# How is the sun?s energy transferred to the solar collectorM !ii# >hy is the solar collector normally painted blackM !iii# How is the heat transferred from the solar panel to the hot water tankM !iv# The heating coil for the hot water tank are placed at the bottom' e3plain why. !v# *ive an advantage and a disadvantage of a solar heating system. /andatory 01periments 75. X5==E .,YX5=/= .,Y In a report of an e3periment to measure the specific heat capacity of a substance !e.g. water or a metal#' a student wrote the following. $I assembled the apparatus needed for the e3periment. (uring the e3periment I took a number of measurements of mass and temperature. I used these measurements to calculate the specific heat capacity of the substance.% !i# (raw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used. !ii# >hat measurements of mass did the student take during the e3perimentM !iii# >hat temperature measurements did the student take during the e3perimentM !iv# *ive a formula used to calculate the specific heat capacity of the substance. !v# *ive one precaution that the student took to get an accurate result. 77. X5==R .,Y - student carried out an e3periment to measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice. The following is an e3tract from her report. $In my e3periment' I prepared ice which was at = =C and I added it to warm water in a calorimeter. I waited for all the ice to melt before taking more measurements. I used my measurements to calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.% !i# (raw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used in the e3periment. !ii# >hat measurements did the student take in the e3perimentM !iii# How did the student prepare the ice for the e3perimentM !iv# How did the student know the ice was at = =CM !v# >hy did the student use warm water in the e3perimentM

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7E. In a report of an e3periment to measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice' a student wrote the following. $Ice at = =C was added to water in a calorimeter. >hen the ice had melted measurements were taken. The specific latent heat of fusion of ice was then calculated.% !i# (raw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used. !ii# >hat measurements did the student take before adding the ice to the waterM !iii# >hat did the student do with the ice before adding it to the waterM !iv# How did the student find the mass of the iceM !v# *ive one precaution that the student took to get an accurate result. 7F. X5==QY In an e3periment to measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice' warm water was placed in a copper calorimeter. (ried' melting ice was added to the warm water and the following data was recorded. "ass of calorimeter G=.F g "ass of calorimeter K water //Q.Q g Temperature of warm water 7=.F oC "ass of ice /F./ g Temperature of water after adding ice /=.5 oC !i# E3plain why warm water was used. !ii# >hy was dried ice usedM !iii# >hy was melting ice usedM !iv# (escribe how the mass of the ice was found. !v# >hat should be the appro3imate room temperature to minimise e3perimental errorM !vi# Calculate the energy lost by the calorimeter and the warm water. !vii# Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice. 7G. X5==HY The specific heat capacity of water was found by adding hot copper to water in a copper calorimeter. This was not the method most students would have used to carry out the experiment so there was much annoyance when it appeared on the paper. Nevertheless it does differentiate between those students who understand the underlying principles and those who have just learned off a formula. The following data was recorded. mass of calorimeter FF.H g mass of calorimeter K water /=/.5 g mass of copper K calorimeter K water /7/.E g initial temperature of water /G.F oC temperature of hot copper RR.F oC final temperature of water 5/.= oC !i# (escribe how the copper was heated and how its temperature was measured. !ii# :sing the data' calculate the energy lost by the hot copper !iii# :sing the data' calculate the specific heat capacity of water. !iv# *ive two precautions that were taken to minimise heat loss to the surroundings. !v# E3plain why adding a larger mass of copper would improve the accuracy of the e3periment. 7H. X5==5Y In an e3periment to measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice' warm water was placed in an aluminium calorimeter. Crushed dried ice was added to the water. The following results were obtained. "ass of calorimeter....................................... HH.5 g "ass of water................................................. R5.F g Initial temperature of water........................... 5R.E =C Temperature of ice ........................................ = =C "ass of ice..................................................... /R.5 g @inal temperature of water............................. /7.5 =C 4oom temperature was 5/ =C. !i# >hat was the advantage of having the room temperature appro3imately halfway between the initial temperature of the water and the final temperature of the waterM

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!ii# (escribe how the mass of the ice was found. !iii# Calculate a value for the specific latent heat of fusion of ice !iv# The accepted value for the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 7.7 2 /= F 9 kg;/C suggest two reasons why your answer is not this value. 7Q. X5==F .,Y In a report of an e3periment to measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water' a student wrote the following. $Steam at /== oC was added to cold water in a calorimeter. >hen the steam had condensed' measurements were taken. The specific latent heat of vaporisation of water was then calculated.% !i# (raw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used. !ii# ,ist two measurements that the student took before adding the steam to the water. !iii# How did the student find the mass of steam that was added to the waterM !iv# How did the student make sure that only steam' and not hot water' was added to the calorimeterM !v# *ive one precaution that the student took to prevent heat loss from the calorimeter. 7R. X5==7Y In an e3periment to measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water' cold water was placed in a copper calorimeter. Steam was passed into the cold water until a suitable rise in temperature was achieved. The following results were obtained+ "ass of the calorimeter........................... H7.E g "ass of cold water .................................. GH.F g Initial temperature of water..................... /= PC Temperature of the steam........................ /== PC "ass of steam added ............................... /./ g @inal temperature of water ...................... /R PC !i# (escribe how the mass of the steam was found. !ii# :sing the data' calculate a value for the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water. !iii# >hy is the rise in temperature the least accurate valueM !iv# *ive two ways of improving the accuracy of this value. E=. X5=/=Y In an e3periment to measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water' a student used a copper calorimeter containing water and a sensitive thermometer. The water was cooled below room temperature before adding dry steam to it. The following measurements were recorded. "ass of copper calorimeter 7E.G g Initial mass of calorimeter and water RG.E g "ass of dry steam added /.5 g Initial temperature of calorimeter and cooled water Q.5 PC @inal temperature of calorimeter and water 5=.= PC !i# How was the water cooled below room temperatureM !ii# How was the steam driedM !iii# (escribe how the mass of the steam was determined. !iv# >hy was a sensitive thermometer usedM !v# :sing the data' calculate the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water. E/. X5==FY In an e3periment to measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water' cool water was placed in an insulated copper calorimeter. (ry steam was added to the calorimeter. The following data was recorded. "ass of calorimeter F=.F g "ass of calorimeter K water R/.5 g Initial temperature of water /= oC Temperature of steam /== oC "ass of calorimeter K water K steam R5.7 g @inal temperature of water 5F oC !i# Calculate a value for the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water. !ii# >hy was dry steam usedM !iii# How was the steam driedM !iv# - thermometer with a low heat capacity was used to ensure accuracy. E3plain why.

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01am solutions Specific heat capacity of copper 7R= 9 kgL/ KL/C Specific heat capacity of water E5== 9 kgL/ KL/ Specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 7.7 2 /=F 9 kg;/ /. Heat is a form of energy 5. Conduction' convection and radiation. 7. Conduction is the movement of heat energy through a substance by the passing on of molecular vibration from molecule to molecule' without any overall movement of the substance. E. -toms are touching U in contact so the heatUenergy gets transferred from one to the other by vibration !without the atoms moving along#. F. -pparatus+ See diagram. E different metals arranged as shown. Stick an upright match into the pool of wa3 which is at the other end. 6rocedure+ ,ight a candle underneath the middle. .bservation+ e.g. wa3 melts and the matches fall on different rods at different times. G. It is a good heat conductor. H. The :;value of a house is a measure of the rate of heat loss to the surroundings. Q. It means that the heat conductivity of the structure is increased. R. @ibreglass in attic' insulation in cavity wall' double glaVing' carpets /=. To prevent heat;loss. //. @ibre glass U rockwool U cotton wool. /5. Convection is the transfer of heat through a fluid by means of circulating currents of fluid caused by the heat. /7. -pparatus+ See diagram with container' water' dye' heat source labelled. 6rocedure+ add the dye to the li0uid and heat. .bservation+ convection current becomes visible. /E. )ecause hot water rises. /F. The heater heats the air which is beside it. This hot air then rises and is replaced by cold air. This process then gets repeated. /G. The water e3pands when heated and therefore has a lower density and gets replaced by water which has a higher density !cold water#. This is convection. /H. Convection re0uires a medium' radiation does not. /Q. )lack is a good absorber of radiation. /R. The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat energy needed to change one kilogram of the substance by one Kelvin. 5=. The Specific ,atent of a substance is the amount of heat energy need to change the state of / kg of the substance without a change in temperature. 5/. They are heated only at night but must release energy slowly during the day. 55. -s the water evaporates it takes heat energy from the body. 57. ,atent heat of snowUice !energy needed for change of state# is !very# large 5E. (i) B mcIJ B !Q=#!/F==#!5QF# 7E 5== === 9 7E.5 "9 (ii) 6 >U t 6 7E 5== === U !/=2G=2G=# RF= > 5F. (ensity massUvolume mass !density#!volume# m H E mc !F==#!E5==#!7=# G.7 2 /= 9 !specific heat capacity of water E5== 9 kgL/ KL/C density of water 5G. (i) B mcIJ B /.F 2 E/Q= 2 QF F75 RF= 9. (ii) 6 >Ut 6 F75 RF=U5E= 6 555/ >. 5H. !i# E m c IJ E !=.E=#!E5==#!QF# /.E5Q 2 /=F 9 !ii# 7=== 9 per second 7=== > !iii# Time taken /.E5Q 2 /=FU7=== EH.G s !iv# Energy will be lost to the surroundings. !/===#!F== 2 /=L7# /=== kg mL7C / litre F== kg. /=L7 m7#

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5Q. - saucepan containing F== g of water at a temperature of 5= PC is left on a 5 k> ring of an electric cooker until it reaches a temperature of /== PC. !i# /== L 5= Q= PC !ii# B m cIJ =.F 2 E5== 2 Q= /GQ === 9 !iii# 5 k> 5'=== > 5'=== 9 per second. (iv) 6 >Ut t >U6 t /GQ ===U5'=== QE secs. 5R. !i# Cooling from /F =C to = =C+ B mcIJ !=.F#!E5==#!/F# 7/F== 9 Change of state+ B ml !=.F#!7.7 2 /=F# /GF=== 9 Cooling ice from = oC to ;5= oC+ B !=.F#!5/==#!5=# 5/=== 9 Total energy re0uired Bt B/ KB5 KB7 5/HF== 5.5 2 /=F 9 (ii) Q=O efficiency Q= > Q= 9 !per second# !iii# 6ower B Z time t !5/HF== Z Q=# 5H== s !iv# This change of state re0uires energy !latent heat# which is taken from inside the freeVer and this lowers the temperature . !v# Condensation !vapour to li0uid# releases latent heat 7=. !a# !b# !c# !d# (ark surfaces are good absorbers of heatUenergyUradiation So that a lot of energy gets absorbed !and then released# per kg in the heat e3changer during a change of state. Silvered walls prevent radiation and evacuated walls prevent conduction and convection Energy is taken from one place !making it colder# by allowing the li0uid to change state to a gas. Then in another place the gas condenses to a li0uid releasing the heat to another place making it hotter. !e# *eothermal system functions all the time whereas a solar heating system works only during sunshine.

7/. !i# 4adiation U rays !ii# !black surfaces are# better absorbers !of heatUradiation# !iii# )y the water flowingUpumped !through the collector and the heating coil#. !iv# >ater is heated by convection U hot water rises' etc. !v# 4educes costs' unlimited supply' no pollution' etc. 1eeds sun' re0uires a back;up' costly to install' etc. /andatory 01periments 75. !i# See diagram. !ii# "ass of calorimeter' mass of calorimeter K water' !iii# Initial temperature of water' final temperature of water. !iv# Energy supplied !mcIJ#cal K !mcIJ#water where IJ is the change in temperature and ccal is known. !v# 9,agging' use sensitive thermometer' ensure that heating coil is completely immersed in the li0uid' stir the li0uid' large temperature change' etc. 77. !i# See diagram !ii# "ass of calorimeter "ass of calorimeter and warm water "ass of calorimeter and warm water and ice Temperature of water before Temperature of water and melted ice after !iii# It was crushed and then dried. !iv# )y using melting ice. !v# So that the heat lost to the environment when the system is above room temperature is balanced by the heat taken in from the environment when the system is below room temperature.

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7E. !i# See diagram !ii# "ass of calorimeter' mass of water' mass of calorimeter K water' mass of ice' temperature of water !iii# The ice was crushed and dried. !iv# !mass of calorimeter K water K ice# L !mass of calorimeter K water % !v# Insulation' crush' dry' repeat and take average' use lots of ice' transfer ice 0uickly. 7F. !i# To speed up the melting of the ice U in order to melt a larger mass of ice U !concept of# balancing energy losses before and after the e3periment. !ii# To remove any waterUmelted ice UU melted ice would have already gained latent heat UUso that only ice is added UU so that no water is added !iii# "elting ice is at = oC. !iv# @inal mass of calorimeter K contents minus mass of calorimeter K water. !v# 5= =C U midway between initial and final temperatures !of the water in the calorimeter# !vi# [energy lost \ !mcIJ #cal K !mcIJ #warm water !=.=G=F#!7R=#!5=.7# K !=.=FQ7#!E5==#!5=.7# FEER.G7GF U FEER.G 9 !vii# [Energy gained by ice and by melted ice \ !ml#ice K !mcIJ #melted ice U !=.=/F/#l K !=.=/F/#!E5==#!/=.5# U =.=/F/ l K GEG.QQE !e0uate+# =.=/F/ l K GEG.QQE FEER.G7GF l 7./Q/ 2 /=F ] 7.5 2 /=F 9 kgL/ 7G. !i# It was heated using a hot;plate and temperature was measured using a thermometer. !ii# E m c IJ E !7.=5 2 /=;5#!7R=#!HQ.F# R5E.G 9 !iii# Heat lost by hot copper heat gained by calorimeter K water R5E.FH !=.=FFH#!7R=#!E.F# K !=.=EFF#!cw#!E.F# R5E.FH RH.HF K =.5=EQ cw cw E.=E 2/=7 9 kg;/ K;/ !iv# Insulate calorimeter Uuse lid Utransfer copper pieces 0uickly U use cold water !below room temperature# U polish calorimeter U low heat capacity thermometer !v# - larger mass of copper would result in a larger temperature change and therefore smaller percentage error. 7H. !i# Heat lost to surroundings when the system is above room temperature would cancel out the heat taken in from the surroundings when the system was below room temperature. !ii# @inal mass !of calorimeter K water K ice# ; initial mass !of calorimeter K water# !iii# mcIJAl + mcIJwater mlice +mcIJmelted ice @all in temperature /G.5 oC -ns 7.5 2 /=F 9 kg;/ !iv# Thermometer not sensitive enough' lack of insulation' lack of stirring' heat lossUgain to surroundings' too long for ice to melt' inside of calorimeter tarnished' splashing' heat capacity of thermometer 7Q. !i# See diagram. !ii# "ass of calorimeter' mass of water' mass of calorimeter K water' initial temperature of water' initial temperature of steam. !iii# @inal mass of water K calorimeter minus initial mass of water K calorimeter. !iv# -llow steam to flow for some time before inserting it into water' slope delivery tube back to steam generator' use a steam trap. !v# ,agging' insulation' lid' carry out measurements 0uickly.

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7R. !i# @inal mass of !calorimeter K water K condensed steam# L Initial mass of !calorimeter K water# !ii# !ml# steam K !mc^# steam !mc^# water K !mc^# cal = = ^water R C' ^cal R C ^# steam Q/=C -nswer 5.5 2 /=G 9 kg;/

!iii#4ead only to one significant figure [the concept of significant figures is not on the syllabus and shouldn?t have got asked. It hasn?t appeared since.Y
!iv# :se a digital thermometer' use more steam' use less water' insulation' cover' stirring' steam trap E=. !i# Ice was added to the water U the water was taken from fridge !ii# )y using a steam trap !or ensure that the delivery tube is sloped upwards# !iii# @inal mass of calorimeter plus contents L initial mass of calorimeter and contents !iv# @or greater accuracy U to reduce !O# error U more significant figures U e.g. to read to =./ oC !v# ms /.52/=;7 kg mw G./Q 2 /=;5 kg IJs Q= !K# and IJw ! IJcu# //.Q !K# Xheat lost by steam heat gained by water and calorimeterY !ml#s K !mcIJ #s !mcIJ #w K !mcIJ #cu !/.52/=;7#l K !/.52/=;7#!E/Q=#!Q=# !G./Q 2 /=;5#!E/Q=#!//.Q# K !7.EG 2 /=;5#!//.Q#!7R=# !/.52/=;7#l K E=/.7 7=EQ.5 K /FR.5 l 5.7E 2 /=G 9 Kg;/ E/. !i# mslw K mscwIJs mwcwIJwK mcccIJc IJs HF =C and IJw ! IJc# /F =C !=.==//# lw K !=.==//#!E5==#!HF# !=.=E=H#!E5==#!/F# K !=.=F=F#!7R=#!/F# X!=.==//# lw K 7EG.F 5FGE./ K 5RF.E5FY lw 5.5Q 2 /=G 9 kg;/ !ii# Calculations assume that only steam is added' not water. !iii# :se a steam trap U insulated delivery tube U sloped delivery tube U allow steam to issue freely initially !iv# It absorbs little heat from system in calorimeter and calculations assume that no energy is transferred to the thermometer.

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