8

EXPERIMENTS
VERNIER CALLIPERS EXPERIMENT 1.1
Object : To measure the diameter of a sphere or cylinder with a vernier calipers. Apparatus Required : V ernier callipers and sphere or cylinder. Description of the Apparatus : V ernier callipers was invented by a French mathematician Pierre V ernier. It is used to measure the length of a rod or cylinder, diameter of a sphere, the internal and external diameter of a hollow cylinder and the depth of a small vessel. The construction of vernier calipers is shown in the labelled diagram 1.1. It consists of a steel strip graduated in cm. This is called the main scale. There is another strip known as vernier scale which can slide over the main scale, and is graduated with the number of divisions. The vernier scale can be fixed at any position on the main scale by means of a screw. There are two jaws perpendicular to the main scale. One of the jaw is fixed at the left end of the main scale and other jaw is fixed on the frame of the vernier scale. The lower outside jaws are used to it is the least distance which can be measured by that instrument. If the value of one division of main scale is x and the length of n divisions of vernier scale is equal to the length of (n 1) divisions of main scale then, Least count of vernier =
Value of 1 main scale division x = n Total number of division on vernier scale

Zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero marks of the vernier scale does not coincide exactly with the zero mark of the main scale then it is said to have zero error in the instrument. There are two kinds of zero error: (i) Positive zero error and (ii) Negative error. Positive zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero mark of the vernier scale lies to the right side of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error is said to be the positive zero error.

measure the length or the external diameter of an object (rod or cylinder) and the upper inside jaws are used to measure the internal diameter of a hollow cylinder. The vernier callipers is provided with a long thin strip attached at the back of the main scale. This strip is used to measure the depth of any small vessel. Least count. The least distance which can be measured accurately by an instrument is called least count of that instrument. The difference between the values of one main scale division and one vernier scale division is called the vernier constant or the least count, since

To find this error, bring both the jaws together and note the main scale division by which zero mark of the vernier scale is ahead (right side) and also the division of vernier scale which coincides with the division on the main scale. This vernier division is multiplied by the least count of the vernier. The positive error is then obtained by adding this product to the main scale reading. Negative zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero mark of the vernier scale is to the left side of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero

error is said to be the negative. Least count = To find this error, bring both the jaws together and note the division of the vernier scale which coincides with any of the division of the main scale. The number of this vernier division is subtracted from the total number of divisions on the vernier scale and then the difference is multiplied by the least count of the vernier. This gives the negative zero error. 4.

x Value of 1 main scale division = Total number of division on vernier scale n

Bring both the jaws together and see whether the zero mark of vernier scale coincides with the zero mark of the main scale or not. If they do not coincide, find the zero error by the method stated above. Fix the cylinder (or sphere) in between the external jaws and note the main scale reading (i.e., Note the main scale division by which the zero mark of the vernier scale is ahead). Now find the vernier scale reading. For this, note the vernier scale division which coincides with any the main scale division. Multiply this number of vernier division with the least count to get the vernier scale reading. Find the total reading by adding the main scale and vernier scale readings. From this, subtract the zero error with its proper sign to obtain the correct diameter of the given cylinder (or sphere). Repeat the experiment and note the readings at different places along the cylinder (or sphere) and their mean is obtained and arranged in a tabular form.

5.

6.

7. 8. To get the correct reading, the zero error with its proper sign is subtracted from the observed reading, i.e. Correct reading= observed reading- zero error (with sign) Method 1. Count the total number of divisions n on the vernier scale. 2. Find the value of one main scale division x.

9.

Observations. 1. For the least count of the vernier callipers Total number of divisions on vernier scale n = 10 The value of 1 main scale division x = 0.1 cm. Least count of the vernier calipers =
x 0.1 = = 0.01 cm. n 10

3. Calculate the least count of the vernier calipers using the following formula : 2. Table for the zero rroorPositive or negative = + (suppose) S.N. Main scale reading (in cm) 1 2 3 0 0 0

V er nier scale reading Coinciding V ern ier reading = division of coinciding div. of vernier scale vernier least count (in cm) 4 4 3 4 0.01 = 0.04 4 0.01 = 0.04 3 0.01 = 0.03

Total reading = Main scale reading + V ernier scale reading (in cm) + 0.04 + 0.04 + 0.03

Mean zero error =

0.04 + 0.04 + 0.03 0.11 = 3 3

= 0.0366 cm = 0.04 cm

10

3. Table for the diameter of the cylinder S.N. Main scale reading (in cm) 1 2 3 4 5 Mean dimeter = = 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 V er nier scale reading Coinciding V er nier scale reading = division of coinciding div. of vernier scale vernier least count (in cm) 3 4 3 2 3 3 4 3 2 3 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 = = = = = 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03

Total reading = Main scale reading + V ernier scale reading or Observed diameter (in cm) 1.43 1.44 1.43 1.42 1.43

1.43 + 1.44 + 1.43 + 1.42 + 1.43 5

7.15 = 1.43 cm. 5

Result : Diameter of given cylinder = 1.39cm. Precautions. (1) The cylinder should not be pressed too hard or kept too loose in between the jaws. (2) While taking the observations, the eyes must be kept perpendicular to the scale. (3) To avoid the non-uniformity of the cylinder,

the readings should be taken at different places along the cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder should also be measured in two perpendicular directions at the same place since it may be possible that the cross section of cylinder may not be circular completely, so this error may also be avoided.

11

EXPERIMENT 1.2
OBJECT- To measure the dimensions of a given regular body of known mass using a vernier callipers and hence find its density. APPARATUS- V ernier Callipers, a small rectangular metallic block of known mass. THEORY- (i) For measuring dimensions. Same as in Experiment 1.1 (ii) For volume V olume of a rectangular block= Length x Breadth x Thickness (height) i.e.,
Density = Mass i.e., Volume = M V

PROCEDURE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Proceed in similar manner as in steps 1 to 5 in Experiment 1.1 Repeat above steps for the other edge of same face of same dimension. Repeat above steps for other face of same dimension. Repeat steps 1,2 and 3 above for both edges of both faces of other dimensions. Make calculations for each dimension applying zero correction. Take mean of different values of same dimension. Multiply the three mean dimensions to obtain volume of the block. Calculate the density of the block material by dividing its known mass by obtained volume.

Diagram

OBSERV A TIONS 1. Known mass of the block, m = .....g

2. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers 1 M.S.D. = 1mm V ernier Callipers- Measuring dimensions of a rectangular metallic block. 10 V .S.D. = 9 M.S.D. 1V .S.D. =
9 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm. 10

V ernier constant, V .C. = 1 M.S.D. 1 V .S.D. = (1 09) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm 3. Zero error (e) = ..... cm.

Mean zero correction (c) = e= .... cm.

Rectangular metallic block

12

4. Serial No.

Table for the length ( l) Side Main Scale reading (N) (cm) V ernier Scale Reading No. of Vernier Value division [n (V.C.)] coinciding (n) (cm) (4a) (4b) Total Reading Observed Corrected l =N + n l=l +c (V .C.) (cm) (cm) (5a) (5b) l1 = l2 = l3 = l4 =

(1) 1. 2. 3. 4.

(2) AB EF CD GH

(3)

5. Table for the breadth (b) Serial No. Side Main Scale reading (N) (cm) V ernier Scale Reading No. of Vernier Value division [n (V.C.)] coinciding (n) (cm) (4a) (4b) Total Reading Observed Corrected b =N + n b=b +c (V .C.) (cm) (cm) (5a) (5b) b1 = b2 = b3 = b4 =

(1) 1. 2. 3. 4.

(2) BC FG DA HE

(3)

6. Table for the thickness (t) Serial No. Side Main Scale reading (N) (cm) V ernier Scale Reading No. of Vernier Value division [n (V.C.)] coinciding (n) (cm) (4a) (4b) Total Reading Observed Corrected t =N + n t=t +c (V .C.) (cm) (cm) (5a) (5b) t1 = t2 = t3 = t4 = Density of the block material.
s= m = ....... g cm 3 V

(1) 1. 2. 3. 4.

(2) CG BF HD EA

(3)

CALCULA TIONS Mean corrected length of the block

l= l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 = ........... cm 4 b1 + b 2 + b3 + b 4 = ........... cm 4 t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 = ........... cm 4

Mean corrected breadth of the block

b=

RESULT Density of block material = ..... g cm3 PRECAUTIONS (Same as in Experiment 1.1)

Mean corrected thickness of the block

t=

13

EXPERIMENT 1.3
OBJECT To measure the internal diameter and depth of a given beaker/calorimeter using a vernier callipers and hence find its volume. APPARA TUS 4. V ernier callipers, a beaker or a calorimeter. THEORY (i) (ii) For measuring internal diameter and depth. Same as in Experiment 1.1 and 1.2. For volume. V olume of beaker of calorimeter= internal area of cross section x depth.
V

calorimeter and open them till each of them touches the inner wall of the beaker or calorimeter, without any undue pressure on the walls. Tight the screw S attached to the vernier scale. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called main scale reading (M.S.R.). Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of the main scale. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the vernier callipers by 90 for measuring internal diameter in a perpendicular direction. Find total correction. reading and apply zero

5.

or

()
D 2

. d

6.

where D = internal diameter of beaker/calorimeter d = depth of beaker/calorimeter 7.

Measurement of depth 8. 9. Keep the right edge of main scale strip M on the upper edge of the beaker or calorimeter. Press the jaw BD downwards so that the thin metallic strip E on the back side of M moves downward. Continue it till the outer edge of E touches the bottom of the beaker or calorimeter. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for four different positions A, B, C and D along the circumference of the upper edge of the beaker of calorimeter. Find total correction. reading and apply zero

(a) Internal diameter of beaker . (b) Depth of beaker . PROCEDURE (Stepwise) 1. Determine the vernier constant (V .C.) i.e., least count of the vernier callipers and record it stepwise. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero error. Do it three times and record it. If there is no zero error, then record, zero error nil .

10.

11. 12. 13.

Take mean of two different values of internal diameter and four different values of the depth. Calculate the volume by using proper formula and show that in the result with proper unit.

2.

OBSERV A TIONS 1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the vernier callipers. 1 M.S.D. = 1 mm

Measurement of internal diameter 3. Put the jaws C and D inside the beaker or

14

10 V .S.D. = 9 M.S.D. 1V .S.D. =

9 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm 10

= 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm. 2. Zero error = (i) ...... cm, (iii) ...... cm. (ii) ...... cm,

V ernier constant, = (1-0.9) mm 3. Serial No.

V .C. = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V .S.D.

Mean zero error (e) -= ...... cm.

Table for the Internal Diameter . (D) Main Scale reading (N) (cm) Vernier Scale Reading No. of Vernier Value division [n (V.C.)] coinciding (n) (cm) (3a) (3b) Total Reading Observed Corrected D =N + n D=D +c (V .C.) (cm) (cm) (4a) (4b) D1 (a) = D1 (b) =

(1)

(2)

4. Table for the depth (d) Serial No. Position Main Scale reading (N) (cm) Vernier Scale Reading No. of Vernier Value division [n (V.C.)] coinciding (n) (cm) (4a) (4b) Total Reading Observed Corrected d =N + n d=d +c (V .C.) (cm) (cm) (5a) (5b) d1 = d2 = d3 = d4 =

(1) 1. 2. 3. 4.

(2) at A at B at C at D

(3)

CALCULA TION Mean corrected internal diameter,

D= D1(a ) + D1( b ) 2 = ............ cm

V olume of beaker/calorimeter

()
D 2

......... cm 3

Mean corrected depth,

d= d1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4 = ............ cm 4

RESULT - The volume of the beaker/calorimeter is .....cm3

15

SCREW GAUGE EXPERIMENT 2.1

Object : To determine the diameter and volume of a wire with the help of a screw gauge. Apparatus Required : Screw gauge, metre scale and the given wire. Description of Apparatus. The labelled diagram of a screw gauge is shown in Fig. It has a U-shaped frame of steel which is provided with a plane metallic piece A called stud. A nut N is provided at its other end. The nut is threaded from insides and a screw, with its flat end B, is moved inside it. Above the frame in which the screw moves, main scale is graduated along the base line in mm. The zero of main scale is towards stud A. There is another hollow cylinder rotating over this cylindrical frame. The end of the hollow cylinder which is towards the mains scale is divided into 50 or 100 equal divisions. This is called the circular or head scale. A ratchet is attached by the spring to the other end of it which prevents the unnecessarily tightening of the screw. =
Pitch of the screw Total number of divisions on the head scale

Zero error. If on touching the tip of the screw B with the stud A, the zero mark of the head scale coincides with the zero mark of the base line, the instrument is free from zero error. But if the zero mark of the head scale remains below the base line of the main scale, the zero error is said to be positive. To find it, note the division of the head scale which coincides with the base line of the main scale. Now multiply this number with the least count which gives the zero error. In Fig. the 5 th division of head scale coincides with the base line. If the least count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm, then zero error is = + 5 0.01 = + 0.05mm. On the other hand, if on touching the tip of the screw B with the stud A, the zero of the head scale goes above the base line of the main scale, the zero error is said to be negative. To find it, note the division of the head scale which coincides with the base line of the main scale. Subtract it from the total number of divisions on the head scale and then multiply it with the least count of the screw gauge. In Fig. 95 th division of head scale coincides with the base line and the total number of divisions on the head scale are 100 and the least count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm, then the zero error = (100 95) 0.01 = 0.05 mm. To find the correct reading, the zero error with its proper signs is subtracted from the observed reading. Thus, Correct reading = observed reading zero error (with sign) Backlash error . Sometimes due to wear and tear of threads of screw, it becomes loose in its cylindrical

Principle. This works on the principle of a screw. A screw has threads on it at equal intervals of length. If the head of a screw is rotated in a nut, the screw can be made to move forward or backward. The distance moved by it in one round is the same as the distance between tow consecutive threads and is known as pitch of the screw. The distance moved by the screw when the circular or head scale is rotated by one division is the minimum distance which can be measured by the screw gauge. This is known as the least count of the screw gauge. Thus, Least count of the screw gauge

16

frame. As a result of this, while moving the screw continuously in one direction, if the direction of rotation is suddenly changed, it is observed that the screw slips in the threads of the nut and the screw does not start moving in the opposite direction at once, but it remains stationary for some time i.e,, screw rotates at its own place. As a consequence, reading of the head scale changes but the reading of main scale remains the same. The error obtained in the resultant reading is called backlash error. To avoid this error, the screw should be rotated in one direction only. If it is necessary to rotate the screw in opposite direction, then first it should be rotated in the same direction and then in opposite direction to take the reading. Formula used : V olume of a wire V = r2l Where r is the radius and l is the length of the wire. Method : (1) On bringing any division of the head scale in contact with the base line, the head scale is given one complete rotation. Note on the main scale, the linear distance moved by the screw, i.e., the pitch. Now count the total number of divisions on the head scale. Divide the pitch by the total number of divisions on head scale to calculate the least count. Thus, Least count of screw gauge
Pitch of the screw = Total number of divisions on the head scale

the gap between A and B. More the screw B towards the stud A by rotating the head scale with the help of the ratchet so that the given wire is held gently between the stud and the screw. (4) Count the number of divisions which appear on the main scale. This gives the main scale reading. Then note the coinciding division of the head scale with the base line. This head scale division when multiplied by the least count, gives the head scale reading. This reading is then added to the main scale reading to give the total reading. This gives the observed diameter of the wire. (5) Widen the gap between the stud and the screw. Again hold the wire at the same place, but in a position perpendicular to earlier one. Repeat the above procedure to obtain the reading of the diameter in this position. (6) Take atleast five more pairs of such readings at different positions along its length and arrange them in a tabular form and calculate their mean. (7) From this mean, subtract the zero error with its proper sign to obtain the correct diameter of the given wire. (8) Measure the length of the wire with the metre scale. Observations. 1. For the least count Pitch of the screw = 0.1 cm. Total number of divisions on head scale = 100
Least count = Pitch of the screw Total number of divisions on head scale = 0.1 = 0.001 cm. 100

(2) Bring the tip of screw B close to the stud A. Find out if there is any zero error by the method stated above. (3) Rotate the head scale and make a sufficient gap between A and B so that the given wire can be easily placed. Stop moving the screw and keep the wire in 2. Table for the zero error Zero error : positive or negative = ve (suppose) S.N.

Head scale reading Main scale Head scale division (Total no. of division reading which coincides with Coinciding division) (in cm) the base line least count (in cm) 0 0 0 84 84 83 (100 84) 0.001 = 0.016 (100 84) 0.001 = 0.016 (100 83) 0.001 = 0.017

Total reading = M.S. reading + Head scale reading (in cm) 0.016 0.016 0.017

1 2 3

17

3. Table for the diameter S.N. Main scale reading (in cm) Head scale reading No. of head No. of division scale division least count coinciding (in cm) with the base line 94 96 94 97 93 96 95 95 94 96 94 0.001 = 0.094 96 0.001 = 0.096 94 0.001 = 0.094 97 0.001 = 0.097 93 0.001 = 0.093 96 0.001 = 0.096 95 0.001 = 0.095 95 0.001 = 0.095 94 0.001 = 0.094 96 0.001 = 0.096

Total reading = M.S. reading + Head scale reading (in cm) 0.094 0.096 0.094 0.097 0.093 0.096 0.095 0.095 0.094 0.096

(i) (ii)

(i) (ii)

(i) (ii)

(i) (ii)

(i) (ii)

in one direction in direction in one direction in direction in one direction in direction in one direction in direction in one direction in direction

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mean observed diameter = 0.095 cm. Correct diameter = Observed diameter Zero error (with proper sign) = 0.095 (0.016) = 0.111 cm. Length of the wire (by metre scale) = 14.3cm. Calculations.
Radius of the wire = r = Correct diameter 0.111 = cm 2 2

Result : (1) 0.111 cm. (2) 0.136 cm3

Diameter of the given wire = V olume of the given wire =

Precautions : (1) The tip of the screw should be brought closer to the stud only with the help of ratchet, i.e., care must be taken not to hold the wire too tightly. (2) In order to make allowance for non-circular crosssection, diameter of the wire must be measured in two perpendicular directions at each place. (3) In order to make allowance for non-uniformity of the wire, diameter should be measured at several places and then their average is taken. (4) The direction of rotation of the head scale should not be changed at once for every observation with a screw gauge. If it is required to do so, then move the screw still further, stop there a while and then rotate in reverse direction. This avoids the backlash error.

= 0.0555 cm = 0.055 cm. Length of the wire l = 14.3 cm. V olume of the wire V = r2l = 3.14 (0.055)2 14.3 = 0. 1358 cm3 = 0.136 cm3

18

Oral Questions and Answers (For viva-Voce)

Q.1 What is the use of a screw gauge? the thimble of your screw gauge? What is the pitch of the screw? What is its least count? Ans. The circular head of the given screw gauge is divided into 100 divisions. The screw moves 1 division ahead in one rotation over the main scale whose value is 0.1 cm or 1mm. Therefore the pitch of the screw gauges is 0.1 cm.
Least count = 0.1 cm = 0.001 cm. 100

Ans. It is used to measure the diameter of a thin wire. Q.2 Why is this instrument called screw gauge?

Ans. This works on the principle of a screw and is used to measure the diameter (or thickness) of a wire. Q.3 Which is the head scale of this instrument?

Ans. The hollow cylinder or thimble, rotating over the main scale is called the head scale. Q.4 What do you mean by pitch of a screw gauge? Ans. The pitch of a screw gauge is the distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation of its head. Q.5 How will you determine least count of a screw gauge? Ans. The last count of a screw gauge can be obtained by dividing the pitch of the screw by the total number of divisions on the head scale. Thus,
Least count = Pitch screw Total number of divisions on head scale

Q.7

What is the use of ratchet in this instrument?

Ans. With the help of ratchet, the given wire is held in between the stud and the screw. It prevents excessive tightening of the wire. Q.8 Can you measure the diameter of your hair by your screw gauge? Ans. No, we cannot measure the diameter of our hair by this screw gauge because the diameter of hair is less than the least count of screw gauge. Q.9 State one of the main precaution of your experiment. Ans. To avoid the backlash error, the screw should be rotated only in one direction.

Q.6

How many number of divisions are there on

19

EXPERIMENT 2.2
OBJECT- To measure thickness of a given sheet using a screw gauge. APPARATUS - Screw gauge sheet (it must be rigid) THEORY - Same as in Experiment 2.1, for diameter (thickness) of a wire. PROCEDURE 1. 2. 3. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D.) Determine the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge and record it stepwise. Bring the plane face B in contact with plane face A and find the zero error. Do it three times and record them. If there is no zero error, then record zero error nil. Move the face B away from face A. Place the wire lengthwise over face A and move the face B towards face A using the retchet head R. 8. 9. 7. Repeat steps 4, 5, 6 for 5 different positions spread equally throughout the surface of the sheet. Record observation in tabular form. Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case. Take mean of different values of thickness.

OBSERV A TIONS 1. 2. 3. Determination of least count of the screw gauge. (Same as Experiment 2.1) Zero error. Same as in Experiment 2.1. Table for the thickness (t).

CALCULA TIONS 1. 2. Find value of t for each observation and write the observed value to in column 4(a). Write corrected value of t in column 4(b).

4.

Serial No.

Main Scale reading (N) (cm)

(1) 1. 2. 3. 4.

(2)

Circular Scale Reading No. of Circular Value Scale division [n (Least on reference count)(mm) line (n) (3a) (3b)

Total Reading Observed Corrected t=N + n t = t+ c L.C. (mm) (mm) (4a) (4b) t1 = t2 = t3 = t4 =

Stop when R turns (slips) without moving the screw. 5. Note the number of divisions of the linear scale visible and uncovered by the edge of the cap. The reading (N) is called linear scale reading (L.S.R.). Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying above reference line.

3.

Find mean of values of t recorded I column 4(b)

Mean thickness of the sheet, RESULTS - The thickness of the given sheet is .. mm = .. cm. PRECAUTIONS (to be taken) - Same as in Experiment 2.1.

6.

20

VIV A-VOCE
Q.1. Ans. Q.2 Ans. Why is the screw used in screw gauge called a micrometre screw? It is so called because it can measure distance correct upto a micrometer (106 metre). Why is a screw gauge so named? Diameters of wires are governed by some standard numbers called standard wire gauge (S.W.G.). As the instrument measures these diameters, it is named screw gauge. What is the principle of a screw gauge? The principle is that when an ideal screw moves in a fixed nut, the translatory motion of the screw is proportional to the rotation given to the screw. What are the various types of motions possessed by a screw? The screw has two types of motions : (i) axis has linear motion, (ii) surface has circular motion. What is a ratchet? Explain its utility. Ratchet is an arrangement inside the milled head (R) at the end of the screw. It prevents the screw from undue pressure. Define pitch of the screw gauge. The pitch is the distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation. It is equal to the distance (measured along the axis) between the consecutive threads of the screw. What is least count of a screw gauge? It is the distance moved by the screw when it is rotated by one circular scale division. It is given by
Pitch No. of divisions on the circular scale

an error. This error is called zero error. Q.10 When is the zero error positive and when negative in a screw gauge? Ans. When faces A and B of screw gauge come in contact and zero of circular scale does not cross the reference line, zero error is positive. If the zero crosses the reference line, zero error is negative. The reasons for zero error are: (i) Wear and tear of the screw (ii) The defect in manufacturing. Q.12 Of what metal is the screw made and why? Ans. The screw is made of gun metal to avoid wear and tear after long use. Due to wear and tear, the screw becomes loose in the nut and may not move forward when turned in the nut. Error due to this is called a back-lash error. It can be avoided by exerting a slight lateral pressure on the screw and by turning it always in the same direction. No.

Q.11 What are the reasons for a zero error? Ans.

Q.3 Ans.

Q.4 Ans.

Q.13 What is back-lash error? Ans.

Q.5 Ans.

Q.14 How can the back-lash error be avoided? Ans.

Q.6 Ans.

Q.15 Can back-lash error be avoided completely? Ans. Q.16 How can you find thickness of a paper by a screw gauge? Ans. We find thickness of 100 sheets of paper. Then calculate thickness of one sheet.

Q.7 Ans.

Q.17 Why do you measure the diameter of the wire in two perpendicular directions? Ans. It is done to eliminate error due to nonuniformity of thickness.

Least count =

Q.8 Ans. Q.9 Ans.

What is the least count of commonly used screw gauge? It is 0.001 cm. What is zero error of screw gauge? When faces A and B of screw gauge come in contact and zero of circular scale does not come on reference line, the screw gauge has

Q.18 Two screw gauges have equal number of divisions in circular scale. One has pitch 1 mm and the other has pitch 0.5 mm. Which is more accurate and why? Ans. The other one is more accurate because its least count will be half of that of the first.

21

EXPERIMENT 2.3
Object : To measure the volume of an Irregular Lamina. Apparatus : Screw gauge, sheet, (must be rigid) semi graph paper. Theory : Same as in experiment 2.1 Procedure : 1. 2. 3. Thickness of sheet calculated as experiment 2.2. Now put the sheet over the graph paper and sketch the boundary by pencil. Now count the square inside the semigraph paper. Half and more than half square count a full square. Observation : Thickness of sheet as experiment 2.2 and for Area = Number of square inside the boundary. Calculation : Thickness of sheet as experiment 2.2 For Area = Area of sheet = n V olume of Irregular Lamina = Area thickness =A t = At cm 3 Result : The volume of Given sheet= ..cm 3 Precaution : Same as in experiment 2.1.

22

SPHEROMETER EXPERIMENT 3.1

Object : To determine the radius of curvature of a spherical surface with a spherometer. Apparatus Required : A spherometer, a plane glassplate, a metre scale, a piece of white paper and a given spherical surface. Description of Apparatus : The labelled diagram of spherometer is shown in Fig. It consists of a metallic frame-work supported on the three fixed legs X, Y and Z of equal lengths. The legs have pointed ends and are equidistant from one another. The pointed ends of these legs form the three vertices of an Least count of spherometer

Pitch of the screw Total number of divisions on circular scale

Thus, the least count of spherometer is calculated just like as the least count a screw gauge. With the help of milled head (or cap), the disc is given a full complete rotation and the distance through which the edge of the disc moves, is noted. This distance is called the pitch of the screw. Then the total number of divisions on the circular scale is counted. The pitch divided by the total number of divisions on the circular scale gives the least count of the spherometer. Let the pitch of the screw be 1 mm and the total number of divisions on the circular scale be 100, then the least count of the spherometer = 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm. To escape from the zero error, while taking measurement, even if the zero is marked in middle of the scale, it should be used by considering the zero at the lowest point of the scale. In this postion, since the reading remains always above the zero mark, all the readings are positive. To avoid the backlash error, the screw should always be rotated in one direction only while taking the observation. If it is necessary to rotate the screw in opposite direction, then first it should be rotated in the same direction to some extent and then in the opposite direction. Theory : Each spherical surface is a part of sphere whose radius is called the radius of curvature of that spherical surface. First, the spherometer is placed upon a plane glass plate and the reading is taken when screw just touches the plate. Again the spherometer is placed on the spherical convex surface
1 mm = 100

equilateral triangle. A nut N is provided at the centre of the frame through which passes a fine screw S. The lower part of the screw is pointed and it is called the fourth or the central leg of the spherometer. When it is brought in the plane of the remaining three legs, it falls at the centre of the equilateral traingle formed by them i.e., all the three vertices of the triangle are equidistant from it. A round disc of brass B is fixed rigidly at the upper end of the screw S whose circumference is graduated in 50 or 100 equal divisions. This is called the circular scale of the spherometer. There is a cap H (milled head) at the middle of the disc. Screw is made to move up or down by rotating it. A vertical scale L, graduated in millimetre is fixed at one of the leg of spherometer. It is called the main scale. The zero mark of this scale lies at its middle. Its uper scale represents positive and lower scale represents negative values. This scale just touches the disc so that the main scale and circular scale readings can easily be taken.

23

and reading is taken when screw just touches the spherical surface. The height of the spherical surface h = AC is obtained by taking the difference of both the readings (Fig.). Now if the distance between the fixed leg and the screw is XC = a and the radius of curvature of spherical surface is R, then it is obvious from Fig. OX = OA = R and OC = OA AC = (R h)

or

a2 =

l2 3

By substituting the value of a2 in equation (i),

l2 h R = 3 +

2h

or

R=

Therefore, from the right angle triangle OCX, OX 2 = OC2 + CX2 or or or R2 = (R h)2 + a2 R2 = R2 2Rh + h2 + a2 2Rh = h2 + a2

l2 h + 6h 2

........ (ii)

By knowing l and h, R can be calculated by using the above formula. Formula used : Radius of curvature of spherical surface.

or

h2 a 2 a 2 h + = + R= 2 h 2 h 2h 2

l2 h R= + 6h 2
...... (i) where l = mean distance amongst the external legs of spherometer and h = height of the spherical surface. Method : (1) First, to find the pitch of the spherometer, rotate the disc by four or six complete rounds and note the distance moved by the disc on the main scale. Now divide this distance by the number of rotations to calculate the pitch. (2) Divide the pitch by the total number of divisions on the disc to calculate the least count. (3) Now place the spherometer on a plane glass plate and rotate the central leg (or the screw) till the screw just touches the plane surface. At this position, assuming zero at the lowest mark of main scale, note the main scale reading and circular scale division which touches the edge of the main scale. After then the circular scale division is multiplied by the least count. This reading is added to the main scale reading to give the total reading. (4) Now the spherometer is placed on the given convex spherical surface such that its external three legs lie on this plane. The central leg is then turned down till it just touches the spherical surface. At this position, assuming zero at the lowest mark, note the main scale reading and the circular scale division which touches the edgs of the main scale. After then the circular scale division is multiplied by the least count. This reading is then added to the main scale reading to give the total reading.

In Fig. X, Y , Z represent the positions of three legs of spherometer and C is the position of its central leg (or screw). XYZ is an equilateral traingle in which the distance between two legs XY = l and CX = CY = CZ = a. In equilateral traingle XYZ, ZK is the perpendicular bisector as well as the median both.

CZ a = and By the property of median, CK = 2 2

XK =

XY l = 2 2

Now from the right angle triangle CKX, (CX)2 = (CK)2 + (XK)2

or

a a2 = 2
2

() ()
l + 2

or

a 2 l2 a = + 4 4 3a 2 l 2 + 4 4
3a2 = l2

or or

24

(5) The height h of the spherical surface is obtained by subtracting the first reading from the second reading. (6) The spherometer is then placed upon the left page of the practical note book and is slightly pressed. Three dots corresponding to the ends of the outer fixed legs of spherometer are imprinted on the paper. By joining these three dots, an equilateral triangle is formed and by measuring the length of each side with the help of metre scale, the mean length l between the external legs of spherometer is obtained. Observations. (1) For the determination of least count of spherometer(2) Tables for the height h of the spherical surface(i) On plane glass plate : S.N. Main scale reading a (in cm)

Number of complete rotations given to screw = 1 Distance moved by the disc at the main scale = 1 mm. Hence pitch of the screw x

Dis tan ce moved by the disc at the main scale Number of complete rotation given to screw
1 mm = mm = 0.1 cm. 1

Number of division on the disc n = 100 Least count of spherometer =

x 0.1 cm = = 0.001 cm. n 100

Circular Scale Reading b (in cm). No. of circular scale No. of division division touching the least count edge of the (in cm) main scale 62 62 63 62 0.001 = 0.062 62 0.001 = 0.062 63 0.001 = 0.063

Total reading =a+b (in cm) 0.362 0.362 0.363

1. 2. 3.

0.3 0.3 0.3

Mean reading

0.362 + 0.362 + 0.363 1.087 = = 0.3623 cm. 3 3

= 0.362 cm. (ii) On convex spherical surface : S.N. Main scale reading a (in cm) Circular Scale Reading b (in cm). No. of circular scale No. of division division touching the least count edge of the (in cm) main scale 94 94 93 = 94 0.001 = 0.094 94 0.001 = 0.094 93 0.001 = 0.093

Total reading =a+b (in cm) 0.394 0.394 0.393

1. 2. 3.

0.3 0.3 0.3

0.394 + 0.394 + 0.393 1181 . = = 0.3937 cm. 3 3 = 0.394 cm. (3) For the determination of distance l between the legs of a spherometer XY = 2.6 cm, YZ = 2.6 cm, ZX = 2.6 cm.

Mean reading

Mean l =

XY + YZ + ZX 2.6 + 2.6 + 2.6 = = 2.6 cm. 3 3

25

Calculation. Height h of the spherical surface = Mean reading on spherical surface Mean reading on plane glass plate = 0.394 cm. 0.362 cm. = 0.032 cm. Radius of curvature of spherical surface

Oral Questions and Answer

(For viva-voce)
Q. 1. Ans. Q. 2. Ans. Why is the spherometer so named? It is so called because it is used to measure the radius of curvature of a spherical surfce. What is the principle of a sphreometer? This works on the principle of a screw. When a screw moves in a nut, the translatory motion of the screw is proportional to the rotation given to the screw. What do you mean by the pitch of the spherometer? The distance moved forward or backward by the screw on given one complete rotation, is known as the pitch. It is equal to the distance between the two consecutive threads on the screw. What do you mean by the least count of the spherometer? The distance moved forward or backward by the disc when it is rotated by one circular scale division. It is given as :

0.032 l2 h (2.6) 2 R= + = + 2 6 h 2 6 0.032

= 35.208 + 0.016 = 35.224 cm. Result. Radius of curvature of the given spherical surface = 35.224 cm. Precaution. (1) Reading of the spherometer should be taken only when the tip of the screw just touches the plane of the plate or the spherical surface. In this position, the tip of the screw and its image on the plate will just touch each other. (2) To avoid backlash error, the screw should be moved in the same direction. (3) The main scale should remain vertical. (4) For the determination of the value of l, the distance between each two consecutive of the outer three legs should be measured and their mean is calculated. Probable error . (1) If the circular scale divisions are not of equal size, then in result, error may arise due to changing of pitch. (2) If the disc is loose in nut, then it bends towards a side. As a result, the error may arise in the observations. (3) If the three outer legs do not form the equilateral triangle and the tip of the screw may not be at the point of intersection of medians of the triangle, then above will not be applicable. Q. 3. Ans.

Q. 4. Ans.

Least count =

Pitch No. of division on the circular scale

It is the least distance, it can measure accurately. Q. 5. Ans. What is the value of pitch and least count of spherometer used in your experiment? Because the distance moved forward by the disc of spherometer on giving one complete rotation is 1 mm., therefore pitch = 1 mm. Since the number of divisions on its disc = 100, hence
1 mm = 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm. 100

Least count = Q. 6. Ans.

l2 h + , l comes 6h 2 in a square form and h is a small quantity, therefore to obtain the accurate value of radius of curvature R, the values of l and h both should be measured with a greater accuracy.
Inference. Since in the formula R =

What is the backlash error? How can it be avoided? Due to wear and tear, the screw becomes loose in its cylindrical frame. As a result of this, while moving the screw continously in one direction, if the direction of rotation is suddenly changed, it is observed that the

26

screw slips in the threads of the nut and the screw does not start moving in the opposite direction at once, but it remains stationary for some time i.e. screw rotates at its own place. As a consequence, reading of the head scale changes but the reading of the main scale remains the same. The error obtained in the total reading is called backlash error. To avoid this error, the screw should be rotated in one direction only. If it is necessary to rotate the screw in opposite direction, then first it should be rotated in the same direction and then in opposite direction to take the reading. Q. 7. Do you calculate zero error in your experiment? If not, then how can you remove it? No. For its removal, the spherometer is placed on a plane glass plate and reading is taken by assuming zero at its lowest mark. The spherometer is then placed on the spherical surface and again reading is taken by assuming zero at the lowest mark. The difference between these readings gives the height of the spherical surface. What are the characteristics of an ideal spherometer? (i) The threads of the screw must be throughout narrow and uniform. (ii) There must be no backlash error. Q. 9. Ans. What is meant by the radius of curvature of a spherical surface? Each spherical surface is a part of a sphere whose radius is called the radius of curvature of the spherical surface.

Q. 11. What is the radius of curvature and curvature of a plane surface? Ans. The radius of curvature of a plane surface is infinity and curvature is zero.

Q. 12. State the formula for radius of curvature in your experiment? Ans. Q.13 Ans. Q.14 Ans. R=

l2 h + 6h 2

Which of the quantity is to be measured with accuracy: l or h and why? H, since it is a small quantity. Can you measure the radius of curvature of earth with a spherometer? No, since the radius of curvature of earth is so large that the value of h will be nearly zero. State the greatest and the smallest sphere whose radius of curvature canbe measured with your spherometer? The sphere for which the value of h will be equal to least count of the spherometer will be greatest sphere and the sphere, that can be kept among the three external legs of spherometer will be smallest sphere. Out of two curved surfaces for which the value of h is 0.152mm and 0.205 mm respectively, which surface has the larger radius of curvature? First surface has more radius of curvature for which h = 0.152mm. There are three legs in a spherometer, why? Because any plane can be described by at least three points, which are not in a straight line. Is equal distance necessary among the three legs? Y es, otherwise formula R = be applicable.
l2 h + will not 6h 2

Ans.

Q.15

Ans.

Q. 8. Ans.

Q.16

Ans. Q.17 Ans.

Q. 10. What is the relation between the curvature and radius of curvature of a spherical surface? Ans. The reciprocal of curvature of the spherical surface is called the radius of curvature of that spherical surface. Curvature =

Q.18

i.e.,

1 Radius of curvature

Ans.

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EXPERIMENT 3.2
OBJECT - To measure thickness of a given sheet using a spherometer. APPARATUS - Spherometer, sheet (it may be a glass sheet), a big size plane glass slab. Diagram - As experiment 3.1. THEORY - As experiment 3.1. PROCEDURE (Stepwise) 1. 2. 3. 4. Find the value of one vertical (pitch) scale division. Determine the pitch and the least count of the spherometer and record it stepwise. Place the spherometer on a big size plane glass slab, so that its three legs rest on it. Rise the screw sufficiently so that the given small glass strip could be placed below the screw. Gently turn the screw downwards till the screw tip just touches the surface of the glass strip. (The tip of the screw will just touch its image in the glass strip). Note the reading of the circular (disc) scale which is in line with the vertical (pitch) scale. Let it be a (It will act as reference). Remove the glass strip from below the screw. Turn the screw downwards and count the number of complete rotations. (n1) made by the disc (one rotation becomes complete when Hence, 11. 12. 9. 10. the reference reading crosses past the pitch scale). Continue till the tip of the screw just touches the plane surface of the glass slab. Note the reading of the circular scale which is finally in line with the vertical (pitch) scale. Let it be b. Find the number of circular (disc) scale division in last incomplete rotation. Repeat steps 4 to 11, for 5 different positions, spread equally throughout the surface of the sheet. Record observations in tabular form. Take mean of different values of thickness. Determination of least count of the spherometer . 1 pitch scale division = 1 mm Number of full rotation given to screw =4 Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm
Pitch, p = 4mm = 1mm 4

13. 1.

OBSERV A TIONS

5.

6.

Number of divisions on circular (disc) scale = 100 Hence, least count =

1mm = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm. 100

7. 8.

2. Zero Error. Zero error does not occur in a spherometer because result is obtained by taking difference of final and initial readings.

3. Serial No.

Table for the thickness (t) Circular (Disc) Scale Reading Initial Final (a) (b) Number of complete rotations (n1) No. of Disc scale divisions in incomplete rotation x = (a b) or (100 + a) b (4) Total Reading t = n1 p + x (L.C.) (mm)

(1) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

(2a)

(2b)

(3)

(5) t1 = t2 = t3 = t4 = t5 =

28

CALCULA TIONS 1. 2. Find value of t for each observation and write it in column 5. Find means of values of t recorded in column 5. Mean thickness of the sheet,
t +t +t +t +t t = 1 2 3 4 5 = ......... mm 5 cm

2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The screw should be moved in same direction to avoid back-lash error of the screw. Reading should be taken atleast five places equally spread over the sheet. Excess rotation should be avoided. The screw may have friction. The spherometer may have back-lash error. Circular (Disc) scale divisions may not be of equal size. The sheet may not be of uniform thickness.

SOURCES OF ERROR

RESULT- The thickness of the given sheet is .. mm = ..cm. PRECAUTIONS 1. The screw should move freely without friction.

29

FORCE AND FRICTION

Force of friction When one surface moves over another surface or when there is relative motion between two surfaces then a tangential force acts between the two surfaces. This force opposes relative motion between the two surfaces, and is known as force of friction. of friction can be reduced, but it cannot be completely eliminated. Limiting force of friction : If two surfaces are in contact with each other and no external force is acting on them then force of friction acting between them is also zero. If an external force is applied on one surface in such a way that the surfaces do not move then an equal and opposite force acts. This force of friction is known as static force of friction. If the applied force increases this static force also increases. But static force of friction can increase only upto a certain limit. The value of limiting force of friction depends upon the nature of surfaces. On slightly increasing the applied force beyond maximum force of friction, the surface starts moving. Maximum value of force of friction in this case is known as limiting force of friction. Co-efficient of friction : Force of friction (F) acting between two surfaces is directly proportional to force of normal reaction between the surface. or force of friction F R (Normal Reaction) F = R where is a constant. This constant is known as co-efficient of friction. or = F/R = Normal Re action In case, no motion takes place, then force of friction is static force of friction and co-efficient of friction is known as co-efficient of static friction. It is denoted by s. In case of limiting friction, co-efficient of friction is known as-co-efficient of limiting friction. It is denoted by . If the object is moving with uniform velocity then co-efficient of friction is known as co-efficient of kinetic friction. It is denoted by k. V alue of k is always less than that of , s, and k are rations of two similar quantities, hence they have no units, but their values depend on nature of surfaces in contact. The force of friction depends on the nature of surfaces in contact. By making surfaces smooth, force Angle of friction : It is that angle which the resultant of limiting force of friction and normal reaction makes
Force of friction

Major cause of frictional force is the presence of microscopic irregularities between the two surfaces. When two surfaces are placed in contact with each other then their grooves get interlocked together due to interatomic forces. When relative motion takes place between the surfaces, then a force is required to break the interlocking and the relative motion becomes difficult. This is expressed by saying that a force of friction is acting between the srufaces. Even in very smooth surfaces some microscopic irregularities are always present. A second cause of force of friction is presence of adhesive forces & cohesive forces. Adhesive forces are attractive forces acting between two molecules of the same substance. As the molecular forces are electromagnetic forces, therefore, the force of friction is basically an electromagnetic force.

30

with normal reaction. It is generally denoted by .

sliding down. This position is known as position of limiting equilibrium. If inclination is slightly increased further then the object starts moving down the plane. From Fig. it is clear that three forces are acting on the object in this position (i) weight of object mg vertically downwards (ii) R is force of normal reaction acting normal to plane, (iii) Force of limiting friction trangential to the surface and up the incline. The weight mg can be resolved into two rectangular components (i) mg cosq and (ii) mg sinq

In fig. a block is shown which is just at the point of moving over a horizontal surface. On it an
external force P acts. F is limiting force of friction

In equilibrium R = mg cos Fs = mg sin tan = Fs/R. But Fs/R = = co-efficient of limiting friction. = tan Or tangent of angle of repose is equal to coefficient of limiting friction. Therefore, by knowing angle of repose co-efficient of friction between the surfaces of block and the plane can be calculated. We know that tan also = tan It shows that = or angle of friction = angle of repose. Disadvantages of friction : It causes wear and tear of machinery, hence their life-span is reduced. Also a part of input energy is converted into heat due to friction, hence efficiency of machinery decreases. Methods of reducing friction : To reduce friction surfaces are polished. By polishing, irregularities get smoothened and friction is reduced. If a lubricant like Oil, Grease or Mobile Oil is used between the surfaces then also friction decreases. Methods to increase friction: Some times friction is to be increased. For this dry mud or sand can be used, Sand paper can also be used. Tyres and shoe soles are made rough to increase friction.

which is just opposite to P . as shown in fig. The

resultant of F and R is determined by the rectangle OBCA.

Then BOC = Angle of friction = Tan =

BC OA Fs = = OB OB R

Fs but = = tan R

Hence co-efficient of limiting friction is equal to tangent of angle of friction. Angle of respose : If an object is placed on an inclined plane in such a way that the object is at the point of sliding down the plane, then the angle which the plane makes with the horizontal direction is known as angle of repose.

When an object is placed on an inclined plane and its inclination is gradually increased, then at a certain position, the object is just on the point of

31

EXPERIMENT 4
Aim : To study the relationship between the force of limiting friction and normal reaction and to find the coefficient of friction between a block and a horizontal surface. Apparatus : The inclined plane apparatus having glass top, wooden block provided with a hook, thread, scale pan, weight box, spring balance and a spirit level. Theory : To find the coefficient of friction between a block and a horizontal surface, consider the experimental arrangement as shown in fig. The block R = w + W ..... ....(5.07)

Therefore, coefficient of friction between the block and the horizontal surface is given by
= F p+P = R w+W

.... (5.08)

For more set of observations, the experiment is repeated for different values of w (= 100 g, 200 g, 300 g, ....) and in each case, the weight on the scale pan is adjusted so that the block just begins to slide on tapping the horizontal surface gently. A graph is plotted between the values of F and R for different observations. The graph will be a straight line as shown in Fig. The slope of the graph also gives the value of the coefficient of friction between the block and the horizontal surface i.e. = slope of the graph =
AC BC
F R

is connected to a scale pan with a thread and the thread is passed over the pulley fixed to the edge of the inclined plane apparatus. Place some known weight w on the block. Then, from a weight box, start adding weight to the scale pan. Adjust the weights so that the block just begins to slide, when the horizontal surface is tapped gently. Let P be the weight placed on the scale pan and p be the weight of the scale pan. Then,

Formula used : The coefficient of friction, =

Procedure : 1. Place the inclined plane apparatus horizontally on the table and level it with the help of spirit level. 2. Make pulley fitted to the inclined plane apparatus free by oiling it. 3. Find the least count and zero error (if any) of the spring balance. 4. Weigh the wooden block (W) and the scale pan (p) separately with the help of the spring balance and record their corrected weights by applying zero correction. 5. Attach one end of the thread to the scale pan and the other end to the hook of the wooden block.

applied force on the block = p + P Since the block just begins to slide, the applied force p + P must be just equal to the force of limiting friction F between the block and the horizontal surface i.e. F=p+P If W is the weight of the block then the normal reaction,

6. Place the block on the inclined plane apparatus and pass the thread over the pulley as shown in Fig. 7. Place the weights on the pan and tap the surface of the inclined apparatus gently. If the block does not slide, go on adding weights to the scale pan till the block just beings to slide on taping the surface gently. Note down the weights placed in the pan. Let it be P . Then, total applied force = p + P

32

Since the block just begins to slide, the applied force is equal to the force of limiting friction F between the block and the horizontal surface i.e. F=p+P 8. Since there is no motion along the vertical, normal reaction R is equal to the weight of the block i.e. R=W 9. Now, place a known weight w, say 100 g on the block so that the normal reaction becomes equal to w+W. By proceeding as in step 7, find the weight added to the pan so that the block just begin to slide on tapping the surface gently. 10. Repeat the experiment for four different values of weight w placed on the block and record the observations in tabular form. 11. Find the ratio of force of limiting friction F (= p + P) and the normal reaction R (= w + W) in each case. The ratio gives the coefficient of friction between the block and the horizontal surface. 12. Plot a graph between R (along X-axis) and F (along Y -axis) as shown in Fig. Since the graph between F and R is a straight line, the force of limiting friction between the two surfaces (wood and glass) is proportional to the normal reaction. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Weight on the block, w 0 gf 100 gf 150 gf 200 gf 250 gf 300 gf Normal reaction, R=x+W

Corrected weight of the wooden block, W Corrected weight of the scale pan, p

= ....gf = ....gf
AC = ....... BC

From the graph; AC ..... cm and BC ..... cm Therefore, slope of the graph =

Hence, coefficient of friction = slope of the graph = .... Result. 1. Since

F constant and graph between F and R

R is a straight line, it follows that value of the limiting friction between two given surfaces is directly proportional to the normal reaction between the two surfaces. 2. The coefficient of limiting friction between the surfaces (wood and glass), = .... Precautions : 1. The pulley should be free from friction. 2. Clean and dry the surfaces of the block and the horizontal plane apparatus before the experiment. 3. Tap the surface of the inclined plane apparatus gently.

Weight in the pan, P

Limiting friction F=p+P

F R

Mean coefficient of friction, = ..... 13. By taking two points A and B on the graph, find the slope of the graph. Then, slope of the graph is equal to the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces. Observations and calculations. The value of one small division of spring balance Zero error (if any) of the spring balance Zero correction to be applied = ....gf = ....gf = ....gf 4. The segment of the thread between the block and the pulley should be horizontal. 5. The scale pan should not touch any part of the table. Sources of error . 1. The dust particles on the plane surface increase the friction between the two surfaces in contact. 2. The weight of the thread has not been taken into account. 3. The inclined plane apparatus may not be horizontal.

33

VIV A VOCE Frequently Asked Questions

Q. 1. Ans. What is friction? When a body tends to slide over another body, a force, which tries to oppose the relative motion between the two bodies, comes into play. This opposing force is called force due to friction. It is due to roughness of the two surfaces in contact. Will the force of friction act, if the bodies in contact are at rest? No, it acts only when one body tends to slide over another body. What are the causes of friction? It is due to the interlocking of the irregularities of two surfaces in contact and depends upon the force with which the two bodies press against each other. On what factors does the force of friction depend? It depends upon the nature and the state of polish (smoothness) of the two surfaces in contact. Why do we call friction a self adjusting force? When applied force is zero, friction is zero. As the applied force is increased, friction also increases and becomes equal to the applied force. It happens so, till the body does not start moving. For this reason, friction is called self adjusting force. What is limiting friction? It is the maximum force which comes into play, when a body moves over the surface of another body. What is coefficient of friction? It is the ratio of the limiting friction to the normal reaction for the two surfaces in contact. Ans. Ans. Q. 8. Ans. Q. 9. Ans. Q. 10. Ans. What is the unit of coefficient of limiting friction? It has no unit. What are different kinds of friction? 1. Static friction, 2. Kinetic friction. What is angle of friction? The angle, which the resultant of force of limiting friction and normal reaction makes with normal reaction, is called the angle of friction. What is meant by angle of repose? The angle of inclination with the horizontal, at which a body just begins to slide down the inclined plane, is called the angle of repose. What is the relation between angle of repose and angle of friction? The angle of friction and the angle of repose are equal. Why should string connecting the wooden block and the scale pan passed over the pulley should be horizintal? In case it is not so, the force of limiting friction will be equal to the component of the pull parallel to the horizontal. What happens to limiting friciton, when a wooden block is moved with increasing speed on a horizontal surface? Limiting friction decreases as the wooden block is moved with increasing speed on the horizontal surface. How can you reduce the force of friction between two bodies ? By lubricating the moving parts and by polishing the surfaces in contact.

Q. 2. Ans. Q. 3. Ans.

Q. 11. Ans.

Q. 12. Ans. Q. 13.

Q. 4. Ans.

Q. 5. Ans.

Q. 14.

Q. 6. Ans.

Ans.

Q. 15.

Q. 7. Ans.

34

Q. 16. Ans.

Smoother the surface, lesser is friction. Why? When the surfaces are made smoother then the size of the irregularities in the surfaces decreases. As a result, the area of actual contact also decreases. As the number of atoms in contact will also decrease due to decrease in the area of contact, the force of molecular attraction and hence the force of friction decreases. Polishing a surface beyond a certain limit may increase friction. Why? When the surfaces are polished beyond a certain limit, the area at each point of contact becomes very small. However, the total area of the two surfaces in contact is very large. It is because, the number of points of contact becomes very large on making the surface highly polished. Since the number of atoms (or molecules) of the two surfaces in contact is proportional to their area in contact, the force of friction increases due to the greater value of force of molecular attraction between the two surfaces. Why are tyres made of rubber and not of iron? It is because, coefficient of friction between rubber and concrete (material of the road) is less than that between iron and the concrete. Automobile tyres have generally irregular projections over their surfaces. Why? It is done in order to increase friction between the tyres and the road for better road grip. In case the irregular projections on the tyres wear out, the vehicle may skid on applying brakes. It is because, force of friction between the road and a bald tyre is much less than that between the road and the tyre having irregular projections.

Q. 20. Ans.

Why do we slip on a rainy day? On a rainy day, the wet ground becomes very smooth. As a result, the coefficient of friction between our feet and the wet ground gets much reduced. Consequently, the force of friction (F = R) between the feet and the ground becomes very small. As a result, it may cause us to slip. Sand is thrown on tracks covered with snow in hilly areas. Why? When the tracks in hilly areas got covered with snow, the force of friction between the tyres of a vehicle and the snow covered track reduces appreciably. Due to this, the driving is no longer safe. In order to produce sufficient force of friction for safe driving, sand is thrown on the snow covered tracks. Why are wheels made circular? So as to convert sliding friction into rolling friction. It is because, rolling friction is much less than sliding friction. It is easier to roll a barrel than to pull it along the road. Why? The rolling friction is lesser as compared to the sliding friction. Why is it difficult to move a cycle with its brakes on? Between the tyres of the cycle and the road, friction is of rolling type in nature. But when cycle is moved with brakes on, the wheels cannot rotate but can only slide. Due to this, the sliding friction comes into play. As the sliding friction is greater than the rolling friction, it becomes difficult to move the cycle with brakes on.

Q. 21. Ans.

Q. 17. Ans.

Q. 22. Ans.

Q. 23. Ans. Q. 24. Ans.

Q. 18. Ans.

Q. 19.

Ans.

35

EXPERIMENT 5
OBJECT - To find the downward force along the inclined plane acting on a trolley/roller on account of gravitational pull of earth and to study its relationship with the angle of inclination of the inclined plane. APPARATUS - An inclined plane, A trolley or roller, pan, weight box, spring balance, spirit level, strong thread, half metre rod. THEORY - If total weight W1 = M1g moves the body up and total weight W 2 = M2g makes the body move down, then downward force acting on the body along the inclined plane,
W= W1 + W2 (M1 + M 2 )g = 2 2

3.

4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

This force must be equal to mg sin For same body, m = constant Hence, W sin A graph between sin along X-axis and W along Y axis must be a straight line. Diagram -

9.

10.

11.

Make the base of inclined plane horizontal (test by spirit level) and make it stable (by putting paper pieces if necessary). Bring the inclined plane to horizontal position (touching the base). The angle of inclination is now zero (as indicated by protractor). Find the weight of the roller by a spring balance and place it on the inclined plane. Tie one end of a thread to the roller placed on the inclined plane and pass it over the pulley. Pass the thread through the slot in base. Find the weight of the pan by spring balance and tie it to free end of thread, keeping the thread free from board. Raise the inclined plane and fix it at an angle of 30. The roller may start rolling down with acceleration. Put weights on the pan and increase them till the roller just moving upward with uniform velocity only on tapping. Note the total weights in pan. Remove some small weights from weights in the pan till the roller just starts moving downward with uniform speed only on tapping. Note the total weights in pan. Increase the angle of inclination in steps of 5 each, making it 35, 40, 45, 50, 55 and 60 and repeat steps 10 and 11. Record your observations in table as given below. =gwt. =gwt. =gwt. =gwt. = (wo + c) =gwt. =gwt. =gwt.

12.

13.

OBSERV A TIONS Lease count of spring balance Zero error of spring balance (e) Zero correction of spring balance (c) = (e) Observed weight of the roller (wo) PROCEDURE 1. Test the pulley of the inclined plane and see that it is free from friction. Oil it, if necessary. 2. Keep the apparatus on table with the slot portion of the base beyond the edge of the table. Corrected weight of the roller (w = mg) Observed weight of the pan (Po) Corrected weight of the pan (p)= (po + c)

36

Table for angle of inclination and weights in pan.

Serial No. Angle of inclination Sin w Sin = mg Sin Weight in pan when roller moves Upward Downward w1 (g wt) w 2 (g wt) (g wt) (5a) (5b) Total weight when Force acting on roller moves roller downward Upward Downward W + W2 W1 W2 W= 1 2 = w1 + p = w2 + p (g wt) (g wt) (g wt) (6a) (6b) (7) Error Wmg sin

(1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(2) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

(3) 0.5000 0.57358 0.64279 0.70711 0.76604 0.81915 0.86603

(4)

(8)

CALCULA TIONS (i) For downward force. In each case, downward force acting on the body is given by quantity in column (7) of the table. It must be equal to w sin as given in column (4). Error (difference) as found in column (8) is negligible.

RESULT : 1. Downward force on the body of weight w=mg comes to be mg sin 2. Graph between sin and W comes to be a straight line. Hence, W sin . 3. Graph between and W is a sine curve.

Graph between sin and W (ii) For relationship between downward force and angle of inclination. Plot a graph between sin (column 3 of table) and downward force (W) acting on the roller (column 7 of table). Taking sin along X-axis and W along Y -axis. The graph comes to be a straight line as shown in Fig. 7.03. It verifies W sin . A Graph between (column 2) and W (column) will be a curve (sine curve) bent downward. It is shown in Fig. 7.04. Precautions : 1. Pulley should be frictionless. 2. Base should be stable and horizontal. 3. Thread should not touch the board or table. 4. Inclined surface should be clean, dry and smooth (use glass top). 5. Weights in pan should be increased or decreased in small steps. 6. Weights should be noted only when the roller just starts moving up or moving down.

37

THE SIMPLE PENDULUM AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRA VITY

Introduction According to syllabus, you will require the use of simple pendulum at two places; (i) in doing the experiment to find value of acceleration due to gravity (g) with the help of a simple pendulum., (ii) in doing activity-to study the relation between effective length and time period of a simple pendulum. Therefore, you should know construction of a simple pendulum and should also have complete knowledge of various laws of physics related to it. The oscillatory motion of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic. Therefore, characteristics of simple harmonic motion should be clearly known to you. Also you should have complete knowledge about the acceleration due to gravity. Therefore, first we shall describe the necessary theory of acceleration due to gravity and simple harmonic motion and after that we shall discuss the experiment to determine the value of g in the laboratory. Information regarding acceleration due to gravity 1. Gravitation : In this universe, every object attracts every other object merely due to its mass. This attraction is known as gravitation. If an object has a mass m1 and the other object has a mass m2 and distance between them is r then according to Newtons Law of gravitation, an attractive force F acts between them such that centres of the object and that of earth is R, then the force exerted by the earth on the object, according to eq. (2.1), is given by

F=W=

GM m R2
....... (2.2)

the force (W) exerted by the earth on an object is known as the weight of that object. The force of gravitation due to earth is known as gravity. But according to the Newtons second law of motion. W = F = ma ..... (2.3)

Where a is the acceleration produced in the object. Therefore, a force acting on an object produces acceleration (a) in it. Force exerted by earth also produces an acceleration in the object. This acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by g. Therefore, according to eq. (2.3) W = mg or acceleration due to gravity. ..... (2.4)

g=

W GM = m R2

..... (2.5)

F=

G m1m2 r2

From eq. (2.5), it is clear that value of g depends only on G.M (mass of earth) and R (radius of earth). It does not depend on mass of the object. Therefore, all objects fall towards earth with the same acceleration due to gravity (g). Thus at a given place on earth, g is constant for all objects. Definition of g: The increase in velocity per second of a freely falling object due to earths gravitational force of attraction is known as acceleration due to gravity. Value of g, units and dimension: Standard value of g at sea level at a latitude of 45 is taken as 9.81 ms2. The unit of g in S.1 is metre second2 and in C.G.S. it is cm second2. Dimensions of g are same as those of acceleration i.e. [MLT 2) Change in value of g: At any place on surface of

.......(2.1)

Here G is a constant known as universal gravitational constant. The value of G in S.1 is 6.67 1011 newton metre2kg2 2. Gravity and Acceleration due to gravity:If mass of earth is M1, mass of any object on its surface or near its surface is m, and distance between

38

earth, value of g is fixed but in following case it varies : i. Radious of earth is maximum at equator and minimum at poles, therefore value of g is less at equator and more at poles. On going above the surface of earth, value of g decreases. On going under the surface of earth, also, value of g decreases. V alue of g at the centre of earth is zero, therefore weight of any object on centre of earth is zero.

mechanical systems only. (iii) Displacement : While oscillating, distance of particle from its mean position at any time is known as its instantaneous displacement. Amplitude : The maximum displacement of a particle on either side of its mean position is known as its amplitude. Extreme position : The positions of maximum displacement on either side of the mean position are called extreme positions. Distance between mean position and any extreme position is called amplitude. A Complete vibration or oscillation : Motion of a vibrating particle from one extreme position to other extreme position and back to the first extreme position is known as one complete vibration or oscillation. If the oscillation is counted form its mean position in a certain direction, then the motion of the particle from mean position to an extreme position in one direction then going back to the other extreme position and coming back to the mean position, constitutes one oscillation or one vibration. Time period : Time period is the time taken by the particle to execute one complete vibration or oscillation. It is denoted by T.

(iv)

ii. iii. iv.

(v)

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): a) Harmonic motion : If a particle moves in such a way that it passes through a definite point after a definite interval of time, then the particle is said to execute harmonic motion. Simple Harmonic motion (SHM) : If a particle moves in a straight line path, to and fro about a fixed point and if the acceleration of the particle is directly proportional to its displacement from that point and is always directed towards that point then the motion is said to be simple harmonic motion and that fixed point is known as the mean position of the particle. Characteristics of SHM It is a motion in a straight line. At any point of the motion, acceleration of the particle is proportional to its displacement from the mean position. Acceleration of moving particle is always directed towards the mean position. Some definitions Periodic motion : The motion which keeps on repeating itself regularly after fixed interval of time is known as a periodic motion. Vibration or oscillation : When a particle moves to and fro about a fixed point in a straight line then the particle is said to execute vibrations or oscillations. The fixed point is known as mean position. Both these terms are now used in the same sense, although vibrations are generally associated with

(vi)

b)

(vii)

c) (i) (ii)

(viii) Frequency : The number of complete vibrations executed per second is known as frequency. It is denoted by n or by the Greek letter (nu)

(iii) d) (i)

1 1 and T = or T = 1 T u

The simple Pendulum and its Time Period If a heavy point mass is suspended by a weightless, perfectly flexible and inextensible string from a rigid support, in a frictionless medium, this arrangement is known as a simple pendulum.
Rigid Support

(ii)

Thread

Metal Bob

39

It is an ideal pendulum because in practice it is not possible to have a heavy point mass, or a weightless string or a frictionless medium. Therefore in laboratory a practical simple pendulum is made which is closest in its properties to an ideal simple pendulum. In laboratory, a metallic spherical bob is suspended from a rigid support with the help of a thin, light but strong string. This arrangement is known as a practical simple pendulum. It is shown in fig. Effective length of simple pendulum In fig. the bob of a pendulum is suspended from the point of suspension s of a rigid support. Distance from the point of suspension to the centre of gravity of the bob is known as effective length of the simple pendulum. It is denoted by l . Therefore, we can write: Effective length of simple pendulum = Length of string (SP) + Radius of bob (PC). s

moving towards 0 and at 0 its potential energy changes completely to kinetic energy. Therefore its velocity becomes maximum. It thus completes one vibration and is ready to repeat the same. Thus the pendulum keeps on vibrating on both sides of its mean position. Formula for the time period of simple pendulum: In fig. SO denotes the rest position of the simple pendulum. When bob is displaced by an angle from its mean position SA. At that time two forces act on the pendulum.

m g mg cos

Different forces acting on the bob in displaced position. (i) (ii) Weight mg of the bob acting vertically downward, Tension T, acting along the thread is shown in the fig. The weight mg can be resolved into two rectangular components; mg Cos which acts along SA. It is equal and opposite to tension T in the string. mg sin along AD. It acts perpendicular to T. It tries to bring the bob back to mean position. Therefore mg sin is very small ( < 15) then sin (in radian). Therefore, restoring force F = mg sin mg But

p
B O A

C Why does a simple pendulum oscillate? In fig (a), SO shows position of rest of simple pendulum. Therefore, point 0 shows the mean position of the simple pendulum. When the bob moves from 0 to A then its potential energy increases because centre of gravity of bob at A is slightly raised from its mean position. A restoring force acts which tries to bring the bob back to its mean position. During this motion its potential energy changes to kinetic energy. At 0 its potential energy is converted completely to kinetic energy. Here it has maximum kinetic energy, for a moment its restoring force becomes zero but due to intertia of motion it continues to move in the same direction and ultimately it reaches the point B on the other side of the mean position. At B its K.E. changes to P .E. therefore for a moment its velocity becomes zero. At B a restoring force acts on the bob so it again starts

a) b)

Arc OA x = = radius SA l

where x = displacement, l = effective length = SA

F =

mgx ..... l

..... (i) ..... (ii)

But F = ma

x x ma = mg or a = g l l

40

or a = kx. where k = g/l is a constant Thus a x

..... (iii)

Average value of l/T2 can also be determined from direct calculations. Therefore, with the help of eq. (vii) value of g can be calculated. Produce: I) i) ii) To find radius of bob Find zero error of the vernier callipers with its sign. Find least count of the vernier callipers. Place the hob, between the jaws, along its diameter and obtain the main scale reading and vernier scale reading. Now place the hob perpendicular to its previous diameter between the jaws and again determine the diameter according to above (iii). Find diameter of the hob at three different places according to (iii) & (iv) and calculate the mean of all the above diameters. Zero error (with sign) is subtracted from average diameter. It gives the value of correct diameter. Divide the value by 2 to get the radius of the bob. To find effective length of simple pendulum.

Thus acceleration is directly proportional to displacement. Direction of acceleration is from A to 0 or towards mean position. Therefore motion of simple pendulum is simple harmonic. From eq (iii), a = k x i.e. acceleration = kx displacement or

or

acceleration = k = g /l displacement

..... (iv)

iii)

In simple harmonic motion, we know that iv)

Time period T =2

displacement acceleration
v) ...... (v) vi)

=2

l g

Therefore, knowing l and T, g can be calculated. EXPERIMENT 6 Aim : To determine value of g, using simple pendiulum. Apparatus required : A heavy metallic bob with a hook, thread, stop clock, clamp stand, metre scale, vernier callipers, a crok cut from the middle to hold the thread tightly, piece of chalk etc. Theory : If a simple pendulum is displaced from its mean position and then released as in (fig. 2.3) then a restoring force acts on it. This force is directly proportional to displacement. Therefore, simple pendulum starts executing S.H.M. Time period of S.H.M. depends on the value of g at that place and affective length of simple pendulum. If a simple pendulum has time period T, effective length l and acceleration due to gravity at that place is g then

2.

Length of thread from point of suspension to hook and length of hook is found by the metre scale. Radius of the bob is added to sum of these two lengths. Effective length l = length of string from point of suspension + length of hook+radius of bob. 3. i) Arrangement of simple pendulum Take a strong thread about 2 metre long and tie its one end to the hook of the bob. With metre scale mark 80 cm, 100cm, 120cm, 140cm and 160cm on the thread with ink. Tightly fix

T = 2 l / g

and

g = 4 2l / T 2

..... (vi)

Since g is constant at a given place, l/T2 is also constant for the given pendulum at that place. Therefore, graph between l and T2 will be a straight line, from the slope of the curve, average value of l/T2 can be calculated and then

41

the other end of thread between two pieces of the cork. Take care that neither the bob nor the thread touches the ground or the table as shown in fig 2.4. Actual length of the thread will depend on heights of clamp stand and table. ii) The length of string is adjusted so that the 80 cm mark just touches the lower surface of the cork. Now the point of suspension lies at this surface. It is clear that length of thread from point of suspension to hook is 80cm. Make a mark on the floor directly under the bob in its rest position and draw with chalk two perpendicular lines, one line is in the direction of motion of bob. To find time period

i.

Now displace the bob about 10cm from its mean position 0 to one side and leave it gently, such that the bob moves in a straight line, Bob should neither move up nor down. It should not vibrate sideways. Keep in mind that if bob is displaced by 20cm on one side, then

sin =

10 1 = = 0.125 80 8

and = sin1 0.125 = 7.180 = 0.125 radion Therefore, the condition sin is satisfied. If length of thread is further increased then

iii)

4.

1. For Radius of Bob S.No. Main scale reading cm. (a) Coincident vernier division n V ernier scale reading = nxL.C. = (b) cm Diameter of bob = (a + b) cm

Average diameter (d) = .. cm Correct diameter=Average diameter Zero error (with dign) Correct radius r =

Correct diameter = . Cm 2

2. For effective length ( l) and Time period (T) Least count of stop clock = second Length of hook (l1) = .. cm.

42

S. No.

Length of Thread cm (l2)

Effective length of smiple pendulum l = l1+l2+r (cm)

Time for 20 vibs (t in second) 1 2 3 mean t

Time period T=t/20 (second)

T2 (second)2

l/T2 (cm s2)

2 k = mean value of l/T = ......... cm s2

Calculations : By average value of k = l/T2

2 g = 4

l T2

= 39.4.478 k

= ............... cm s2 = ................ m s2 this condition is obeyed even better. ii. When the bob starts vibrating properly, then as it passes through position 0, stop clock is started and the no. of vibrations are counted, Bob starts from mean position, moves to one extreme position, goes to the other extreme position and again comes back to mean position. Thus 1 vibration is completed, as explained in fig. 2.2(b). After 20 vibrations stop clock is stopped and time is noted down. Similarly find time for 20 vibrations each for atleast two more times and find mean of all these times. Time is calculated with greater accuracy because in formula for g, term T 2 is involved. Higher the power of a quantity, more accurately that quantity has to be measured. Now, the experiment is repeated with 100cm, 120cm, 140cm, length of the thread. The observations are recorded as follows : Total No. of divisions on the vernier scale (n) =.. V ernier constant (C)=S/n.cm. Zero error (cO)= .. cm Least count of metre scale = . cm. Graphical Method : A graph is plotted between T2 on Y -axis and l on X-axis. Choose the scales for the axes in such a way that whole graph paper is utilized. In present case, a straight line graph is obtained as shown in fig. 2.5. Take any point A on the straight line and draw a line AB paralled to the X-axis and AC parallel to Y -axis. OC measures l & OB measures T2. Finding the slope of straight line, value of g can be calculated from :

iii.

g=

42 T2
Y

Observations 1. For the radius of bob V alue of 1 division of main scale of vernier callipers (S) = .. cm
T2 O

C l

Fig. 2.5

43

Result

value of g at (Place) go= . Cm s

2

that sin vii. viii. Bob should be small and heavy so that it is nearest to a point mass. While changing the length of thead, clamp stand should be adjusted so that bob is more or less at same height from the ground. It will help to ascertain the instant at which hob passes through mean position accurately. Lower surface of both the cork pieces should be exactly perpendicular to the plane of vibrations.

= .m s2 Standard value of g at the place, gs = .... Ms s2

% error =

( g o gs ) x 100 gs
ix.

Maximum permissible error

()

2 T g l x 100 = + x 100 g T l

max

Sources of error ....... (viii) i. No support is perfectly rigid. Therefore, while oscillating it yields a little. Due to this the actual effective length changes slightly. Some personal error may creep in while stopping or starting the stop clock, personal error causes inaccuracy. Stop clock should be started as an when bob has completed 20 vibrations. As it is not possible to have a perfectly inelastic thread therefore value of effective length changes slightly with time and while the bob oscillates. While deriving formula for determination of g, it is assumed that the medium offers absolutely no resistance, but hob vibrates in air, hence its friction cannot be taken as zero. Due to this a higher value of time period than actual is obtained.

Here l = Least count of the l-axis in the graph T = Least count of T-axis in the graph go= Experimental value of g. l = Effective length from graph (corresponding to C, fig.) T = Time period from graph (corresponding to B, fig.) Precautions i. ii. There should be no kinks in the thread and it should be light and strong. There should be no strong wind present at the place of performing the experiment. Any over head fan should be switched off. There should be no rotational or side ways motion associated with the bob. During vibrations clamp stand should not move. It should be tightly clamped to the table with a G-clamp. Length of thread should not be less than 80 cm, otherwise its time period will be too less and there will be large errors involved in its measurement. While oscillating neither the thread nor the bob should touch the table or any other surface. The vibrations should be completely free. On either side of mean position, bob should not be at the distance greater than 20cm so that its path can be treated as straight line path. It will also help in obeying the condition

ii.

iii.

iv.

iii.

Discussion While establishing the formula for simple pendulum, it was assumed that motion of its bob is straight line motion, but in reality it is circular motion. Friction due to air also has an effect on vibrations whereas in formula friction due to medium is completely neglected. Otherwise also simple pendulum is only a nearest approach to an ideal one. It is clear from the above reasons that with simple pendulum, a truly accurate value of g cannot be determined. In graphical method a graph between l and T2 is plotted. Radius of bob is about 1.5cm. whereas length of thread is greater than 80cm. Therefore, in determination of effective length, radius of bob can

iv.

v.

vi.

44

be neglected or the radius may be determined only up to one place of decimal with a vernier callipers. In the formula for g, both l and T are present, but the power of T being 2, any error in measurement of time is multiplied by 2, as is clear from eq. (viii). Therefore, T should be measured with greatest accuracy and time for 20 vibrations should be measured. VIV A VOCE QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. What is the aim of your experiment? What is acceleration due to gravity? State S.I. units & dimensions of g? How does g vary above the surface of earth? What is the value of g at the centre of the earth? At centre of earth value of g is zero, explain it qualitatively? On what factors does time period of a simple pendulum depend? What is standard value of g? What is value of g at poles? What is value of g at the equator? What is value of G? What is relation between g and G? What is seconds pendulum? What are sequirements of a simple pendulum? Why is a spherical bob taken? What is difference between gravity and gravitation? What is the relation between the weight of an object and the acceleration due to gravity? What kind of motion is the motion of simple pendulum? State one main characteristics of SHM. What do you mean by amplitude? If the bob of a simple pendulum is displaced from its mean position and then released, it starts oscillating. Why? Why do the oscillations of a simple pendulum

stop after some time. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Does the amplitude affect the value of time period of the simple pendulum? Define time period and state its units. What is frequency? What is its relation with time period? Define effective length of simple pendulum? Can we suspend a piece of stone instead of the bob to form a simple pendulum? Can we take a wooden sphere instead of a metallic bob? Can a bob of iron be taken for this experiment? If we take a hollow metallic bob instead of a solid one, will if affect the result? How will the time period be affected when the simple pendulum is taken to (i) moon (ii) artificial satellite? What is the effective length of a seconds pendulum? Mention any two precautions for this experiment. Why is the amplitude of the oscillations kept small? Can we use a wire instead of a thread? Where from the oscillations should be counted? From mean position or from extreme position? If the effective length of a pendulum is doubled, how will the time period and the value g be affected? What is the use of simple pendulum in daily life? Why pendulum watches becomes low in summer and fast in winter? If a tunnel is dug across the earth passing through its centre and a ball be dropped into it, will the ball come out from the other end? Where from does a bob get energy for vibrations? At present y our pendulum is executing vibrations. If all of a sudden the earth stops rotating on its axis, what will happen?

32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

38. 39. 40.

41. 42.

22.

45

ANSWERS 1. 2. Sir, the aim of my experiment is to find the value of g in the laboratory. The increase in velocity per second of a freely falling object due to earths gravitational force of eattraction is known as acceleration due to gravity. The S.I. unit of g is ms2 and its diamensions or [m0LT 2] V alue of g decreases on moving up from the surface of earth. Zero On an object placed at the centre of earth, due to gravity of earth, equal forces of gravitation act from all sides. Therefore, net force of gravity becomes zero and acceleration due to gravity also becomes zero. T depends on i) effective length ii) acceleration due to gravity. Standard value of g is 9.81 ms 2 at sea level at 45 latitude. V alue of g at poles is 983.22cms 2 V alue of g at equator is 987.03cms 2 G is symbol for universal constant of gravitation. Its value is 6.6710 11 Newton metre2kg2 g = GM/R2, M=Mass of earth, R=Radius of earth. A seconds pendulum has a time period of 2 seconds. Weightless, thin, inextensible and flexible string, rigid support, a heavy point mass. There are two uses of taking a spherical bob. Its centre of gravity is at its centre and can be easily determined and effective length of simple pendulum can be easily and accurately found. For a given volume, a sphere has least surface area, hence effect of friction of air is less. Force of attraction between any two masses is known as gravitational force of attraction while the force of attrraction between any mass and (i) (ii) 28. 23. 24. 22. 17. 18. 19. 20.

earth is called gravity. Weight of an object = Mass x acceleration due to gravity or W-mg. Motion of simple pendulum is simple harmonic. In S.H.M., acceleration is directly proportional to displacement. The maximum displacement of a particle on either side of its mean position is known as its amplitude. The bob when disblaced acquires potential energy at the exteme position due to which it comes back to mean position where whole of its P .E. converts into kinetic energy due to which it overshosts the mean position and reaches the other extreme position where its K.E. is converted into P .E. and thus the bob of the simple pendulum keeps on oscillaling. While oscillating, due to air a force of friction acts on the bobbin a direction opposite to that of motion. It reduces energy of pendulum and its amplitude decreases. In the end amplitude becomes zero and pendulum stops. No., amplitude has no relation with time period. No, because it is difficult to find its centre of gravity and therefore its effective length can not be found accurately. No, because wooden sphere is light and therefore effect of air friction will be more and its motion will be no longer simple harmonic. No, because motion of iron bob will be affected by magnetism of earth and it will not be S.H.M. Y es, a hollow bob can be taken in place of solid bob because both have C.G. at the centre and it is easy to find effective length. Time period will increase on moon, as value of g on moon is 1/6 of that on earth. In artifical satellite, g = 0, time period T = and simple pendulum will not oscillate. Length of seconds pendulum depends on g, which is different at different places. It is about 1 metre (99.4cm) on surface of earth. No, because a wire is not weightless and it is

3. 4. 5. 6.

21.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15. (i)

25.

26. 27.

(ii) 16.

29.

46

elastic. Its length may increase appreciably as the bob oscillates. 30. From mean position, because at mean position velocity of bob is maximum, therefore error in the measurement of time period is less. Due to high velocity time to cross mean position is minimum. Time period will become 2 times but value of g will remain same. A pendulum watch works on the principle of pendulum. In summer, increases and in winter decreases. 43. 41.

Therefore T increases in summer and hence watch becomes slow, in winter T decreases and hence watch becomes fast. No, it will start executing simple harmonic oscillations about its mean position which is the centre of earth. The energy is obtained from the work done to displace the bob from its mean position against the restoring force mg sinq. If earth stops rotating the value of g will increase and time period will decrease and pendulum will start moving faster.

42.

31. 32. 33.

47

ELASTICITY
Introduction- In this chapter we will describe an experiment to determine Y oungs modulus of material of a given wire. Y oungs modulus of a given material is a measure of its elasticity so you should know about the general property of matter called elasticity. Also you should have knowledge of Searles apparatus. We now describe them briefly here. Background knowledge regarding elasticity : i) Deformation : If an external force acts on an object, its length volume and shape may change. This force is called deforming force, and the change is called deformation. Elasticity : it is the property by virtue of which a body tends to come back to its original shape and size when deforming force is removed. Due to elasticity a body opposes all kinds of changes when the deforming force is applied. Elastic bodies : The most elastic substance is quartz but rubber, iron, steel, glass etc. are also elastic substances. Plastic bodies : Those substance which do not tend to regain their original shape and size when deforming forces are removed are known as plastic substances. When a force is applied to them, a permanent deformation is produced for example wax, plasticine, wet mud, soap, lead etc. are plastic substances. Elastic limit : it is the maximum value of deforming force upto which a body exhibits property of elasticity and beyond which the body loses property of elasticity. Strain : it is the change in dimension (length or volume) of a body per unit original dimension of the object.
Stain= Change in dimension (length or volume) Orignal dimension (length or volume)

body which opposes this change and tries to bring the object back to its original state. This force is known as resorting force. In equilibrium resorting force is equal and opposite to external deforming force. Restoring force acting on unit area of the body is known as stress. If an external force F acts on the body and A is the area on which it acts then stress= F/A S.I. unit of stress= Newton/meter2 or pascal and its dimensional formula is (ML1T2). viii) Hookes law regarding elasticity : Within elastic limit stress is directly proportional to strain. This statement is called the Hookes law.
Stress = a cons tan t = E Strain

ii)

iii)

iv)

Where E is called the modulus of elasticity of the substance. Its value depends on the material of the body. Unit of modulus of elasticity is Nm2 or pascal (Pa). Its dimentional formula is ML1T2. The Modulus of elasticity is also called coefficient of elasticity. ix) Types of modulus of elasticity : Due to different kinds of strain produced in a body, there are three kinds of modulus of elasticity (a) Y oungs modulus (b) Bulk modulus and (c) Modulus of Rigidity. Y oungs Modulus : Within elastic limit, ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain of a body is known as Y oungs modulus of the

v)

x)

vi)

vii)

Stress : When an external force acts on a body, there is a change in length, volume or shape of the body. But due to elasticity an internal force of reaction is produced in the

Extension produced in the wire due to load.

48

material of the body. It is denoted by Y . Suppose length of wire is L and its cross sectional area is A. If radius of wire is r then its cross sectional area A= r2. Now if mass M is suspended from the wire such that length of the wire increases to L+l where L is the original length and l is the increase in length of the wire. Load applied = Mg = F Increase in length = l Longitudinal stress = F/A = Mg/r2
Longitudinal strain =
l L

will be equally affected. Both the frames are joined with a strip C and a spirit level L is placed between them in such a way that one end of spirit level is fixed on F 1 and the other end is placed on the tip of the micrometer screw gauge. By moving screw M, this end can be lifted up, on lower end of screw M is a calibrated circular scale. Also on frame F2 is attached a main scale. With the frame F 1 is attached a permanent weight and with frame F2 is attached a hanger H on which desired weights can be placed.

Increase in length Original Length

Young s modulus Y = F / A Mg / r 2 = l/L l/L

MgL r 2 L

Longitudinal stress Longitadinal strain

Searles Apparatus EXPERIMENT 7 Aim: To determine Y oungs modulus of elasticity of the material of a given wire using Searles apparatus. Apparatus Required : Slotted weights of screw gauge, metre scale etc. Principle: Let the original length of wire be L and radius of wire be r. Let a mass M be hung from one end of the wire and let the increase in length be l.
Longitudinal Stress = Force Cross sec tional area
Mg r 2 1 kg each, 2

If cross sectional area = A = r2=1 and l = L then Y = Mg = F Y can be defined as follows. Y oungs modulus of a substance is numerically equal to the force required to double the length of a wire of the given substance having unit area of cross section. This definition is only theoretical and not practical, because by loading a wire 100% increase in length of wire is not possible. Generally a wire obeys Hookes law only upto 1% increase in length. For any substance Y is a constant. It does not depend on length, thickness, etc. of the wire but it depends only upon the material of the wire. Searles Apparatus : In fig. 6-2 Searls apparatus is shown. With the help of this apparatus, value of Y can be determined. The apparatus consists of two identical wires W1 & W2 suspended from a rigid support. On lower ends of these wires, two rect4angular metallic frames F1 and F2 are attached. In frame F1 standard wire and in F2 experimental wire is fixed. Standard wire is only for comparison. If there is a change in temperature then both the wires

where g = acceleration due to gravity Longitudinal strain = l/L

Youngs modulus Y = Longitudinal stress Longitudinal strain Mg / r 2 l/L

49

or Y =

MgL Then knowing M, L, r and l r 2l

(vii)

by experiment, Y can be calculated Procedure (i) (ii) From the standard wire W1 hang a fixed weight W such that the wire remains stretched. Suspend from the experimental wire W, 4 or 5 weights of
1 kg each and then remove them. 2

Bring the bubble of spirit level in the centre by adjusting the micrometer screw. Note down main scale reading and circular scale reading.
1 kg. 2

(viii) Now go on increasing weights in steps pf

Each and every time bring the bubble in the centre of spirit level and note down the circular scale reading and main scale reading. (ix) After loading the wire upto 3 to 4 kg remove the load from the wire in steps of
1 kg each 2

With this the elastic fatigue of the wire is removed and no twist remains in the wire and its extension becomes regular. (iii) (iv) Find length L of experimental wire W 1 with the help of metre scale. Remove all weights from hanger H and adjust micrometer screw gauge till the bubble of spirit level is in the centre. Find least count of micrometer screw. Now place a
1 kg wt. on hanger H of the 2

and every time bringing the bubble in the centre of spirit level and note down main scale reading and circular scale reading. In this way, two observations are obtained for each weight a) While loading b) While unloading. (x) These observations are written in a tabular form and from the table average extension for 1.5 kg (suppose) load is calculated. Experimental wire is completely unloaded and after allowing the wire to rest for some time, total length of the wire with metre scale is again noted down and mean of original length of wire found as in step (iii)

(v) (vi)

(xi)

experimental wire W 2. This produces an extension in the wire and the bubble of the spirit level moves towards left of the centre.

(A) For increase in Length

S. Weight No. M (kg) Average reading a + b Reading Reading of Total Reading Reading of Total 2 of circular sacle reading of Main circular sacle reading (cm.) Main No. of (ii) x (i)+(iii) scale No. of (v) x (iv) + scale divisions L.C. = a (cm.) divisions L.C. (vi) = b (cm.) (iv) (ii) (cm.) (cm.) (v) (cm.) (cm.) (i) (iii) (vi) While Loading While Unloading (1) (2) (4)(1) 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 (3) (5)(2) (4) (6)(3) (5) (7)(4) (6) (8)(5) (7) (8) Reading of Micromenter Screw Increase in length for 1.5 kg l (cm.)

1. 2.

0.5 1.0

50

xii)

In the end, radius r of wire is found by screw gauge. For this the radius of wire is measured in at least 3 different places. These places should be uniformly distributed over entire length of the wire. At a given point radius of wire should be measured in mutually perpendicular directions.

Result : Y oungs modulus of material of experimental wire = dyne/cm2 =..newton/metre2 Standard value = ..dyne/cm2 (From tables) % error = (Observed value standard value) 100 Standard value Permissible error :- In Formula Y =
MgL r 2l

Observations: 1. 2. Name of the material of wire.. For observation of increase in length of wire : (see table A): No. of divisions on main scale = Pitch of micrometer screw = .. cm No. of divisions on circular disk = .. Least count of micrometer screw = cm 3. 4. Length of experimental wire (L) = cm. Observations for radius of experimental wire (see table B) : Pitch of screw gauge = . cm. (B) for radius of wire S. No. 1. (a) (b) 2 (a) (b) Main scale reading x (cm) In one direction In perpendicular direction

Maximum permissible error is as follows

()

Y L 2 r t x 100% = + + Y L r t

x 100

Here L, r & t are least counts of metre scale, screw gauge and micrometer screw respectively and L, r & t are measured values. Precautions: (i) Kinks should be removed from wire and 4-5

No. of coinciding circular scale division n

Circular scale reading nxL.C, y (cm.)

Diameter of wire (x+y) (cm)

Mean diameter d = .............. cm. No. of divisions on circular scale = Least count of screw gauge = . Cm. Zero error = + .. cm. Corrected diameter D = Mean observed diameter zero error (with sign) = cm. Corrected radius (r) = D/2 = ..cm. Calculation : Y = MgL/r2l = .. dyne/cm 2 In this formula M= 1500 gram, g= 980 cm/sec2 And value of l, L and r can be put from the table and value of Y can be calculated. (iv) (iii) (ii) weight should be placed on and then removed to remove elastic fatigue, so that there is regular increase in length of the wire. After loading or unloading reading of micrometer screw should be taken after some time so that any change in temperature during expansion or contraction is neutralized. Load on wire should be within limit of elasticity. Micrometer screws should always be rotated in the same direction.

51

(v) (vi)

Diameter of wire should be measured in 2 mutually perpendicular directions. To find extension, observations should be taken in even numbers so that each reading is utilized. If odd no. of readings are taken one observation will not be utilized. Experimental and standard wires should be vertical and of same metal so that the change in temperature affects both of them equally.

Viva-V oce Questions 1. 2. 3. What is elasticity? What is aim of your experiment? What is stress? Is it an internal or external force? If it is an internal force then how do you measure it? What is strain? How many types does it have What do you understand by co-efficient of elasticity? State S.I. units and dimensions of modulus of elasticity. What is elastic limit? What is Hookes law? How do you define Y ongs modulus of material of a given wire? Is this definition practical? Why are two wires taken in this experiment? Y ou are finding Y of which wire? Is it necessary that both the wires should be of same material? Should both wires have same length? Why is a long wire taken? If a thick and short wire is taken then what will happen to the value of Y? What is the effect of increase in temperature on modulus of elasticity? Why is the twist in the wires removed? Why is observation for change in length taken for increasing and decreasing Load? Out of steel and rubber, which is more elastic? Of which metal is spring made and why? What is the advantage of determining Y? ANSWERS 2. 3. Sir, aim of my experiment is to find Y of material of given wire by Searles apparatus. Stress is an internal restoring force. In equilibrium, it is equal to external deforming force acting on the wire. Therefore stress= 4.
Mg r 2

(vii)

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

(viii) Both wires should be hung from same rigid support so that if support yields both the wires are affected equally. (ix) Length of wires should be about 3-4 metre so that increase in length can be measured accurately.

Sources of error : (i) (ii) Diameters of wire may not be same at all places. Kinks in the wire may not be completely removed.,

Discussion : The wire being long, its diameter may not be same at all places and increase in length being very small, some error may be present in its measurement. Therefore value of increase in length l should be plotted along Y -axis and the load should be plotted along X axis A straight line should be drawn according to the best fit.
l From the slope of the line Mg should be calculated,

this value can be put in the formula for Y .

y = MgL/r 2l l

20.

Extension Load M

Load Vs. extension graph

Strain is of three kinds (1) Longitudinal strain

52

(2) V olume strain and (3) shearing strain. 10. One of the wires is a standard wire and other is experimental wire. To avoid error due to yielding of support and temperature changes both the wires are taken identical. Experimental wire is W2 which has a micrometer screw and main scale attached to it. Yes, so that both the wires are equally affected by change of temperature, Because one end of spirit level is connected to standard wire, their error is automatically removed. Yes, length, material and radius etc. all should be identical. A longer wire produces larger extension and % error in the measurement of extension is reduced. V alue of Y will remain same because it depends only on nature of material of wire. Generally for metals value of Y decreases with

increase of temperature. But for an alloy Invar which is made from Nickel & steel effect of temperature is negligible. 16. Because if during experiment twist in the wire is not removed then value of increase in length will be different from the actual one and wrong observations will be obtained. Observations for increasing and decreasing load help us to check that load is within elastic limit. If load is not within elastic limit, increasing load will give larger extension and decreasing load will produce less extension. Steel is more elastic because for a given load, it produces less strain. Spring is made of steel because steel has large Y , even for larger loads, less extension is produced and spring remains strong. It helps us to know the load carrying capacity of a material.

11.

17.

12. 13.

18. 19.

14. 15.

20.

53

SOUND-RESONANCE
Introduction : In this chapter we will describe two experiments. i) To find frequency of given tuning fork with the help of sonometer. ii) To find velocity of sound by resonance tube. Both these experiments are based on principle of resonance of sound. Therefore you should know about sound, wave velocity, sonometer, resonance column and resonant vibrations. Therefore at first we will describe them in brief and then describe experiments in detail. Amplitude It is the maximum displacement suffered Information related to sound and wave velocity : Sound It is a type of energy which affects the organs of hearing of all animals. Whenever a sound producing object produces vibrations then mechanical waves are produced in the material medium which carry sound energy from one place to another. When these waves reach someones ears then sensation of sound is produced. Wave Any disturbance produced in a medium which without changing its shape moves with a definite velocity is known as wave. Types of waves Waves are of two kinds i) Longitudinal ii) Transverse. Longitudinal waves In these waves, particles of medium vibrate along the direction of propagation of wave about their mean position. Transverse waves In these waves, particles of medium vibrate at right angles to direction of propagation of wave about their mean position.
u= E u= u= 1 T = r 2 r T u= T m

Wavelength It is the distance between the two nearest particles (in a medium) in the same phase of vibration. It is denoted by Phase: It is that physical quantity which tells us about direction of motion and position of the vibrating particle of medium at any instant of time. Frequency: Number of vibrations per second of an object is known as its frequency. Time period: It is the time taken by a vibrating particle to complete one vibration.

by a vibrating particle on either sides of its mean position. V elocity of transverse waves in a stretched string Suppose a transverse wave is produced in a stretched string. If tension in the string is T and mass per unit length of string is m then velocity of transverse wave

Let radius of wire be r & density of material of wire be p then mass of unit length of wire m = r2. then

But

T Tension = Stress, hence = 2 Cross Sectional Area r

Stress Density

V elocity of longitudinal waves in a medium

54

Where E = Co-efficient of elasticity of medium and = density of medium. V elocity of longitudinal waves in a solid V = Y Where Y = Y oungs modulus. V elocity of longitudinal wave in air and gas
V= P

= density of gas. V elocity of sound in air at temperature T O C

Vt = Vo (1 + t ) 546

Where V o = V elocity of sound in air at O oc. Vt = V elocity of sound in air at t oC V elocity of sound increases by 61cm/sec for every oC rise in temperature. There is no effect of pressure on velocity of sound. But if humidity increases velocity of sound also increases.

Cp Sp. heat of gas at cons tan t pressure = Cv Sp. heat of gas at cons tan t volume

55

EXPERIMENT 8
Aim : To find velocity of sound in air at room temperature. Apparatus : Resonance tube apparatus tuning fork of suitable frequency (256Hz) rubber pad, spirit level, thermometer etc. Description : It has about one metre long glass tube P . It is connected by rubber tube T to reservoir C. Rubber and glass tubes are filled with water. By moving reservoir up and down water level Q in glass tube can be changed. This changes the length of air column PQ. which can be read by vertical scale S. Air column PQ behaves as a closed end organ pipe fig. When a vibrating tuning fork is placed at open end P , then for a definite length of air column PQ frequency of tuning fork is equal to frequency of vibrations produced in air column. That is why this tube is known as resonance tube. Principle : The resonance tube behaves as closed organ pipe, length of which can be increased or decreased. When a vibrating tuning fork is kept near the open end P and water level is at point Q then a loud sound is heard, because when tuning fork sends a wave of compression down it is reflected back as rarefaction During this time tuning fork also completes vibration and send down a rarefaction. Both rarefactions interfere constructively and produce loud sound. It is clear that during the time tuning fork completes one vibration the sound wave travels distance PQ four times. Inside the tube due to incident & reflected waves, stationary waves are produced. At the open end P , always an antinode is formed and at the closed end (as Q), always a node is formed. In case of first resonance at open end, antinode is formed and at Q node is formed slightly above the open end. If this distance is e then to get actual value of l end correction is applied. Let length AB = l Wave length = end correction = e for first resonance /4 = l1 + e or = 4 (l1 + e) ............... (i)

because distance between node and nearest antinode is /4. Now second resonance is obtained at roughly thrice the length of first resonance. At second resonance
3 = l2 =e 4

.................... (ii)
3 = = l2 l1 4 4

From (ii) & (i)

= l2 l1 2

or

= 2 (l2 l1)

Modes of Vibrations of air column

Positions of nodes and antinodes in resonance tube

56

But V t = n = 2n (l2 l1) V elocity at 0C is V o = V t = 0.61t. = 2n (l2 l1) 0.61t Here V o is in ms-1 and t is in C To find end correction From eq. (i) & (ii) end correction e can be calculated as follows: From (i) & (ii). l2 3l1 = 2e According to Lord Rayleigh e = 0.6r where r is internal radius of the tube. Method : 1. 2. Set the apparatus vertical with the help of base screws and spirit level. Fill water in reservoir and raise it to such a height that water level reaches surface of open tube. Strike the tuning fork on rubber pad and bring it near the open end of resonance tube Take care to see that tuning fork does not touch the tube when you hold it properly then a clear sound will be heard. If very low sound is heard then water level should be slowly brought down till a clear sound is obtained. Read the water level with the help of metre scale. This is the position of first resonance. After this determine the position of second resonance by lowering down water level 3 times the position of first resonance and as before find the position of second resonance. Note down temperature of air in resonance tube with the help of a good thermometer. Note down internal diameter of resonance tube with the help of vernier callipers. 1. 2. 3. 4.

= ............ ms1 V o = Vt 0.61t where V t is in ms1 = 2n (12 11) 0.61t = ............ ms1 Mean end correction =e= ........... cm = .......... metre. Result : velocity of sound = .... ms 1 at room temperature........ C. So velocity of sound in air at 0C = ..... ms1 % error = ...........% End correction = ................. cm Probable errors : 1. Air may not be completely dry in the resonance tube, hence result may have an error. The velocity of sound in wet air is greater than in dry air. While performing the experiment temperature may change, which may charge Vt. It is not possible to know exactly the position of resonance.

2. 3.

3.

Precautions : 1. 2. 3. 4. Experiment should be performed in calm and quiet environment. Tuning fork should be struck on rubber pad gently. Tuning fork should have less frequency so that error is minimum. Position of resonance should be noted tangential to the curved surface of water meniscus.

4.

5.

Discussion : In experiment of resonance tube, a sharp resonance is not obtained, so it is difficult to find the exact position of resonance, therefore, velocity of sound cannot be found accurately.

6. 7.

VIV A-VOCE QUESTIONS

What are you doing? What is the instrument known as ? why? What do you understand by resonance? In this experiment when does the resonance take place?

Observations : Frequency of tuning fork = ........ Hz. Temperature of air inside resonance tube ..... C Calculation : Vt = 2n (l2 l1) = ........... cms1

57

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

What kind of waves are produced in the air column? Can air column be considered an organ pipe in this experiment? What are the lengths of air columns in first and second resonance positions? What are nodes & antinodes? Can any other liquid be taken in place of water? In a given medium on what factors does velocity of sound depend ? What is effect of pressure on velocity of sound? What is effect of temperature on velocity of sound? What is effect of humidity on velocity of sound? Why does velocity of sound increase due to humidity? In this experiment should you take a low frequency or high frequency tuning fork?

column. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. When frequency of tuning fork is equal to fundamental note or first hormonic. Stationary transverse waves. Air column acts as a closed organ pipe. In case of first resonance l1 = /4 and in case of second resonance l2 = 3/4 Y es, any liquid can be used but it should not be volatile. Velocity of sound depends on density & elasticity of medium. Pressure of air has no effect on velocity of sound. V elocity of sound increases by 0.61ms 1 for 1C. Increase of humidity produces an increase of velocity. Humid air has less density and velocity of sound is inversely proportional to density therefore velocity of sound increases due to humidity. Tuning fork should be of low frequency (about 256 Hz) because then a larger length of resonance is required. Therefore percentage error in measurement will be less.

ANSWER
1. 2. Sir, I am finding velocity of sound in air with the help of resonana tube. It is known as resonance tube, because this experiment is based on resonance in air 15.

58

EXPERIMENT 9
Aim : To find frequency of given tuning fork with the help of a sonometer. Apparatus Sonometer, tuning fork, rubber pad weights, rider, screw gauge, etc. Description of apparatus : It has a hollow wooden box B which is known as sound box or resonance box. Its length is about 1 metre. On its ends are placed two wooden wedges C and D. They are known at both ends of the string nodes are formed and in between them an antinode is formed. String is fixed on bridges, therefore nodes are formed on bridges because practicles of string at bridges cannot vibrate. when the string vibrates in one segment, the vibrations of the string are known as fundamental vibrations. Note produced from such virbations is called fundamental note. Distance between two succesive nodes is equal to /2 Let the length of string between the bridges be l then l = /2 or = 2l

Fundamental mode of vibration as bridges. One of them (D) is kept fixed and the other (C) is moved. Therefore C is known as the movable bridge. Near the fixed bridge a wire is attached to a peg P and the other end of the wire passes over the bridge and reaches the other end of box and then passes over a frictionless pulley Q. On other end of the wire a hanger H is attached on which weights can be placed. By moving the bridge C length of the vibrating string can be changed. A metre scale is also fixed on the box. With the help of metre scale length of vibrating wire can be measured. On sound box some holes are made which maintain a contact between the air inside the box and external atmosphere, Advantage of sound box is that when wire is set into transverse vibrations then air is set into forced vibrations. When resonance is produced, a loud sound is heard. When wire between the two bridges is plucked and then left to vibrate, transverse vibrations are produced in the string whose velocity is V =
T / m ..... (i)

but velocity V = frequency x wavelength = n V = 2nl or 2nl =

1 T or n = 2l m Mg r 2 T m

1 But T = Mg n = 2l

..... (ii)

where m = r2 Here Mg is the weigth suspended from the hanger r= radius of string and = density of string. Knowing M, l and r from experiment frequency of fundamental note of vibration of transverse waves in the string can be calculated. See fig 7.1 & sec 7.3 Principle When a wire stretched between two bridges of sonometer is plucked in the middle and left, almost free vibrations are produced in it. These vibrations have frequency.
n= 1 2l T m

where T = Tension in the string, m = Mass per unit length of the string. Transverse vibrations in the string get reflected at its fixed ends and produce stationary waves. Therefore

.........(i)

59

Here l is the length of the wire between the two bridges. Tension in wire is T and m is mass of unit length of wire. If mass of weights placed on hanger is M and radius of sonometer wire is r and its density is then T = Mg, m = r2 where g = acceleration due to gravity. According to formula (i)
n= 1 2l Mg 1 = m 2l Mg r 2

mobile bridge, such that frequency of vibrations of wire is same as that of tuning fork. In this position resonance is produced and amplitude of vibrations becomes maximum. 4. To find the position of resonance exactly a rider is placed at the central point of the bridges (rider is a small piece of paper). Now mobile bridge is adjusted so that when vibrating tuning fork is placed on the box then rider falls down immediately. Reason for falls down immediately. Reason for fall of rider is that wire vibrates with maximum amplitude & an antinode is formed at the centre. With the help of sonometer scale find length between the two bridges and note down weights, placed in the hanger. 5. Now repeat the experiment with different increasing weights. Similarly repeat the experiment with different decreasing loads. 6. Find radius of sonometer wire at three different places with the help of a screw-gauge. At each place the radius should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions. 7. Density of material of wire is determined by some other small experiment or from standard table. 8. Write down all observations in the observation table.

When vibrating tuning fork is placed on the sonometer box then forced vibrations are produced in the wire. If length of sonometer wire between the bridges is adjusted so that frequency of free vibrations of string and frequency of tuning fork becomes same then resonance takes place and amplitude of vibrations becomes maximum. In this condition frequency of vibrations of string is equal to frequency of tuning fork. METHOD 1. At first hang a weight of about 2 kg from the hanger. Now remove it and hang a weight of about 0.5 kg. 2. Strike tuning fork gently on rubber pad so that its arms start vibrating tuning fork on box near the stretched string. Wire starts vibrating. 3. Adjust length of the wire by moving the

60

Observations
3

(from table)
Average Length of vibrating wire =

Load increasing S. No. Mass of weights + hanger M (gram) Position of I bridge cm (a) Position of II bridge cm (b) Length of vibrating wire l1 (ab) (cm) Position of I bridge a (cm)

Load decreasing Position of II bridge b (cm) Length of vibrating wire l 2 (ab) (cm)

M l

l1 + l 2 2
(cm)

For radius wire Pitch of screw-gauge = . Cm. Total no. of division on circular scale n = . Least count =
Pitch = ................. cm. n

Mean

M = ....... l

Zero error = cm Mean observed diameter = .. cm. Correct diameter D= Observed diameter zero error (with sign) = ..cm. Radius of wire r = D/2 = cm.
S. No. Main scale reading in cm (a) Circular scale reading No. of Divs. on circular scale (n1) n1 xleast count (cm) (b) Total reading = observed diameter = a + b (cm)

Calculation

n=

1 2l

Mg 1 = m 2l

Mg r 2

Standard frequency of tuning fork. = Hz.

% error = (observed value s tan dard value ) 100 s tan dard value

Frequency of tuning fork = . Hz In this formula value of observation table. Result: Frequency of given tuning fork. Hz

M is obtained from l

Note : On every tuning fork standard value of frequency is written. Precautions : (i) Weights should be placed in the hanger within elastic limit so that wire does not get a

61

permanent deformation. (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (1) Sonometer wire should be of uniform thickness. Strike the tuning fork gently on the tuber pad to make it vibrate. Pulley should be frictionless. Some oiling should be done to make it frictionless. Rider should be light. Formula of frequency of sonometer wire is true only for a perfectly elastic wire. But experimental wire is not perfectly elastic. Therefore some error will always be there. Some friction is always present on the pulley. Therefore tension in the wire is always less than the suspended weights. Therefore result will be inaccurate. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

What kindof graph is obtained between n & ? What is resonance? What is a harmonic? What kind of vibrations are produced in a turning fork. Can you have a tuning fork of one arm? What are dimensions and unit of frequency? Why is it called a sonometer?

1 l

Source of error

Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. This instrument is used in measurements related to sound. It means tuning fork makes 250 vibrations per second or its frequency is 250 Hz. Vibrations are transverse and stationary. In fundamental mode, nodes are produced at the bridges and antinode is in the middle between them. Two fold. With this distance between bridges can be measure accurately. Because these are relative frequencies of notes of diatonic scale of music. No, because elasticity of rubber is less than that of iron. Because air reaches the box from the holes and the air inside the box remains in contact with atmosphere and resonance is very sharp and loud. When a vibrating tuning fork is placed on vibrating box then its vibrations produce forced vibrations in air. When frequency of tuning fork becomes equal to the frequency of air column then resonance is produced. Straight line the notes whose frequencies are multiples of fundamental note. Transverse. No. Dimensions are ML. T1 and S.I. u nit is Hz and C.G.S. unit is no. of vibrations per second. With its help frequency of note of a tuning fork can be determined.

(2)

Discussion For more accurate result plot M on X-axis and l on Y -axis. A Straight line graph will be obtained. Find 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

M from the slope of this line. l

Put this value in the formula to get more correct value of frequency.

Viva-V oce Questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. What is a sonometer? On a tuning fork, 256 is written, what does it mean? What kind of vibrations are produced in the wire of sonometer? Where are nodes and antinodes produced in the sonometer wire? What will be length of wire, if tension is made 4 times its initial value? Why are the edges of the bridges made sharp? Why tuning forks have frequency 256, 288, 320. 512 only? Can a rubber wire be used in this experiment? Why holes are present in the sound box of the sonometer? How does air produce reasonance? When does rider fall? What is the use of this experiment?

10.

11.

12. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

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CALORIMETRY AND COOLING

1 Introduction : In this chapter, we will discuss the experiments on specific heat of solids and latent heat of melting. These experiments are related to calorimetry. After that we will also discuss the method to obtain cooling curve by experiment. Therefore, first of all we will discuss in brief physical principles related to calorimetry and cooling. 2 Calorimetry : (i) Heat : Heat is a form of energy, S.I. Unit of which is joule, C.G.S. unit of heat is calorie. 1 calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1C (from 14.5C to 15.5C). Calorie is a very small unit of heat therefore in practice 1 kilocalorie is used, 1 kilocalorie = 4186 joule = 4200J (approx) 1 Calorie = 4.2 J. (ii) Specific Heat capacity : When an object is heated its temperature rises. From experiment it is seen that amount of heat given to an object is directly proportional to mass of object & rise of temperature. If temperature of m gram of a body is raised by then amount of heat required = Q where Q m, Q In S.I. units, heat is measured in joule, mass in kg and temperature in kelvin. Unit of specific heat capacity = kg kelvin S.I. unit of specific heat capacity = jule kg1 kelvin1 V alue of specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg1K1 Earlier the name of specific heat capacity was specific heat only. Dimension of specific heat capacity
( Heat ) ( mass ) ( Temperature )

joule

( ML2T 2 ) = ( L2T 2 1 ) ( M )

(iii) Thermal capacity or Heat capacity is amount of heat required to raise the temperature of given object through 1K or 1C. If mass of object is m and specific heat capacity is c then amount of heat required to raise its temp. by 1C is equal to thermal capacity = m c 1 = mc S.I. unit of mass is kilogram & S.I. Unit of specific heat is joule kg k1 S.I. unit of thermal capacity = kg x J kg1 K 1 = JK1 = joule kelvin1 According to definition dimensions of heat capacity (Thermal capacity) = mass Sp. heat
ML2T 2 = L2T 2 1 M
Heat

or Q = cm ........ (i) where c is a proportionality constant which is known as specific heat capacity. Magnitude of specific heat capacity depends on nature of object. If m = 1 & = 1K then according to eq (i) c = Q. Hence specific heat capacity of an object is numerically equal to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of substance through 1K or (1C). If mass of an object = m and specific heat capacity = c then to increase its temperature by the amount of heat required = Q where Q = mc c = Q/m

Units & dimension of specific heat capacity : From definition,

Specific heat capacity = Heat Mass temperature

Here it should be noted that amount of heat required to raise the temp. of given object by 1K or

63

1C is known as heat capacity or thermal capacity whereas amount of heat required to raise the temp, of 1 gram of that substance through 1C is known as specific heat capacity. Therefore S.I. unit of heat capacity is joule/kelvin & that of specific heat capacity is joule/kg/kelvin. iv) Water equivalent of a body is that amount of

used for measuring temperature, calorimeter is an instrument used for measuring heat energy. This instrument does not measure heat energy directly but it has to be calculated by the principle of calorimetry.

water which requires same amount of heat as the given body to raise its temperature by 1K or 1C. Suppose specific heat = c for an object of mass m, therefore, amount of heat required to raise its temp. by 1 K or 1C is Q = m x c x 1 = mc joule If Q joules of heat increases the temperature of W kg of water through 1C then Q= Wc 1 1 = Wc 1 joule Where c1 is specific heat of water or Q = Wc 1 = mc Water equivalent = mc/c 1 In S.I. c = 4200J/kg/K. In S.I. water equivalent
mc ( joule kg 1 k 1 ) kg W= 4200 ( joule kg 1 k 1 )

Calorimeter Construction : It is a cylindrical vessel generally made of Copper. This vessel is kept in a wooden box, space between wooden box and vessel is filled with some insulating material like cotton wool etc. (fig 8.1) Insulator prevents loss or gain of heat. Heat losses due to conduction are avoided by insulator. Wooden box has a wooden lid which minimizes heat losses due to convection. Outer surface of calorimeter is highly polished to reduce heat losses due to radiation. To measure temperature of liquid filled in calorimeter, a thermometer is used. Stirrer helps to maintain same temperature throughout the liquid. Calorimeter can be made from any good conductor of heat.

EXPERIMENT
Aim : To find specific heat of a given solid by calorimeter. Apparatus : Regnaults apparatus, calorimeter, thread, thermometer, physical balance etc. Principle : When a hot solid is dropped into cold water, then hot solid loses heat & cold water gains heat. If there are no heat losses by the process of radiation etc. then. Heat lost by solid = heat gained by water etc. This equation can be used to find specific heat of unknown solid. Method : First of all mass of experimental solid is determined with the help of a physical balance. Experimental solid should be insoluble & heavier than water, it

= 0.24 10
1

mc kg (approximately).

In C.G.S.c = 1 therefore in C.G.S.W. = me gram. v) Principle of calorimerty : If two bodies at different temperatures are bought in thermal contact with each other then heat starts flowing from higher temperature to lower temperature. Flow of heat continues till hot object loses heat and cold object gains heat. If there is no loss of heat, then from the law of conservation of energy. heat lost = heat gained. This is the basic principle of calorimetry used in all calorimetric measurements. vi) Calorimeter - Just as thermometer is an instrument

64

should also not react with water. Now it is suspended in steam chamber by means of a thread (fig.) While solid is getting heated, a calorimeter along with stirrer is dried & weighed. It is filled with water. The quantity of water is taken in such a way that the solid gets

During experiment, temp. of experimental solid falls by (2 ) K whereas temperature of calorimeter, stirrer and water increases by ( 1)K now heat lost by solid = m1 c (2 ) joule Heat gained by water = x c 2 ( - 1) joule Heat gained by calorimeter & stirrer = m2 c1 ( - 1) J Total gain in heat energy = (x c 2 + m2c1) ( 1) J from principle of calorimetry Heat gained = heat lost m1 c (2 ) = (x c 2 + m2c1) ( 1)

Steam Boiler fully immersed in water, calorimeter is again weighed with water. Mass of water is found by taking difference of above two weighings. Initially temperature of water is determined by a sensitive thermometer th 2. Solid is heated in steam chamber to a steady state. Its temp. is noted down when it becomes constant. Now the screen B is raised & calorimeter is brought under steam chamber fig. Now lid of calorimeter is removed and hot solid is slowly dropped in it and lid is closed. Calorimeter is shifted to its original place and mixture of hot solid and water is properly stirred. After this the final temp. of mixture is noted down. Observations & Calculations : Suppose that Mass of solid = m1 kg. Mass of calorimeter & stirrer = m2 kg. Mass of calorimeter, stirrer & water = m 3 kg. Mass of water = (m3 m2) = x kg (say) Initial temp. of water = 1C = (273 + 1) K Temp. of hot solid = 2C = (273 + 2) K Final temp. = C= (273 + ) K Specific heat of calorimeter and stirrer = c1 joule/kg/ kelvin. Specific heat of water = c2 joule/kg/kelvin (known quantity) Specific heat of solid = c (to be found)

or c =

( x c2 + m 2 c1 ) ( 1 ) m1 ( 2 )

From this equation knowing m 1, 1, 2, x and c2 we can calculate the value of c. Result : Specific heat of material of given solid = ........ joule/kg/K. Precautions : 1. Sufficient amount of water should be taken in calorimeter, so that solid is completely immersed in it. Also solid should be dropped slowly in it. Thermometer should be sensitive otherwise error in result will be large. Inspite of taking many precautions, some heat is lost by radiation. Therefore it is essential to apply radiation correction.

2. 3.

Discussion : Heat loss by radiation cannot be fully prevented and nor can it be fully corrected. Therefore very accurate results cannot be obtained.

VIV A-VOCE QUESTIONS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What is the aim of your experiment? Describe the construction of a calorimeter? State characteristics of Regnaults apparatus. Describe the principle of this experiment. What is basic principle of calorimetry? Describe the method of your experiment in brief.

65

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

What is modern name of specific heat? What is heat capacity? What is modern name of latent heat? Why was the name specific heat changed? State difference between specific heat & heat capacity. What does water equivalent indicate? State two important precautions to be used in this experiment. What is the value of specific heat of water ? Why is mercury used in thermometer? state one reason.

specific heat capacity is very small, therefore it quickly attains the temperature of the object placed in its contact. Also it does not wet glass.

VIV A VOICE QUESTIONS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. What is the aim of your experiment ? What is latent heat? Why is it called specific latent heat now a days? What is the principle of this experiment? What is latent heat of fusion of ice? State its value in S.I. system. What is the relation between calorie & joule. Define 1 calorie. State any two important precautions of this experiment. How many calories of heat is required to convert 100 gram of ice at 0C to water at 10C.

ANSWER
7. 9. 10. Modern name of specific heat is specific heat capacity. It is specific latent heat. In physics the word specific indicates the value of physical quantity for a unit mass. Therefore meaning of specific heat would be heat per unit mass which makes no sense. Because amount of heat depends on temperature difference, whereas heat capacity is amount of heat required to increase the temperature of given object through 1C. If you add word specific to it then it will mean amount of heat required to raise the temperature of given object through 1C. Therefore specific heat capacity is a better name than specific heat. But by convention specific heat is still followed. Specific heat of water is 4200 Jkg-1K-1 Mercury is taken in thermometer,

ANSWERS
3. Because latent heat is defined for a unit mass. Now a days word specific is used for those quantities which are defined for a unit mass. For example e/m for electron is known as specific charge. 80 cals./gram. 336 103 joule/kg 1 Calorie = 4.18 joule To convert 0C ice to water at 0C amount of heat required = 80 100 = 8000 Calorie. Now to heat water upto 10C amount of heat required = 10 100 = 1000 Calorie. Therefore, the total of 9000 calories of heat is required.

5. 6. 7. 10.

15. 16.

because it is a good conductor of heat and also its

66

EXPERIMENT 11
Object : Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a Metal by Searles Apparatus. Apparatus Requred : Searles Apparatus and thermometer, water steam etc.
Thermometers

Observation : Let, (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) The area of cross-section of the rod = A Distance between E and H = d cm Temperature at E= 1 C Temperature at H = 2C Initial temperature of water = 4C Final temperature of water = 3C

Calculation : In steady state, the quantity of heat flowing in t seconds from the end A to the end B of the rod is given by :

Q=
Searles apparatus.

KA(1 2 )t d

...... (i)

This whole quantity of heat is obsorbed by m gm of water flows through the copper tube C, in t second. Thus, Q = m 1 (3 4) =m( From eqns. (i) and (ii),
3

Description of the apparatus : One end A of the conducting rod AB is kept in a steam chamber and steady stream of water flows in a copper tube C encircling the other end B and fitted with thermometers 4 and 3 at the tube ends. Two holes drilled in the middle part of the rod at distant d apart contain few drops of mercury and are fitted with other two thermometers 1 and 2. Mercury is used for fair contact of the thermometers with the rod. The rod is enclosed in a wooden box and is covered with non-conducting material like cotton or wool in order to prevent radiation loss. Procedure : (1) (2) (3) (4) First of all water is circulated through copper tube. Then steam is allowed to pass through the chamber. In the beginning, temperature rises in all the thermometers. After sometime the thermometers record individual constant temperatures. These temperatures are recorded. They correspond to steady state. Then the amount of flow of water through the copper tube for a known duration of time (using a stop watch and beaker) is noted.

4)

.....(ii)

KA(1 2 )t = m ( 3 4 ) d
or

K=

m ( 3 4 )d A (1 2 )t

Terms on the right hand side being experimentally determined the thermal conductivity K, can be evaluated. Sources of error : (i) (ii) (i) Steady state is an ideal condition and is difficult to achieve in the experiment. Correction for radiation loss is essential. The flow of steam through the chamber should be started only after allowing water to circulate through the copper tube. the flow of water through copper tube must be continuous, slow and steady. Steady state should be maintained during collection of water in the beaker.

Precautions :

(ii) (iii)

(5)

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EXPERIMENT 12
Aim : To draw cooling curve for hot water. Apparatus : Cooling apparatus, stopwatch two sensitive thermometers, hot water etc. Description of apparatus : The apparatus is shown in fig C is a thin walled calorimeter. Its outer surface is blackened (to reduce heat losses due to radiation). 3. 4. 5. 2. Temperature of water is found with the help of thermometer th2. Let the temp. of surrounding be o. Now water is heated in another vessel to a temp. about 30C more than room temp. Hot water is filled in calorimeter C & lid is closed with thermometer & stirrer in it. Hot water is stirred with stirrer S & temperature is noted by thermometer Th1 when temperature of water is about + 30C then stop watch is started & temperature of water is noted after every minute and observation are taken till temp. of water falls to about 5C above the room temperature. Draw a graph between time & temperature A free hand, smooth curve is drawn.

6.

Cooling Curve apparatus Calorimeter is filled upto 2/3 rd with water & heated. When temperature of water becomes 30C more than room temperature then the calorimeter is suspended in a double walled vessel A. A stirrer S used to stir hot water & bulb of thermometer Th1 all are dipped into water. Thermometer is used to read temp. Cold water is circulated in vessel A to keep the surroundings at a constant temperature. Thermometer Th2 is used to find temp. of this water. An ebonite lid is used to cover the mouth of A. Principle : If temperature difference between hot object & surrounding is not large then rate of loss of heat is directly proportional to temperature difference between body and surrounding. Temp. of hot body decreases with time. If a graph is plotted between temp. of object and time then the cooling curve is obtained Temp. of hot object at first falls very fast but after some time rate of fall becomes slow & in the end rate of fall becomes nearly zero. Such a curve is known as cooling curve. Method : 1. At first cold water at room temp. is circulated through the space between the two walls of vessel A.

Observations
Temperature of surroundings o = ........C

Cooling Curve Graph: Plot temperature on Y -axis & time on X-axis after taking a suitable scale. On joining these points cooling curve is obtained as shown in fig. Result : Cooling curve is shown in fig. Precautions : 1. Thermometers should be sensitive.

68

2.

Water should be stirred continuously so that temp. of water should be same throughout the bulk of water. In outer vessel water should be circulated at constant temperature. Temp. of hot water should be initially about 30C above the room temperature. Lid of calorimeter should be kept closed.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Why do we stir water with a stirrer? State precautions taken in this experiment. What do you underst4and by cooling curve? Why cooling rate is high initially? Will hot water take more time in cooling from 60C to 55C or in cooling from 35C to 30C?

3. 4. 5.

Answers
2. 3. Rate of cooling is fall in temp. per second. Rate of cooling can be calculated as follows dQ = msd
dQ d d dQ dQ / dt Rate of loss of heat = ms = = dt dt dt dt / ms ms thermal capacity

Sources of Error : 1. Although precaution is taken to read temp. quickly, but even then temp. may decrease very fast and to note down temperature exactly at a given time may be difficult. Temp. of surroundings should not change during experiment. It is not definite, how much should be the temp. difference between hot water and the surroundings. Heat loss must be only due to radiation but heat losses take place due to other modes also.

2. 3.

4.

(i)

Temp. difference between body & surrounding should not be large, Maximum allowed temp. difference = 30C. Heat loss should be only by radiation. Actually object should be placed in vaccum. It is not possible in practice. Because if other objects are present near by, then object will receive radiations from them also.

(ii) (iii)

4.

Discussion : To check cooling curve, a graph should be drawn between dq/dt and ( o). If a straight line is obtained then cooling curve can be considered as correct.

6. 8. 9. 10.

So that at any instant the temperature of entire water remains same. Initially rate of cooling is large & then it goes on decreasing with time. Because initially there is large difference of temperature between hot body & surrounding. It will take more time to cool from 35C to 30C, because here the excess of temperature over the surroundings is less, so rate of cooling will be smaller.

Viva-V oce Questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is Newtons law of cooling? What do you understand by rate of cooling? What is the relation between rate of cooling and rate of lose of heat. What are the conditions for Newtons law of cooling to be applicable? Why is water circulated in a big vessel?