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# !$ E C JD=J AEJDAH

(A B ) OEA @I = ?
FH LAI # !# 9EJD #

A B EI JHKA

' # !" JDKI A J=E I

(A B ) KIJ >A JHKA 5E ?A =IIK E C MEJD JDEI ( A& B ) KIJ >A JHKA 6DEI
# !%

[ (P (S ) = 1)& (P ( S ) = 1)].
5KFF IA M JD=J

P (S ) = 1

1J B

MI MEJD # ! JD=J # !&

ET P (S ) = 0.
)IIK A= I JD=J

ET ET [P (S ) = 0 P ( S ) = 0].
9EJD # !  JDEI OEA @I

# !'

ET ET (P (S ) = 0)& (P ( S ) = 0)
= @ BKHJDAH

# "

(P (S ) = 1) ) IE E =H FH B MEJD JDA =IIK FJE P ( S ) = 1 CELAI (P ( S ) = 1) = @ JDKI (P (S ) = 1)& (P ( S ) = 1) MDE?D EI E ? JH=@E?JE MEJD # !% ET ET 0A ?A A KIJ @A O # !' = @ JDKI [P (S ) = 0 P ( S ) = 0]
MDE?D ? JH=@E?JI # !& 0A ?A D @I 3-, 0A ?A @A OE C JDA ? =E FH >=>E EJO J =E J=E B AH L= KA B JD=J = JD=J JDA ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJO = ? JH=@E?JE KIJ D=LA = B

ET (P (S ) = 0)

H JDA ANJA @E> A J F IIE> A

EI F IEJELA A=@I J

1J EI JDKI

LAHE => A IA JA ?AI

ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJO

#"&

+= ?K =JE C ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJO

ANF B HAI JDA F IIE>E EJO ?AH E #"&! B ?= ?K =JE C ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJEAI IJHK?JELA E JAHFHAJ=JE 6DA

6DEI IA?JE @EB ?K JO ME >A

>J=E E C FH >=>E EJEAI K @AH JDA ?

B JHKJD

B IFA?E= ?

&

#"& 9A ME

FKJE C E

EJI

B ? =IIE?= ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJO A? K @ >J=E ? =IIE?= = @ ? IJHK?JELA L= KAI I I > I A JDA

M E LAIJEC=JA D M

B H ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJEAI MEJD KJ = MD=J @EB ?K J 1 JHKJD ?B ? JDA ?=IA IA?JE # 

KFFAH > K @

1 EJE= O JDEI IAA H BK ?JE IO

B FHA@E?=JA ?= ?K KI MEJD KJ E@A JEJO = M=OI >A ? MI JD=J EB 1J B

B = IA JA ?A ?=

IJHK?JELA O ANJA @A@ MEJD KJ KFFAH > K @

IJHK?JELA O ANJA @A@ BH 0 MALAH B H BK HIJ

JHKJD MEJD KJ KFFAH > K @ BH @A?E@=>E EJO MEJD KJ = =IO B JDA IAJ

S EI JHKA E = =H>EJH=HO wi S I JHKJD ?= >A wi 6DA FH >=>E EJO B S I ? IJHK?JELA ANJA @E> A i EI JDKI @A?E@=> A E A=?D i + x
CE? JDA GKAIJE E #  D=I B JDA ? J >AA IJHK?JELA H ? =IIE?= AIJ=> EIDA@ >A?=KIA JDA B S I ANJA @E> A JHKJD ? FKJA JDA B

H@AH

FHAHAGKEIEJA B H JDEI @A?E@=>E EJO FH FAHJO EI JDA @A?E@=>E EJO KFFAH > K @ B H = CELA AJ EJ B

E (S, i, x)

wi+x
ECDJ >A = A=IEAH M=O J @E C KJ JDA ANJA @E>E EJO

6DEI A=@I FJ JE? E 6DA IAJ

E GKEHA MDAJDAH JDAHA

S I ANJA

@E> A FH >=>E EJO JD= A=?D

S I JHKJD MEJD

KJ KFFAH E

EJ BH

wi+x S}
# " MDE?D

Ext(S, i, x) = {wi+x W (i + x)|wi+x

? A=H O E ? HF H=JAI =J A=IJ JD IA IJ=JA @AI?HEFJE JHKJD ?= JE >A ANJA @A@ MEJD KJ KFFAH E 0A ?A JDA FH >=>E EJO > JD ? =IIE?= = @ ? >A EJ >KJ EJ A=IKHA I =I MA ETi P (S, i) E >E EJO 1J ME I E =O ?

i,x

W (i + x) BH
J=E I

S I

JDAH IJ=JA @AI?HEF EI =J A=IJ B ANJA @E> A FH >=

B JDA IAJ

Ext(S, i, x)

IJHK?JELA E JAHFHAJ=JE

E (S, i, x)
)

M JD=J JDA ? =IIE?= E EJ FH >=>E EJO B Ext(S, i, y ) MDA ETi AGK= I JDA ? =IIE?= E EJ P (S, i) E # ! + IE@AH JD IA wi+x W (i + x) B H MDE?D wi+x E (S, i, x) 1B wi+x >A ID M JDA

wi+x

?=

= A

Ext(S, i, x) =

JDAH  6DA

AEJDAH

E (S, i, x) @EBBAH BH

A=?D

wi+x

ANJA @I

S I JHKJD BH
H

i >KJ S I JHKJD ?= i

J >A ANJA @A@ MEJD KJ KFFAH

> K @ BH *

wi+x
AI

wi+x @

J ANJA @

S I JHKJD BH

1B * EI JDA ?=IA = A JDA FH ?= >A ABJ KJ

w Ext(S, i, x) AEJDAH 6DAIA IJ=JA @AI?HEFJE >=>E EJEAI B E (S, i, x) = @ Ext(S, i, x) @EBBAH BH
B BKHJDAH @A E>AH=JE I

I JDKI ?= A=?D

JDAH = @

)IIK A JDA JD=J ) EI JDA ?=IA B H wi+x 1 JDEI ?=IA wi+x >A CI J Ext(S, i, x) MDE?D A J=E I JD=J P (Ext(S, i, x)) P (E (S, i, x)) ) = I JD=J wi+x S D @I B H I A x x = @ B H = wi+x BK E C JDA ? wi+x = ri+x (wi+x ) &

A J=E I @EJE

x x JDA IAJ Ext(S, i, x ) ? J=E I O ANJA IE I B IJ=JA @AI?HEFJE I wi+x Ext(S, i, x) B H MDE?D wi+x E (S, i, x) =I MA HA LAH ? IE@AH = CELA wi+x E (S, i, x) 1J EI F IIE> A JD=J I A ANJA IE I B wi+x E W (i + z ) z > x @ J I=JEIBO S = @ JDKI @ J >A C J Ext(S, i, z ) 6DAIA B=?JI A= JD=J P (Ext(S, i, x )) ?= J >A CHA=JAH JD= P (E (S, i, x)) 1 B=?J P (Ext(S, i, z )) ?= J >A CHA=JAH JD= P (E (S, i, x)) B H = O z x
1J B MI BH JDA => LA JD=J E I A ?=H@E = EJO 0A ?A EJ D @I JD=J

(x )(z x )(P (Ext(S, i, z )) P (E (S, i, x)) = P ETi (S, i, x)).

JDA I=JEIBO JDAH D= @ >A?=KIA

# "  I MDE?D @I JD=J # "!

EJO

P ETi (S, i, y ) ? J=E I P (Ext(S, i, y )) P ETi (S, i, y ) B

O IJ=JA @AI?HEFJE H=

1J JDKI D

(x )(z x )(P ETi (S, i, x) P (Ext(S, i, z )) P ETi (S, i, z )).

5E ?A >LE KI O ALA MDA

zx
z
# ""

x
EJ KIJ D @ JD=J

ETi lim P ETi (S, i, x) = lim P ETi (S, i, z ) = P (S, i),

x
-GK=JE # "#

ETi lim P (Ext(S, i, x)) = P (S, i).

KCD J J @AJAH

# "#

A= I JD=J EJ EI A

E A JDA ABJ D= @ IE@A B H ?=

?K =JE C ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJEAI 6DEI EI = ? EI @A?E@=> A MDAHA=I

IE@AH=> A =@L= J=CA IE ?A Ext(S, i, x)

E (S, i, x) EI
EJI B?

#"& 1

FKJE C E JDA JE B JDA ? JM EJ ?=

IJHK?JELA ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJO ME >A @EI?KIIA@ B H JDA ?=IA A J E 5A? JDA FHALE KI IA? B MDAJDAH JDA @ JDA ? IJHK?

JDEI IA?JE B=? 6DA GKAIJE

@E C

B JDA FHA?A@E C IA?JE FJ JE? E I EJ IJHK?JELA L= E@EJO GKAIJE

IJHK?JELA

B =IO

B JDA =HCK

JE ?

?=

>A IF EJ E J

.EHIJ JDAHA EI JDA GKAIJE JDA M=O IKCCAIJA@ >A AN= E A@ JDA M

IJHK?JELA E

>A ?= ?K =JA@ E E C EJIA B EI J

JELA L= E@EJO 6DA M

B JDA HA=I L= KA EJ EI @I B

AJ KI = = OIA JDA => LA FH

B IJAF >O IJAF O @EBBAH BH @I B H ?AHJ=E M L= KA B JD=J ) D

Ext(S, i, x) MDA
=> LA *KJ ) D BH

E (S, i, x) ?=
M M=> O

O EB EJ EI

wi+x IAA IA?JE # " &  JD=J S I JHKJD EI J ANJA @E> A

wi+x MEJD

KJ KFFAH > K @

&

)FF OE C JDA HA=I A@CA => KJ = F=HJE?K =H

E C

B JDA FHALE KI IA?JE

>KJ MEJD KJ =IIK

E C

 MA CAJ # "$ ? A=H

(x )(z x )(P ETi (S, i, x) P (Ext(S, i, z )) P ETi (S, i, z )).

6DEI D JD=J @I ? IJHK?JELA O ALA EB

?=

>A ABBA?JELA O B K @

1J EI JDA

x
?= MDA L= KA JE J =JE JDA E EJI ANEIJ ?

ETi lim P (Ext(S, i, x)) = P (S, i)

@I 6DEI ID MI JD=J # "# D @I ?

# "% IJHK?JELA O KIA JDA

J >A JHKA = @ JDKI # "# D 0 MALAH JDA JEL=JE E IJA=@ J

IJHK?JELA O B H @AHELE C # "# => LA M=I J B JDA K @A?E@=> A M MDAJDAH I A H >A => A J

Ext(S, i, x)
MDE?D EJ EI

I E I E

E (S, i, x)
J JDA ?HKN

=HA JDA HA=I B JDA

MDO # "# M=I =JJA

E (S, i, x) 2HA?EIA O JDA IEJK= wi+x Ext(S, i, x) = I >A CI

FJA@ 6DEI A= I JD=J IEJK EI AA@ J =IIK M

MDE?D AEJDAH

=JJAH JDA MD D

wi+x E (S, i, x)
@I MDA B B JDA FH EB

A E@A= >AE C => A J ?= ?K =JE C A JDKI ?= @I ?

wi+x E (S, i, x)
=L E@ JDA J HA O

=HA M

MDAJDAH 1 JDA ?

wi+x E (S, i, x)
IJHK?JELA LAHIE

S I

ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJO E C JD=J

wi+x E (S, i, x) wi+x E (S, i, x) D

4AIK J # "# ID MI JD=J ALA H J EJ ? K @ KIJ >A JDA I= @ AI B J

IJHK?JELA O KJ B H ALAHO EJ FH >=>E EJO B

AB K @

P (E (S, i, x))
JD=J EJ >A JDA ABJ IE@A ?

J ?D= CA JDA E 1B JDA E EJ ANEIJI ? EJ ? A =I JDA E A= BH

FH LE@A@ JD=J JDA =JJAH ANEIJI M  EJ B JDA AGK=JE JDAH D= @ # "# EI

IJHK?JELA O MDE?D HAGKEHAI

wi+x MDAJDAH wi+x B E (S, i, x))

P (Ext(S, i, x))
FKJE C JDA IJHK? B JDA HECDJ IE@A EI ?

J =BJAH =

IJHK?JELA O L= E@ +

JD=J JDA L= KA

JELA O AIJ=> EIDA@ ANJA @I H = IAC 1

-IJ=> EIDE C JDA L= KA

B JDA HECDJ IE@A EI HAGKEHAI = BK ?JE J= HIJ H@AH

J JHELE= IE ?A JDA JD=J ABBA?JELA O L=> A J=I J I

IJHK?JELA ANJA @E> A JHKJD

wi+x

S I JHKJD MEJD
E >

KJ KFFAH > K @ = @ EJ EI BK HIJ H@AH E CE? . H # @I ? JD=J E ?= EJ M=I ID M

ABBA?JELA O I

@ IK?D = BK ?JE E@A JEJO IO = ?AHJ=E A J

CE? MEJD KJ BK ?JE

B H ALAHO ?=H@E = EJO >A ? B IJHK?JA@

iE

MDE?D

wi
B

I=JEI AI HIJ

JDEI

E @

B BK ?JE

0A ?A B H JDEI

H@AH

CE? # "# D

IJHK?JELA O MEJD KJ GK= E ?=JE =JA JDA ?

MD=J B

MI EJ ME

>A FH LA@ JD=J EB JDA L= KA =FFH NE

ANEIJI ? IJHK?JELA O EJ EI F IIE> A J ETi P (S, i) MEJD =H>EJH=HO FHA?EIE #"&! 2H @K?E C JDA E EJE= IAC

limx P (Ext(S, i, x))

IJHK?JELA L= KA

B ALAHO

A JI JDA ? IJHK?JELA E JAHFHAJ=JE JHELE= =JJAH B ANJA @E> A I AAJ JDA

+= ?K =JE C ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJEAI E HAGKEHA A J #  B

JHKJD EI AIFA?E= O @EB ?K J >A?=KIA @EI? LAHE C MDE?D IJ=JA @AI?HEFJE

FR (i, wi , S, x) EI =
&!

1J ME

M >A =HCKA@ JD=J MDA

x
D @I ? IJHK?JELA O JDAHA EI = EJE JDA E I @ AI I?

lim P (Ext(S, i, x)) > 0

AJD @ B H FH @K?E C = B AH EJ E IJ =

# "& JDA E EJE= IAC B

A JI I=JEIBOE C JDA @A JHE>KJE C J JDA ANJA IE @AI?HEFJE KJ = @AI?HEFJE

B ANJA @E> A JHKJD MEJD KJ KFFAH > K @ = @ ?

EJ FH >=>E EJO J JA @ J JDA E I @ E

JDA IA IA JD=J JDA

E J FH >=>E EJO F E J

. H

HAFHAIA J ? A ?=

IJHK?JELA ANJA @E> A KJ JDA IJ=JA @E> A MEJD @E C IJ=JA J AI B

FH >=>E EJO EJ EI HAGKEHA@ =J A=?D JHE>KJE C J

EJA ?=H@E = EJO JD=J JDA IA IA JD=J @EJE B? #

S I JHKJD EI ANJA

KFFAH > K @ MDE?D EI JDA ? I MD IA ANJA IE IE@AHE C A J >A

 => LA MDAHA=I

J D=LA = F IEJELA E EJ HIJ JDA ?=H@E = EJO

EJ FH >=>E EJO EI

IA JE= B H ? 6DA =HCK 5KFF @AI?HEFJE

L =I JDA

IJHK?JELA ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJO

i IA JDA ? IJHK?JELA E EJ B P (Ext(S, i, x)) EI L = 0 AJ JDA IAJ I E W (i) BH MDE?D S I JHKJD EI ANJA @E> A J i + x >A
M B ?KIAI

B IJ=JA

Res(S, i, x) = {wi W (i)|wi

= @ AJ JDA IAJ B IJ=JA @AI?HEFJE IE

i,x

S}
@

# "'

W (i + x) MDE?D ANJA

S I JHKJD BH

wi >A
# #

{wi+x |wi+x
1J EI ? A=H JD=J

EI (S, i, x, wi ) = W (i + x) wi+x i,x S wi = ri (wi+x )}.

Ext(S, i, x) =
wi
6DA

EI (S, i, x, wi ).

# #

x
6DA BH=?JE

lim

P (EI (S, i, x, wi )) = lim P (Ext(S, i, x)) = L.

wi x

# # 

L |Res(S, i, x)|
E MDE?D =LAH=CA E

# #!

|Res(S, i, x)|

EI JDA I

>AH I

B IJ=JA @AI?HEFJE BA A A JI E

EJ FH >=>E EJO

B ANJA IE B A=?D EJ

Res(S, i, x) EI JDA Res(S, i, x) 1 JDAH M H@I

I E

=LAH=CA JDA ANJA IE =>E EJO =?? H@E C J ANJA IE

# #! = JD

wi E Res(S, i, x) D=LA = ? >E A@ E EJ FH > KCD J = wi E Res(S, i, x) A?AII=HE O D=LA

I MEJD KJ KFFAH E

&"

Res(S, i, x) EI =

E ?HA=IE C BK ?JE

@A?HA=IE C 1J EI ? A=H JD=J JDA @EIJ= ?A

x MDE?D B Ext(S, i, x) BH
B

A= I JD=J # #! EI JDA E EJ # #" AH  6DA

D(S, i, x, L) = P (Ext(S, i, x)) L

=O >A =H>EJH=HE O I = MDA

xE

?HA=IAI = JD KCD JD=J

A?AII=HE O

?=

>A ABBA?JELA O B K @ HA?=

L EI = ?

IJHK?JELA E

EJ IK?D JD=J

L > D(S, i, x , L). |Res(S, i, x )| Res(S, i, x ) ? IEIJI i + x 6DA ? >E Res(S, i, x ) KIJ D=LA = F IEJELA
4A?= JD=J ANJA @E> A J FH >=>E EJO ?= EIDA@ E A F IEJELA E 1 D ? @I JDA EJ J @A?HA=IA MDE?D MA D=LA F E JA@ B IJ=JA @AI?HEFJE A@ FH >=>E EJO FH >=>E EJO =J I BH B ANJA IE 1B MDE?D I

# ##

S I

JHKJD EI

wi D(S, i, x , L) = 0 JDEI
B ALAHO AIJ=> D=LA = I I=JEIBOE C FJ JE?= O B

A= I JD=J JDA @AIEHA@ HAIK J D=I >AA

KJ JD IA

wi

MD IA ANJA IE

JDA CA AH= ?=IA

P (Ext(S, i, x))
B ANJA IE

=FFH =?DAI 6DA

JDA FH >=>E EJO JD=J BA A

I E A JE

L W (i + x )

=IO

1B # ## A J B

B JDA =LAH=CA A A 5E ?A JDAHA =HA @I JD=J

Res(S, i, x ) EI CHA=JAH JD= D(S, i, x , L)

F=H=> A J EJA K >AH B JDA =LAH=CA A A A JI E

=C EJK@A

D(S, i, x , L) EI JDKI
O=

Res(S, i, x )

Res(S, i, x )

JD IA B H MDE?D EJ D

P (EI (S, i, x , wi )) > D(S, i, x , L)

?= >A ABBA?JELA O F E JA@ KJ 1B # #$ D @I B H

# #$

wi
# #%

P (EI (S, i, x , wi )) D(S, i, x , L)

EI = MAH E 6DEI F AJA E + JDA EJ B H JDA L= KA B @E C = AJD @

P (EI (S, i, x, wi ) MDA x JDA HA AL= J A A A JI B Wi ?= >A

B >A KJ E A@ >A M

=@A J D IEIJ @

HA ? 1 CA

AH MDE?D ME

wi Res(S, i, x ) B H MDE?D # #$ @ AI AH= B H = =H>EJH=HO x JDEI IAJ EI A FJO = @ ?= ALA ? Res(S, i, x) AJ KI @A JA JDEI IAJ B H x >O
IE@AH JD IA

B =

wi
# #&

T (S, i, x , L).
1B

P(
wi T

EI (S, i, x , wi )) > D(S, i, x , L)

# #'

&#

MDA

T = T (S, i, x , L) EJ EI ? A=H JD=J JDA FH T (S, i, x , L) ?= J JA @ J AH 6DA E E K

EI JDA

>=>E EJO B

B ANJA IE

B =

P (T (S, i, x, L)) MDA

wi x0
# $

P(
wi T
AJ KI ?

EI (S, i, x , wi )) D(S, i, x , L).

IE@AH JDA BH=?JE

P(

wi T

EI (S, i, x , wi )) D(S, i, x , L) . |T (S, i, x , L|

C BK ?JE B

# $

5E ?A MDE?D

D(S, i, x, L) EI = @A?HA=IE P(

A ?=

ABBA?JELA O

@=

B H

D(S, i, x , L) <
0A ?A B H JDA =LAH=CA

wi T

EI (S, i, x , wi )) D(S, i, x , L) . |T (S, i, x , L|

# $ 

wi T (S, i, x , L)
# $!

P (EI (S, i, x , wi )) > D(S, i, x , L),

EA # #$ D @I MDA

x EI IK>IJEJKJA@ >O x A ?= JDKI ABBA?JELA O @ =J A=IJ A wi T (S, i, x , L) B H MDE?D # $! D @I 6DEI HA=I E C ?= >A HAFA=JA@ B H T (S, i, x , L) ABBA?JELA O K JE # #' @ AI J D @ B H I A y > x 6DA L= KA D (S, i, y, L) EI JDA FH F HJE B JDA E EJ L= KA L B H MDE?D EJ ?= J A?AII=HE O >A F E JA@ KJ MDE?D wi Res(S, i, x) ? JHE>KJA J JDEI F=HJ B JDA E EJ 1 JDAH M H@I D (S, i, y, L) @ AI J A?AI
I=HE O ? JE @ M 1 = EBAIJ ? IJHK?JELA ANJA @E> A FH >=>E EJO E A 0 MALAH IE ?A ? K J A >AH KCD J ID M JD=J >A ABBA?JELA O IA A?JA@ J = FH >=>E EJO E JDA IA IA B IJHK?JELA ANJA @E> A JHKJD B y MDAHA y ?= J = HA@K?A JDA IE E =H HA=I

D(S, i, y, L)

EI = @A?HA=IE C BK ? EJ FH >=>E EJO

OEA @ = CELA

L= KA B H D (S, i, y, L) B JDA E

EJ EI F IIE> A J CA AH=

IJHK?JELA FH F HJE

=H>EJH=HE O I

E C =FF EAI B H JDA IAJ

6DA => LA D MALAH JA @E> A BH 1J D=I IK>IAJ A B = F=HJE?K =H ID M O >AA KIJ = I

Res(S, i + 1, x) S I JHKJD EI ? IJHK?JELA O

KJ = J ANJA @E> A BH

AN =

wi Res(S, i, x) i =H>EJH=HO MEJD JD=J JDA =IIK FJE JD=J S I JHKJD EI

=? JH=@E?JE . H? AJD @ B H @E C =J A=IJ

KFFAH > K @

Res(S, i, x) HAIK JI E
IKCCAIJ =

IJHK?JELA ANJA @E> A JHKJD A ANJA IE B H JDA HA AL= J

wi Res(S, i, x)
5KFF IA JD=J

P (EI (S, i, u, wi )) > D(S, i, u, L)

&$

# $"

@I B H I A wi = @ u > i + IE@AH 1 2 I=O wi+1 = @ wi+1 1J ? A=H O D @I JD=J D

M JDA IAJ

B ANJA IE

wi

Wi+1

P (EI (S, i, u, wi )) = 1 2 P (EI (S, i + 1, u, wi +1 )) + P (EI (S, i + 1, u, wi+1 )).

1B AEJDAH JDA E

# $# # $$

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